Journal of Cleaner Production 244 (2020) 118469

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

A new framework of industrialized construction in China: Towards

on-site industrialization
Long Li a, Zhongfu Li a, Xiaodong Li b, Shengxi Zhang a, Xiaowei Luo c, *
a
Department of Construction Management, Faculty of Infrastructure Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
b
Department of Construction Management, School of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
c
Department of Architectural and Civil Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Many countries and regions consider industrialized construction to be a cleaner production method that
Received 21 March 2019 facilitates sustainability in the construction industry. In China, proponents of industrialized construction
Received in revised form have paid more attention to environmental and social sustainability, but the obstacles to economic
16 August 2019
sustainability have not been well solved. This study proposes a new industrialized construction method,
Accepted 17 September 2019
Available online 23 September 2019
OSI (On-site Industrialization). OSI combines the advantages of prefabrication and cast-in-situ. To
develop and validate the OSI framework, this study conducts a two-phase action research. Based on the
Handling editor: Kathleen Aviso holistic overview of industrialized construction, the OSI framework was developed in action research
phase 1. This framework includes five basic industrialized principlesdstandardization, prefabrication,
Keywords: modularization, lean, and sustainability. A multiple-case study was conducted in action research phase 2
Industrialized construction to evaluate the sustainability performance of OSI from the perspective of triple-bottom-line (TBL), and
On-site industrialization the conventional precast concrete construction was used for benchmarking to validate the OSI frame-
Action research work. The findings indicate that OSI is a feasible industrialized construction method to balance the three
High-rise concrete residential buildings
dimensions of TBL in the Chinese construction industry. This research extends the theoretical knowledge
Sustainability
body of industrialized construction while solving some practical problems in the construction industry.
© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Traditional cast-in-situ methods demonstrate low sustainability

Industrialized construction (IC) integrates a wide range of
techniques and concepts. These include standardization, modula-
rization, mechanization, prefabrication, cleaner production, sus-
tainability and many more (Zabihi et al., 2013). In recent years,
many researchers have considered IC to play a vital role in pro-
moting sustainable development in the construction industry (Sev,
2009). Among the prevalent industrialized building types, timber
structures (Bergstro€ m and Stehn, 2005) and steel structures
(Eckelman et al., 2018) are inherently suitable for industrial pre-
fabrication, modularization, and on-site assembly. Concrete, on the
other hand, can provide products in two distinct waysdcast-in-situ
and prefabrication (Luo et al., 2019). Because the primary type of
housing product in China is the concrete building, the various
categories of industrialized technology mentioned in this study
mainly focuses on concrete buildings.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: xiaowluo@cityu.edu.hk (X. Luo).
performance in all three aspects of the tripledenvironmental,
economic, and socialdbottom line. This poor performance is due to
the disadvantages of cast-in-situ methods, such as manual opera-
tion, non-standardization, fragmentation, and discontinuity (Li
et al., 2014). As a change, IC may contribute to the triple bottom
line (TBL) of the construction industry in the following ways: 1) For
economic sustainability (EcS), standardization strategy of prefab-
rication/modular in IC revolutionizes the status quo (Gibb, 2001),
and lean construction eliminates non-value-added activities
through process integration, which significantly improves effi-
ciency (Buhamdan et al., 2019). All efforts contribute to EcS in TBL of
the entire construction industry (Kamali et al., 2018). 2) For envi-
ronmental sustainability (EnS), industrialized casting technique,
modular decorative infills, prefabricated formwork, prefabricated
reinforced bar, and precast concrete components minimize the
needs of on-site works (e.g., plastering and timber formwork
fabrication), reducing the workforce waste and construction
pollution (Tam et al., 2015), all of which contribute to EnS in TBL
(Kamali and Hewage, 2017). 3) For social sustainability (SoS),
advanced on-site machinery and off-site automation equipment

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118469
0959-6526/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 L. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 244 (2020) 118469
relieve the dependence on intensive labor (Nawi et al., 2012). The
reduction of workforce benefits the occupational health and com-
munities disturbance, which contributes to SoS in TBL (Musa et al.,
2014).
As IC can address all three principles of TBL, the global con-
struction industry has adopted it as a cleaner and sustainable
construction method (Holton et al., 2010). Industrialized practices
in different countries and regions share the aforementioned ben-
efits (Hosseini et al., 2018). Things in China, however, are different,
and IC promotion is still lagging (Gan et al., 2018a). In China’s
densely populated regions (e.g., mainland China), unlike other
developed areas (e.g., Europe and the United States), high-rise
concrete residential building (HRCRB) is the most critical type of
housing products (Zhang and Skitmore, 2012). With the existing
technology and management practices, the erection and installa-
tion of heavy-weight components in the HRCRB are extremely
inefficient (Hanafi et al., 2018). Also, China covers a vast area; the
off-site factories are usually quite remote from the construction
sites, increasing the uncertainty in the transportation phase (Li
et al., 2018). Moreover, the broad land area and various cultural
backgrounds in China give rise to diversified requirements in
different cities and provinces. This context requires a trade-off
between standardization and diversity, which brings a huge chal-
lenge to standardized concrete components (Zhai et al., 2014). A
series of troublesdcost overruns, delays, and inefficienciesdhave
hindered the development of conventional precast concrete con-
struction (CPCC), which is the main approach for current IC pro-
motion (Gan et al., 2018b).
CPCC has indeed proven to have a better environmental and
social sustainability performance than the traditional cast-in-situ.
Nonetheless, it is not welcomed by the building market (espe-
cially the private developers and consumers), because it is not
suitable for EcS (Mao et al., 2016). As an upstream element in the
industry chain, profit-driven developers are reluctant to adopt
CPCC, and the industry chain lacks inherent motivation (Teng et al.,
2017). What is more, main contractors and manufacturers rely on
standardization strategies to obtain economic benefits. At the same
time, architects and clients may pursue diversity, which conflicts
with efficiency (Nahmens and Mullens, 2011). In addition, the
government pays more attention to environmental and social ef-
fects, and can only promote EcS through financial subsidies (Lu
et al., 2018). According to synergetics theory, coordination can
only succeed if the interests of multi-stakeholders are aligned
(Mayrhofer and Gupta, 2016). Since the co-benefits among stake-
holders are inconsistent, it may be difficult to address the three
aspects of TBL using CPCC simultaneously. So there exists a gap
between theoretical advantages and Chinese practices. Is there a
new industrialized construction method that can achieve TBL in
China’s HRCRB? If so, what are the framework and the TBL
performance?
In recent years, some positive changes have taken place in the
Chinese construction industry. While promoting CPCC, many de-
velopers have tried to improve the industrialization level of cast-in-
situ and to combine it with prefabrication (Wang et al., 2016). The
domestic leading residential developers are beginning to adopt the
new IC methods that integrate cast-in-situ and prefabrication. We
refer to this new method as on-site industrialization (OSI). The OSI
framework, however, is still unclear, its sustainability performance
unexplored. This situation limits the contribution to the knowledge
body of IC and the guideline implications to practice. This research
aims to bridge this gap.
The objective of this study is to propose an OSI framework to
guide the IC process in HRCRB and to validate the framework by
comparing its sustainability performance to CPCC’s. Three sub-
objectives are defined:
▪ To provide the theoretical cornerstone for the OSI framework,
this work provides a holistic review of IC theory, other inherent
related theories, and Chinese practices.
▪ Action research phase 1 develops the OSI framework, including
the basic principle, industrialized technology, construction and
managerial process.
▪ To evaluate the sustainability performance and validate the
framework according to TBL, this work conducts a comparative
study (OSI versus CPCC) based on the multi-case study.
The framework is meant to facilitate the decision-making pro-
cess in selecting the most appropriate industrialized construction
method in HRCRB. The development of action research provides a
methodology reference for similar research. Furthermore, the
comparative study can provide some inspiration to further develop
a comprehensive sustainability performance evaluation model of
industrialized construction in HRCRB.
This paper is structured as follows: Section 2 outlines the liter-
ature review and explains the inherent relevance and summary.
Section 3 analyzes methodology, discusses the applicability and
procedure of action research for this research and explains its
contribution to bridging the research gap. Section 4 elaborates the
OSI framework. Section 5 describes the comparative study and
presents the sustainability performance evaluation results. Section
6 extends the discussion and implication. Finally, the conclusions,
limitations, and recommendations for future study are summarized
in Section 7.
2. Literature review
This section provides a holistic overview of several critical issues
of industrialized construction, including standardization, prefabri-
cation, off-site, modular, lean, sustainability, and Chinese practices.
2.1. Standardization of industrialized construction
The premise of industrialized construction is standardization.
Standardization is the extensive use of components, methods, or
processes in which there are regularity, repetition, and background
of successful practice and predictability (Gibb, 2001). According to
standardization, mass customization of standard concrete compo-
nents in the factory can maximize efficiency (Barlow et al., 2010).
However, a conflict exists between efficiency and flexibility
(Mostafa and Chileshe, 2018). With the development of economy
and society, quantity and efficiency are no longer the sole concerns
of IC development. Other aspects such as diversity, flexibility,
constructability, and aesthetic consideration attract more attention
in the construction process (Zabihi et al., 2013). The above re-
quirements pose challenges to standardized concrete components.
Therefore, some tradeoff must be made between the standardiza-
tion of components and the diversity of building forms (Gao et al.,
2018). What leads to the dilemma of standardization in IC is that
the general understanding of standardization is limited to the
unification of components. The key to standardization then is the
repetitive method or process, not the concrete components (Gann,
1996). In addition to standardized concrete products, industrialized
construction can also be achieved through standardized work and
process (Gibb and Isack, 2001).
2.2. Classification of industrialized construction
There are a variety of interchangeable terms to express the
concept of industrialized construction in the global architecture-
engineering-construction (AEC) industry. Considering that the
affix can reflect a profound contextual meaning, Pan et al. (2012)
 L. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 244 (2020) 118469
classified those terms into various categories according to affixd-
off-site (e.g., off-site construction/fabrication/manufacturing),
modular (e.g., modular construction/building), pre- (e.g., prefabri-
cation, pre-assembly, precast, and pre-work). In fact, three critical
approaches to industrialized construction are off-site, modulari-
zation, and prefabrication, and they are intrinsically associated
(Gibb and Isack, 2003). To distinguish their characteristics, one
needs to identify subtle differences in focus and their inherent
connections.
Referring to a classical classification based on the amount of pre-
assembly (Gibb, 1999), the prefabrication is divided into the
following four levels: 1) component manufacture and subassembly,
where items are always manufactured and sub-assembled using
various materials in an off-site factory; 2) non-volumetric pre-
assembly, where the pre-assembled units (e.g., wall panels and
structural frames, etc.) do not create any usable space; 3) volu-
metric pre-assembly, where pre-assembled units enclose usable
spaces, and the units are usually fully factory-finished internally,
installed within or onto an independent structure. At this prefab-
rication level, modular prototypes (e.g., bathroom and toilet pods)
have emerged; 4) modular building, referring to pre-assembly
volumetric units which form the actual structure and fabric of the
building (e.g., trailer house in the U.S., Prefabricated Prefinished
Volumetric Construction (PPVC in Singapore)). This classification
provides a prefabricated construction logic that progressively in-
tegrates and modularizes construction processes and sub-products
to reduce on-site operations (Jonsson and Rudberg, 2014). In
addition, there is another important type of industrialized building,
skeleton-infill building (SI building) based on open building theory.
However, SI prefabrication focuses on the infill elements, that is,
using new sustainable materials to produce infill components (e.g.,
partitions and pipes) apart from the concrete skeleton (Cao et al.,
2015a).
In summary, the prefabricated construction method focuses on
the pre-work, including casting, assembly, and fabrication. Hence,
terms that apply the affix “pre-” focus on this type of pre-work
(Song et al., 2005). Terms that apply the affix “off-site” emphasize
that the construction activities take place at the factory (Blismas
et al., 2007). Modular construction is the ultimate embodiment of
the above logic and is a high level of prefabricated and off-site
construction. Previous research has indicated that modular con-
struction is characterized by the highest level of prefabrication,
with around 80e90% of the project manufactured in a controlled
environment (Blismas et al., 2007). Modular construction aims to
complete the various construction work continuously to form a
complete building shape, confirming the continuous workflow idea
of lean construction (Green et al., 2006). Despite the subtle differ-
ences of these terms, an undeniable fact is that precast concrete is
just one of many industrialized methods, and the types of IC can be
diverse, such as prefabrication, off-site, and modular. The analysis
separates prefabricated (i.e., assumes that components can be
made off-site) and industrialized construction, which assumes that
the same principles can manage the construction (e.g., standardi-
zation and modularization) of other industries of industrialized
production (e.g., automotive manufacturing).
2.3. Lean construction
Li et al. (2019) stated that an unavoidable subject for IC research
is lean construction (LC). LC is a process-oriented approach derived
from the Toyota Production System (TPS) and from lean production
in manufacturing (Koskela et al., 2001). LC has been widely adopted
to deliver projects in the AEC industry efficiently and inherently
connects to project planning and control, IC, and sustainability in
construction (Yin et al., 2019). Lean is a philosophy, a paradigm-
3
shifting project delivery method, and a process optimization tool
in practice. The essence of LC theory is that lean helps eliminate
much self-inflicted, unwanted complexity from systems so that
people, using simpler systems, can accomplish more (Tommelein,
2015). As IC has re-emerged as a research hotspot, LC is increas-
ingly associated with prefabrication, modular, off-site, industriali-
zation, and sustainability (Saieg et al., 2018). Theoretically, the LC
strengths in process optimization can greatly improve the frag-
mentation of IC process and help with integrated construction
(Ikuma et al., 2011). In practice, LC techniques that are committed to
eliminating non-value-added activities can effectively increase
construction efficiency, reduce waste, and improve sustainability
performance (Erdil et al., 2018). Previous research has contributed a
great deal to project planning and control in IC and got a consensus
that continuous workflows can maximize efficiency, minimize
waste, and add value to the construction process (Buhamdan et al.,
2019). In short, the idea of simplification, continuity, and integra-
tion has had a profound positive impact on IC.
2.4. Sustainability of industrialized construction
The ultimate goal of the IC revolution is sustainability and IC is
considered critical to sustainable development (Holton et al., 2010).
Sustainability of course deals with the three key dimensions of TBL
(Ahmad and Yew, 2019). Under TBL, IC is given the new mission of
simultaneously addressing the conflict among environmental pro-
tection, social development, and economic benefits (Martins et al.,
2019). It is undeniable that IC has always been considered a cleaner
production method that contributes to EnS because of its strengths
in energy efficiency and pollution reduction (Cao et al., 2015b).
Moreover, IC has also proved its positive effect on SoS by reducing
labor dependence and community disturbance (Jin et al., 2018).
However, EcS remains a concern for IC practitioners (Kamali and
Hewage, 2017) because construction companies give priority to
profits over responsibilities (Ma et al., 2018). Nonetheless, it is not
easy for an industrialized building to achieve the best performances
in all three dimensions of TBL simultaneously; in fact in some cases,
they are contradictory. For instance, constructing an energy-
efficient building usually costs more than constructing a regular
one (Kamali et al., 2018). This inconsistency in TBL is key to the
failed development of IC in some countries and regions. Therefore,
the key to developing the most appropriate IC method based on a
specific practical background is balancing the impact of construc-
tion on TBL (not individually maximizing/minimizing in one
dimension).
2.5. Industrialized construction practices towards sustainability in
China
Given the great benefits of IC in sustainability, China considers
IC an important strategy for its construction industry trans-
formation and upgrade (Wang et al., 2019). Precast concrete
buildings by the CPCC method are regarded as the main approach
to promoting industrialized construction. However, the promotion
of CPCC in China has encountered a series of difficulties (Gan et al.,
2018a). The differences in diversified needs in provinces and cities
pose a huge challenge to unified, standardized component design
and construction (Wang et al., 2016). The construction participants
are reluctant to bear high costs, and the co-benefits among stake-
holders cannot be realized. The industry has begun to argue that
off-site factory production may not be the only path for China
because it requires long-term efforts to overcome the barriers in
cost, technology, and construction arrangement (Jiang et al., 2018a).
On the other hand, Chinese cast-in-situ and prefabricated form-
work have also continually improved the country’s
4 L. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 244 (2020) 118469
industrialization level towards cleaner production through inno-
vative ways (Jiang et al., 2018b). Out of these circumstances have
arisen new research ideas as well as practical efforts to integrate the
strengths of cast-in-situ and prefabrication, all giving rise to a new
IC methoddOSI.
In summary, this holistic overview of IC reveals that while
precast concrete is an important method it is not the only
component of prefabrication. As it concerns IC, more importantly,
prefabrication is just one of many options. OSI has also conformed
the IC principle (i.e., prefabrication, modular, lean, sustainability).
However, the conceptual framework of OSI and its sustainability
performance remains unclear.
3. Methodology
This work’s research objective is derived from the combination
of theoretical analysis and industry practices. Because of this, the
current study adopts action research to develop and validate the
OSI framework. Action research (AR) is a methodology simulta-
neously contributing to the solving of practical problems and
creating a theoretical and conceptual framework (Azhar et al.,
2010). AR is an appropriate, effective way to address practice-
oriented issues in construction engineering management (CEM),
which are intrinsically connected with practical problem solving
(Poirier et al., 2015). Most AR is based on case study investigations
(Bryman, 2003), and AR has proven to be effective in studying IC
issues (Pan et al., 2012). Previous research defined AR-based case
study as a research strategy that uses a variety of qualitative,
quantitative, and hybrid methods to generate a data set, followed
by a comprehensive analysis to conduct an in-depth review of
complex problems (Liu et al., 2018). AR-based data collection and
analysis techniques, including content analysis, face-to-face in-
terviews, and nominal group technique (NGT) are especially
appropriate for exploratory research addressing “why” and “how”
questions in CEM.
AR implementation usually includes two phasesd1) highly
theoretical assumptions are made about the practical problems and
2) assumptions are validated through systematic observation and
reflection based on the combination of researchers and practi-
tioners (Yang and Shen, 2015). With two objectives, this research is
conducted in two phases (Fig. 1). Phase 1 develops the OSI frame-
work and phase 2 validates the OSI framework. The development of
the OSI framework draws on the IC basic principles provided by the
literature review. To effectively evaluate the sustainability perfor-
mance of the OSI, phase 2 takes CPCC as a benchmark to conduct a
multiple-case based comparative study.
The united action research group consists of a triple-university
joint team, a leading residential developer in China, and other
participants. Contributing to this collaborative, 20-month action
research were groups of engineers, architects, designers, workers,
professors, researchers, government staffs, and clients. The OSI
framework was developed based on theoretical principles and
practices. Before the comparative study, the typical practice of the
OSI framework was observed to set a reference. Moreover, the
identical precondition (e.g., building type, sustainability perfor-
mance criteria (SPC), comparison scope and comparison stand-
point) was defined to ensure comparability. The building type in
this study focuses only on HRCRB. Since OSI is a new phenomenon
in the IC, it is unrealistic to extract all the information and consider
all the SPCs. Therefore, this study considers only SPCs directly
related to the construction process. Furthermore, in EcS, re-
searchers analyze only the content of SPCs showing significant
performance differences compared with CPCC. Content using
similar processes and performance is outside the scope of this
research.
The comparative study was conducted in two roundsdR1 and
R2. As CPCCs are considered to have a positive environmental and
social performance, R1 focused on the EnS and SoS is to answer
whether the OSI is a cleaner production method. If the results of R1
are positive, researchers will initiate R2 focused on EcS. Previous
research (Tong et al., 2018) has indicated that the main SPCs directly
affecting EnS on site are construction pollution and waste. The
direct social SPCs are workforce health (Li et al., 2016), safety and
security (Court et al., 2009), and community disturbance (Kamali
and Hewage, 2017). Ning et al. (2019) stated that noise is a direct
cause of pollution on-site, which threatens the workers’ health and
leads to a negative impact on SoS. The measurements can be
perceived from two generic categoriesdquantitative and qualita-
tive (Lu et al., 2018). Since quantitative measurements could offer a
clear, objective evaluation, the on-site experimental method is used
to measure noise pollution. Qualitative methods can explain the
participant’s attitudes and preferences about the SPC that are
difficult to quantify. Then, hybrid techniques are adapted to mea-
sure waste, community disturbance, safety, and security. In R2, the
economic SPCs are identified as cost, time, quality, constructability,
and integrated management. The quantitative calculation data
comes from the developer’s construction statistics report, and
qualitative comparison is supported by an AR-based hybrid tech-
nique. It should be noted that the EcS evaluation standpoint is from
the developer perspective. After all, the developer, the upstream
element in the industry chain, determines the dynamic of the in-
dustry chain and realization of co-benefits. To summarise, this
study is not a life-cycle analysis but focuses on the sustainability of
the construction process from a building developer’s perspective.
For example, the cost comparison in R2 concentrates on the con-
struction process; the manufacturing costs and operating costs are
beyond the research scope. On the other hand, the developer’s
perspective determines that some items are outlined according to
the specialty. For instance, labor costs are included in the struc-
turation, decoration, and installation engineering costs; they are
not displayed in the developer’s construction report.
4. Development of on-site industrialization framework
In action research phase 1, the principles, industrialized tech-
nology, and production process were explored to develop the OSI
framework.
4.1. Principles of OSI
The primary hypothesis of IC is “construction as manufacturing
production.” For many years, there has been a vision of building a
house in the same way as manufacturing a car (Gann, 1996). The
products of housing production, however, vary considerably from
car manufacturing (Koskela, 2003). The housing product is large
and usually immobile, with a higher degree of complexity in the
number and range of parts. In CPCC, the production of concrete
components is completed in an off-site factory and their assembly
on the construction site. This duality brings challenges to lean
continuous production. To solve this problem, OSI provides the
basic principle of “temporary factory,” which can be deployed on
the job site. Since the “factory” created by various construction
machines and tools is a relatively closed, controllable, and mech-
anized temporary site that meets the working conditions of the off-
site factory, it is a virtual factory rather than a traditional factory.
To support the temporary-factory basic principle, this work
proposes the following sub-principles: standardization, prefabri-
cation, modularization, lean, and sustainability.
 L. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 244 (2020) 118469 5

Fig. 1. Research flow.

▪ Standardization. OSI is more concerned with the standardiza-
tion of process rather than components. The process is as fol-
lows: to standardize the technical process and prefabricated
formwork, then to produce the standardized modules and
components. Compared to component standardization, the
technical process and formwork standardization are more
convenient to balance standardization and diversity, as well as
to reduce the conflict between efficiency and flexibility (Gann,
1996). The technical process of formwork design, production,
and assembly are standardized, while the final product can be
diverse.
▪ Prefabrication. The prefabrication focuses more on formwork
and rebar than concrete. In HRCRB, the transportation and the
erection of prefabricated formwork and rebar is much more
efficient than that of concrete components. The constructability
is then better (Wang et al., 2016).
▪ Modularization. The OSI modularization concept is not limited
to prefabricated volumetric as long as the elements in the
module are integrated and done all at once. For instance, the
structural shape or continuous construction activity can be
regarded as a building module or a work package module
(Peltokorpi et al., 2018).
▪ Lean. Lean requires the OSI’s construction process to be as
continuous as possible to eliminate non-value added activities.
Under this principle, CPCC production (i.e., off-site factory) and
assembly construction (i.e., on-site) are discontinuous, and
concrete component on-site storage (no-value-added activities)
increases uncertainty (Gann, 1996). In OSI, however, concrete
6 L. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 244 (2020) 118469
can be continuously cast by mechanized pumping, which con-
firms the lean principle.
▪ Sustainability. Because the priorities differ among the various
stakeholders in the different dimensions of TBL, the sustain-
ability principle should simultaneously consider the co-benefits
of all the stakeholders (Wu et al., 2018). For instance, control the
costs as much as possible while meeting cleaner production to
achieve the benefits that are mutual to both government and
building developers.
This study defines the OSI concept as this new industrialized
construction method that integrates the prefabrication and cast-in-
situ and is supported by the principles above. CPCC refers to con-
ventional precast concrete construction.
4.2. Industrialized technology of OSI
OSI requires a pre-assembled perimeter protection system and
support platform to create a relatively enclosed space in which
workers and equipment can work continuously. The temporary
enclosed space created by the pre-assembly technology can provide
a working environment similar to the controllable factory, making
it possible to achieve the factory production objectives (e.g.,
reducing accidents, eliminating wet-trade pollution, and maxi-
mizing efficiency). This temporary space is movable. It is assembled
before the commencements of construction activities, rises along
with the construction of each floor, and, at the completion of the
building construction, is disassembled and transported to the next
site for reuse. The pre-formed formwork acts as a pre-assembly line
for the continuous production of concrete buildings, similar to
casting concrete in an off-site factory. Standardized design and
production enables the formwork system to be produced and
tested for assembly in the factory and then transported to the
construction site for assembly according to the modulus coordi-
nation technique (Wang et al., 2018). Unlike with traditional timber
formwork, prefabricated formwork are standardized without on-
site cutting. Using the modulus coordination technique, a large
number of standardized formwork subcomponents can be pro-
duced for assembling various architectural shapes. More impor-
tantly, prefabricated formwork are usually made of materials with
higher surface flatness, such as steel, aluminum alloy, and other
advanced synthetic materials, which can eliminate plastering and
achieve cleaner production. According to the structural shape and
module of the formwork, the rebar can also be prefabricated.
The essential technical difference between OSI and CPCC is that
OSI no longer divides concrete into different components for pro-
duction and reassembly separately. Instead, the concrete is
continuously cast into a standard floor structure according to the
shape of one floor assembled by the prefabricated formwork.
Furthermore, OSI does not exclude precast concrete components.
Precast concrete components are usually used for the non-load-
bearing components to avoid the safety risks of the connection
and constructability troubles. OSI technology can be regarded as
the integration of pre-assembly technology, prefabricated form-
work, precast concrete, and improved industrialized cast-in-situ
technology.
4.3. Production and process management of OSI
The pre-assembled perimeter protection system should be
capable of being continuously lifted to create an on-site factory on
floors of different heights. At the same time, the use of the pre-
fabricated formwork is repeated in a cycle: assembly- > casting
concrete- > disassembly- > upward transportation- > assembly->
and so on, just like a mobile factory continually moving upwards. In
this process, the structural shape of the standard floor, including
facades, beams, slabs, columns, balconies, staircases, and even
bathroom, and kitchens can be assembled integrally into a whole
module through the prefabricated formwork. The concrete is
continuously cast in the assembled formwork system, and the
construction of a standard floor can be completed all at once
continuously, supporting the concept of continuous lean workflow
increasing the efficiency and value (Sacks et al., 2010). On the other
hand, the continuous lifting of the factory creates, at the upper and
lower levels, workspaces for different professional tasks. When the
upper floor continues to produce the standard structural floor
module, the installation and decoration works can, at the same
time, be carried out on the lower floor. This project-planning
method is interspersed construction rooted in concurrent engi-
neering, and the parallel space created by the pre-assembly tech-
nology enables the concurrent interpenetration of different
professional works on every floor simultaneously (Jaafari, 1997).
This process welcomes any suitable advanced mechanical
equipment.
4.4. OSI framework
After integrating the overall literature review and action
research in phase 1, the OSI framework is proposed, containing
basic principles, technologies, and management processes. The
knowledge body and structure are outlined in Fig. 2.
5. Multiple-case study based action research of OSI
To validate the OSI framework proposed in AR phase 1, the au-
thors used a comparative study based on a multiple-case study in
AR phase 2 to evaluate the sustainability performance of OSI, using
CPCC as a benchmark.
5.1. Data collection
AR phase 2 was conducted with a leading residential building
developer in South China. Phase 2 was divided into two stepsd1)
research a typical practice according to the OSI framework and 2)
implement a comparative analysis. Both quantitative and qualita-
tive data (Table 1) were collected. The profile of the interviewees
for qualitative data collected is summarized in Table 2.
A total of six sample buildings in the same projectdthree OSI
buildings (O1, O2, and O3) and three CPCC buildings (C1, C2, and
C3)dwere selected for the comparative study. All these samples
had similar basic information, making those buildings comparable.
The adoption of industrialized technology for each building is also
clarified in Table 3.
5.2. The practices of on-site industrialization
According to the OSI framework, a typical practice was selected
and provided, including technical practice and managerial practice.
OSI adopted several advanced IC techniques. For instance, pre-
assembly automatic lifting support platform (PALSP), pre-
fabricated aluminum formwork system (PAFS), and precast con-
crete partition (PCP). Management practice was embodied in lean
process management and concurrent engineering.
5.2.1. Technical practices of OSI
PALSP is the core prefabrication technology to create the pro-
duction space. As shown in Fig. 3, the PALSP (shown in blue one) is
pre-assembled on the ground, attached to the building structure by
tower cranes, and then automatically lifted using a power system.
The assembled PALSP is usually four stories high and will be
 L. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 244 (2020) 118469 7

Fig. 2. The OSI framework.

Table 1
Categorization of collected data.

Category SPCs Contents description Data Collection Approach

Quantitative En.1 Construction pollution Measurement of construction noise and dust Experimental method
So.1 Workforce health
So.3 Community disturbance
Eo.1 Construction cost Calculation based on building developer’s Statistical calculation
Eo.2 Construction time construction data statistical report
Qualitative En.2 Construction waste Qualitative analysis of AR multiple-case based Hybrid method (i.e., face-to-face interview/nominal group technique
So.1 Safety and security extracted information /content analysis/)
Eo.3 Building quality
Eo.4 Constructability
Eo.5 Integrated management

Table 2
Profiles of interviewees.

Interviewee Organization Position Role in the project Years of working experience Number of OSI projects participated

A University Professor Consultant 33 2

B University Professor Consultant 13 2
C University Associate Professor Consultant 6 1
D Building developer Deputy president Client 20 5
E Building developer Project manager Client 11 4
F Building developer Cost manager Client 8 4
G Construction company Chief engineer Main contractor 9 3
H Construction company Site engineer Main contractor 5 3
I Construction company HVAC engineer Main contractor 7 3
J Construction company Electrical engineer Main contractor 6 3

automatically lifted by one floor once the external walls are
installed on the bottom floor of the PALSP enclosed. Each standard
floor is a production unit, and the whole construction site forms a
temporary factory in the vertical direction. On the other hand,
concurrent construction-based interspersed construction can also
be implemented on floors at different heights because the scaffold
support below is not required.
In this sample, the prefabricated formwork is made of aluminum
alloy. The building production unit can be formed all at once,
eliminating the assembly process of the prefabricated components.
PAFS is like a concrete production line in the off-site factory,
through the repeated assembly, casting, disassembly, and transfer
to the next standard floor to repeat this cycle, to achieve the pro-
duction of standard units one by one. The PAFS is shown in Fig. 4.
On the other hand, due to its excellent surface flatness, the plas-
tering process that is required after the conventional timber
formwork-based cast-in-situ process is eliminated, thereby elimi-
nating the wet-trades.
Precast concrete partition (PCP) is the main prefabricated con-
crete component in OSI. Since PCP is not load-bearing, it can be
8 L. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 244 (2020) 118469

Table 3
Profiles of the six sample buildings.

Sample buildings OSI CPCC

O1 O2 O3 C1 C2 C3

Basic information Location Guangdong Guangdong Guangdong Guangdong Guangdong Guangdong

Building type RB(1) RB RB RB RB RB
Structure type SWS(2) SWS SWS SWS SWS SWS
Gross floor area (m2) 9082 9457 10852 8860 7750 9900
No. of floors 18 18 18 22 22 22
Industrialized technology PALSP C(3) C C
PAFS C C C
Precast facade C C C
Precast partition C C C
Precast balcony C C C
Precast staircase C C C
Precast slab C C C

Note: (1) RB: residential building; (2) SWS: shear wall structure; (3) C represents that the building adopts this industrialized technology.

floor. For the demonstration, the schedule of WP1 is shown in Fig. 6.

The concurrent engineering-based interspersed construction is
coordinated on different floors at the same time. As shown in Fig. 7,
when the concrete casting in WP1 is completed on the (nþ6)th floor
on day 35, all the MEP installation works (WP3 to WP7) are
completed on the nth floor and could pass for finished works. The
essence of interspersed construction is that the works of structure,
installation, and decoration of different floors are carried out
simultaneously. This interspersed method is just like the parallel
production lines in the factory.

5.3. Environmental and social sustainability evaluation

The evaluation in R1 is used for EnS and SoS. It is worth noting

that the quantitative calculation was performed for OSI because the
environmental performance of CPCC had been proven. Therefore,
this section just needs to prove that OSI is also a cleaner production
method; no need to judge which is better.

5.3.1. Quantitative evaluation R1

Fig. 3. Technique process of PALSP.
installed after the main-structure construction is finished, without
interfering with the critical path. The installation process of PCP is
shown in Fig. 5.
5.2.2. Managerial practices of OSI
The activities involved in the structural construction, mechani-
cal, electrical and plumbing (MEP) installation processes of a
standard floor are packaged into seven 5-day work packages
(Table 4) through an orderly organization and overlapping. The first
four work packages (WP1 to WP4) are conducted inside the spaces
enclosed by PALSP. Once the workspaces are enclosed by the
installed precast walls (in WP4), the PALSP can be lifted by one
Previous research indicates that a majority of the occupational
health damage incurred during the superstructure construction
stage (Li et al., 2016) and that 35% of construction workers expe-
rienced significant noise levels for over 50% of the working time.
Therefore, the noise measurement is carried out for the structural
construction phase. The acoustic exposure mode is relatively clear
during the OSI construction process, so a job-based measurement
was adopted as the measuring method, and LAeq was the evalua-
tion criteria (Xiao et al., 2016). Three critical trades (steel fixer,
carpenter, and concrete finisher) of OSI were selected to measure
the noise exposure. Three groups of workers were randomly
sampled and measured for noise exposure using ASV5910-2 noise
dosimeter (AWA, 2019). The noise-collection device was attached to
the worker’s hardhat or shoulder to monitor the noise received by
the human ear. The profile details of the measurement are sum-
marized in Table 5.
As shown in Table 6, the occupational noise exposure indicator
Lex, 8h did not exceed the threshold (85 dBA) set by the Chinese
authorities (Li et al., 2016), indicating that the noise exposure of OSI
met the requirements of cleaner production. The noise for the
concrete finisher mainly came from the collision of vibrating rods
with rebar cages and concrete pumps. The noise fluctuation was
more obvious than the ones created by formwork assembly and
placement of rebar cages. Therefore, in practice, a technical evo-
lution approach of OSI in concrete construction was to popularize
the automatic concrete sprinkle machine, thereby further reducing
the number of on-site workers. In summary, from the perspective of
 L. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 244 (2020) 118469 9

Fig. 4. Technique process of the prefabricated aluminum formwork system.

Fig. 5. The precast concrete partition.

noise, OSI has a positive effect on reducing construction pollution
and ensuring occupational health, contributing to EnS and SoS.
5.3.2. Qualitative evaluation R1
The hybrid method, including face-to-face interview and nom-
inal group technique (NGT), was used for the qualitative evaluation.
The main purpose of NGT was to improve the quality of group
judgment. Fifteen experts were divided into two groups for vali-
dation. Each group was composed of professionals with different
levels of experience in order to achieve complementary advan-
tages. Group 1 consisted of eight experts (Interviewees A, C, D, G, I, J,
K, N), while group 2 consisted of seven experts (Interviewees B, E, F,
H, L, M, O). These two groups discussed the sustainability perfor-
mance of SPCs (construction waste, construction pollution, safety
and security, community disturbance) separately. The two groups
then worked together to validate whether their resolutions
conflicted. The results showed that the two groups had the same
views. A summary was then written down.
For other aspects of pollution (e.g., dust and water), OSI also
showed good performance. The elimination of plastering and
masonry trades (also a critical strength of CPCC) significantly
reduced dust and water pollution during construction, putting
workers in a clean working environment (mentioned by in-
terviewees H, K, N, and O). Precast concrete components were
prone to damage during transportation and erection, while the
one-piece pre-formed formwork could minimize the waste of
concrete. On the other hand, continuous lean processes also reduce
waste in manhours because of idling, while with the CPCC a small
micro partial disturbance (e.g., the stagnation of component con-
nections or grouting sleeve defect) can cause delays for the overall
progress (mentioned by interviewees A, D, E, K). Structure and
worker safety was a major concern according to the interviews, as it
is the bottom line for construction. Experts believe that OSI has
better structural integrity, making the structure safer and more
reliable. In contrast, CPCC buildings in China are designed according
to the principle of emulating cast-in-place, ensuring that the
optimal structural safety performance of the CPCC buildings does
not exceed the ones of OSI (observed interviewees B, E, G, H, L, N).
Moreover, because the quality of grouting sleeve was not guaran-
teed in the immature market and there was a lack of skilled
10 L. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 244 (2020) 118469
Table 4
Activities in the seven 5-day work package.
Work Package Key Activities Included
(WP) #
WP 1 1. Setting out, installing rebars for columns and walls;
2. Placing construction joints, tying the plumbing pipes and
electrical ducts to the reinforced meshes of the columns and
walls, assembling the formworks for the columns and walls;
3. Assembling the formworks for the beams and slabs;
4. Installing rebars for the beams;
5. Installing the water stops and switch bottom boxes,
installing bottom rebars for slabs, placing plumbing pipes and
electrical ducts;
6. Installing upper side rebars for slabs, verification of
concealed works;
7. Concrete casting.
WP 2 1. Disassembling the formworks for walls and beams;
2. Cleaning and transporting the formworks to the next level;
3. Blocking the openings on the floors;
4. Surveying;
5. Polishing the openings for doors and windows.
WP 3 1. Polishing the internal walls;
2. Setting out for the internal walls;
3. Installing the plumbing system for the bathrooms;
4. Removing the vertical support posts.
WP 4 1. Installing the precast walls;
2. Installing the ventilation and smoke exhaust pipe in the
kitchens;
3. Installing windows;
4. Installing precast balcony railings.
WP 5 1. Applying cement putty on ceilings;
2. Installing internal water supply pipes and drainage pipes;
3. Setting out for finishing;
4. Installing internal gas pipes.
WP 6 1. Installing conduits and boxes;
2. Placing trailing pull strings inside conduits;
3. Testing the waterproofings in the bathrooms.
WP 7 1. Getting broom finish on concrete slabs;
2. Pulling cables through conduits;
3. Installing door frames.
Fig. 6. The schedule of WP1 in an OSI building.
workers in sleeve-connection technology, there may be some
safety risks in the construction of CPCC (as noted by interviewees E
and G). As for worker safety, the enclosed space provided by PALSP
significantly reduced accidents (e.g., falling from height), and OSI
and CPCC were safer than other traditional methods (mentioned by
interviewees H and L). Finally, due to reduced on-site machining,
OSI and CPCC caused less disturbance to the community than
traditional methods (mentioned by interviewees H, I, J). Through
the first round evaluation, it was proved that OSI had the same
positive impact on EnS and SoS as did CPCC, and performed even
better in terms of structural safety.
5.4. Economic sustainability evaluation
Since the R1 evaluation proved that OSI can be accepted as a
cleaner production method, the second round of evaluation
focused on EcS issues, that is, whether the economic performance
of OSI is easily accepted by the industry.
5.4.1. Quantitative evaluation R2
The most critical criteria of EcS are cost and time. These two are
also the key factors affecting whether industry participants accept
IC. Data were collected from the construction statistics report from
the perspective of the developer. According to the China National
Standard GB 50854e2013 (MHURDPRC, 2013) and the forms of
developer in this case, the total construction cost (CT) consists of
structural engineering cost (CS), installation engineering cost (CI),
and decoration engineering cost (CD), as shown in equation (1).
CT ¼ CS þ CI þ CD (1)
These three cost items can be further divided into sub-items, as
shown in Table 6. Because the sample buildings have different GFAs,
this study uses the cost per square meter for a cost comparison.
Selected for comparison were the costs incurred during the con-
struction process, other than the equipment (e.g., elevator) costs.
Details of the cost data are shown in Table 7.
O1, O2, and O3 represent the three sample buildings of OSI,
while C1, C2, and C3 represent the three sample buildings of CPCC,
respectively. This study expanded the capacity of comparison
samples by cyclic subtraction and obtained nine incremental costs,
which make the results of comparative analysis more reliable. The
incremental cost can be calculated by formula (2).
ICij ¼ Oi  Cj (2)
Where ICij is the incremental cost between building i and building j;
Oi is the cost of OSI building i and Cj is the cost of CPCC building j.
The incremental cost analysis is summarized in Fig. 8. As can be
seen, most of the incremental costs were negative, indicating that
OSI samples had an obvious cost advantage over CPCC samples.
Furthermore, the advantage in CS was significant, which is the main
contribution of the CT advantage of OSI. The difference in CI is
negligible. The cost increments of CD are discrete, and both OSI and
CPCC have advantages in some items.
To explore the reasons behind these results, Fig. 9 shows further
incremental cost analysis of the sub-item for CS, CI, and CD.
In the sub-items of CS, it is undeniable that CS2 (above-ground
structure cost) brings the most significant advantage, proving that
continuous cast-in-situ is more competitive than the assembly of
scattered concrete components. For the sub-items of CI, the reason
CPCC outperforms traditional cast-in-situ in installation engineer-
ing may be that the required openings or interfaces are reserved
through the basic design of precast concrete components, reducing
the reworks in construction. However, this pre-designed strategy is
equally applicable to the OSI system, which is more flexible and
efficient through the pre-designed formwork based on modules
coordination. Therefore, there is not much difference in the sub-
item of CI. The incremental cost of the CD sub-item fluctuates
around zero, showing that there is no obvious difference. Perhaps
this is because the decoration reflects the individuality and di-
versity of the building, and the specific cost depends on the design
plan, grade, and specific style of the building.
The heights of the sample buildings were different and the
structural construction process of a standard floor was in the
 L. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 244 (2020) 118469 11

Fig. 7. The flowline schedule of the seven work packages demonstrating interspersed construction.

Table 5
Noise monitoring performance.

Trade No. of samples Average Lex,8h Standard Deviation Duration(h)

Carpenter (formwork) 16 73.1 7.1 2

Steel fixer 12 75.7 6.6 2
Concrete finisher 10 81.1 7.8 2

Table 6
Cost of sub-item.

CS: Structural engineering cost CI: Installation of engineering cost CD: Decoration engineering cost

CS1: Foundation engineering cost CI1: Water, electricity, heating, and firefighting cost in CD1: Electricity and water cost in decoration engineering
installation engineering
CS2: Above-ground structure cost CI2: Water supply and drainage engineering cost CD2: Interior structure decoration cost
CS3: Door and window cost CI3: Electrical engineering cost CD3: Floors and cabinets cost
CS4: Public measures cost CI4: Fire protection engineering cost CD4: Other decoration cost
CS5: Façade engineering cost CI5: Ventilation and air conditioning engineering cost
CS6: Balcony railing cost CI6: Lightning protection cost

Table 7 critical path of the project. In consideration of this, the R2 evalua-

Cost data information of samples. tion takes as a unit for comparison the time performance of work
Cost (CNY/m2) O1 O2 O3 C1 C2 C3 package WP1 (concrete casting and its preparation activities) of the
standard structural floor. Similar to the WP1 shown in Table 4, AR-2
CT 2,719.40 2,877.73 3,130.69 3,581.21 3,793.74 3,761.13
CS 1,646.39 1,716.63 1,874.82 2,401.03 2,328.07 2,451.73 identified nine key activities (shown in Table 8) in WP1 for CPCC
CS1 83.56 40.31 70.29 93.70 169.48 160.82 samples.
CS2 1,186.31 1,265.82 1,390.08 1,928.60 1,657.66 1,702.70 The Gantt chart shown in Fig. 10 is based on face-to-face in-
CS3 200.16 236.35 236.42 153.65 171.86 183.87
terviews and planning document analysis.
CS4 73.09 57.80 69.34 73.55 72.07 79.15
CS5 80.30 78.33 78.00 112.61 200.27 200.27
As shown in Figs. 6 and 10, it is clear that OSI had a three-day
CS6 22.97 38.03 30.69 38.92 56.73 124.92 time advantage in WP1. The most important reason behind this is
CI 368.38 372.65 393.65 459.46 384.59 408.49 that the OSI activity is more compactda result of technical process
CI1 184.19 186.32 194.50 229.73 216.22 239.41 standardization. Figs. 11 and 12 show the percentage of time spent
CI2 57.71 56.58 64.50 54.05 50.05 49.21
by OSI and CPCC on construction activity in WP1. In OSI, activity 2
CI3 83.20 68.93 90.00 117.12 70.31 80.05
CI4 31.55 42.95 30.00 40.54 35.40 30.41 took the longest time on the critical path of project planning. The
CI5 2.63 7.66 4.65 13.51 7.61 5.62 time of activity 2 could be further compressed by improving
CI6 9.10 10.21 10.00 4.50 5.00 3.79 workers’ skills through appropriate training. Activity 7 (the con-
CD 704.63 788.45 862.21 720.72 1081.08 900.90
crete casting process) had the shortest duration because it was
CD1 122.86 131.96 144.51 90.09 135.14 112.61
CD2 292.95 308.95 337.18 270.27 405.41 337.84
continuously produced. In OSI, concrete production is more
CD3 163.72 208.57 158.96 225.23 337.84 281.53 efficient.
CD4 125.10 138.98 221.57 135.14 202.70 168.92 In CPCC, the most time-consuming activity was activity 5, and
12 L. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 244 (2020) 118469

Fig. 8. Total incremental cost comparison and analysis.

Fig. 9. Sub-item incremental cost comparison and analysis.

activity 2 occupied the longest time in the critical path, thus
affirming that the construction of load-bearing components
(especially the vertical ones) is time-consuming. For activity 2, the
precast concrete walls carried the vertically transmitted load,
making it the most crucial process in the critical path. Activity 5
constructed the components bearing the load of the entire hori-
zontal plane, and with no interspersed construction, this process
took a long time. For the work of component connections (e.g.,
activity 3), although it was also time-consuming, most of them
were not on the critical path. All of activity 6 was on the critical
path, due to its reliance on lifting machinery. This analysis ignores
the influence of height on component-hoisting speed (Hanafi et al.,
2018). In practice, the hoisting decreases as the height rises.
Therefore, the time performance advantage of OSI may be even
more significant than what the results show here.
5.4.2. Qualitative evaluation R2
The qualitative evaluation of EcS was implemented as in R1.
Quality was another important criteria. The evaluation indicates
that OSI concrete has a smooth surface. Since all concrete structures
are integrated modules, OSI even solves the quality problem of
water seepage at the joints of concrete components in CPCC
(mentioned by interviewees K and L). For constructability, the
criteria reflect the extent to which the design facilitates the ease of
construction (O’Connor and Tucker, 1986). Interviewees indicated
that designers and engineers were more familiar with OSI design
specifications and construction solutions, and workers were more
proficient in OSI skills and training. During the construction process
of OSI, there were fewer clashes and reworks (mentioned by in-
terviewees E, G, L, and M). Finally, managerial criteria for EcS in-
tegrated management. OSI is a reformed IC method for the current
AEC industry towards sustainability. Previous research and practice
 L. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 244 (2020) 118469 13

Table 8
Key Activities in WP1 for CPCC samples.

Activity Description of the activities

1. Setting out, preparation for hoisting and installing precast components

2. Hoisting and installing precast walls and precast staircases
3. Installing rebars for walls and columns, connecting components
4. Setting up the timber formwork for walls and columns
5. Setting up the timber formwork for beams and slabs
6. Hoisting and installing precast balcony and slabs
7. Installing rebars for beams and slabs, placing plumbing pipes and electrical ducts
8. Installing embedded bracing components
9. Concrete casting

Fig. 10. The Schedule of WP1 in a CPCC building.

Fig. 11. Activity time analysis in OSI buildings.

(e.g., supply chains, construction laws, regulations, and cast-in-situ)
can continue to play an active and sustainable role through
improvement, without starting from scratch. However, CPCC is
more of a top-down revolution. It is difficult to comprehensively
discuss the difference in management here, but it is certain that the
management challenges faced by OSI are smaller (mentioned by
interviewees A, B, D, and N).
6. Discussion and implications
The action research indicates that both OSI and CPCC are stan-
dardized, modularized, and cleaner production methods in EnS and
14 L. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 244 (2020) 118469
Fig. 12. Activity time analysis in CPCC buildings.
SoS of TBL. The critical influencing factor affecting OSI’s acceptance
and promotion in the construction industry is EcS. The results of
AR-2 prove that the EcS of OSI performed better during the con-
struction phase. In the development of construction industrializa-
tion, success can only be achieved if the mutual benefits of all
stakeholders are simultaneously realized on the TBL. There is a
need to strike a balance among the three dimensions of TBL, and
EcS is the prerequisite for the other two dimensions (Kamali and
Hewage, 2017). For benefit-oriented construction industry partici-
pants, EnS and SoS are goals that will be pursued after their eco-
nomic aspirations are met.
OSI is neither a CPCC nor a traditional cast-in-situ method, but
the combination of the advantages of both. Playing a positive role in
OSI are the typical principles of ICdprefabrication, modularization,
lean, and sustainability. OSI can take advantage of CPCC’s cleanness
and efficiency, but avoid its shortcoming (e.g., process fragmenta-
tion and cost overrun). Meanwhile, OSI takes advantages of
continuous production of traditional cast-in-situ methods and
compensates for environmental and social sustainability.
The OSI framework and action research provide many implica-
tions. For technical implications, the most significant advantage of
concrete is its hardening ability under normal temperature.
Therefore, in the HRCRB of mainland China, this improved cast-in-
situ method has a positive impact on industrialized construction,
and cannot simply be considered as a backward method to be
abandoned. On the other hand, the main structure of the building
does not need to be over-emphasized in prefabrication at off-site
factories. The precast concrete components are more suitable for
non-load bearing horizontal elements. The precast method and
cast-in-situ method do not conflict and can be used collaboratively
in an IC process for better performance. For managerial implica-
tions, lean process management requires a more continuous con-
struction process, higher level integration modules, and less
iteration and waste. More importantly, the promotion of IC needs to
fully consider the specific industry conditions (e.g., building type,
technology reserve and industry structure) in a specific country or
region (Zhang and Skitmore, 2012; Peltokorpi et al., 2018). It is
difficult to develop a one-size-fits-all industrialized method.
Therefore, the best method is the one most suitable for the
participants. For environmental implications, the key is to elimi-
nate wet-trades (such as plastering and masonry) as much as
possible, which is what OSI and CPCC can do.
It is worth noting that this AR-2-based comparative study is not
aiming to judge whether OSI or CPCC is a better IC method but to
validate the OSI framework, which is another feasible IC method for
the Chinese construction industry. The relationship between OSI
and CPCC is not antagonistic but complementary. The central
government of China has set forth a ten-year goal to make 30% of
the new domestic buildings adopt prefabricated structures
(General Office of the State Council, 2016). As for the remaining
70%, OSI can serve as an alternative.
7. Conclusion
Under the background of new industrialization in China, OSI is
widely promoted as a cleaner and more suitable industrialized
construction method to push the Chinese construction industry
towards greater sustainability. To develop and validate the OSI
framework, a two-stage action research was conducted. In AR-1, the
OSI framework was developed based on basic principles. Then, in
AR-2, the framework was validated with a comparative study.
Because of the good performance of environmental and social SPCs,
OSI can be considered a cleaner production method like CPCC. Also,
the economic evaluation proves that OSI performs better, sug-
gesting that OSI is more likely to achieve co-benefits among
stakeholders in all dimensions of TBL. Based on the action research,
this study provides a new research framework for industrialized
construction and helps extend the body of knowledge and solve the
practical problems in the industrialized construction. The findings
of this study can be summarized as follows:
▪ The OSI framework can help realize the co-benefits of TBL and is
more suitable for high-rise concrete residential buildings in
China, affirming that OSI can serve as a new industrialized
construction method promoting sustainability in the Chinese
construction industry.
▪ OSI’s managerial and technological innovation (e.g., process
standardization strategy, mold prefabrication, standard floor
 L. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 244 (2020) 118469
modular strategy, lean process management, and interspersed
construction) are more flexible and efficient, making it easier to
balance diversity and efficiency in HRCRB.
▪ The results indicate that fully combining the advantages of
prefabrication and cast-in-situ to achieve better sustainability
performance is an important way of industrialized construction.
The limitations of this study are pointed out in order to provide
some references for future research. As stated in the methodology,
the OSI framework only focuses on high-rise concrete residential
buildings in China. In AR-2, as OSI is an emerging concept with less
information available, the current evaluation is concerned with
only the construction process and not the full life cycle. The
selected SPCs are directly related to the construction process, and
indirect indicators are not included in this study. The precast con-
crete components set up in the CPCC samples are just one of many
possible combinations. Consequently, apart from extending the
analytical framework to a broader scope, future research should
also focus on developing more SPCs and quantitatively evaluating
with larger sample size, various perspectives, and more extended
period.
Acknowledgment
The National Thirteenth-Five-year Key R&D Program of China
(No. 2018YFC0705901-05), National Science Foundation of
China (No. 51778553) and National Science Foundation of
China (No. 71371041) support this study. Appreciation is to the
research team at Dalian University of Technology, Tsinghua Uni-
versity, and the City University of Hong Kong for their invaluable
contributions. The authors gratefully acknowledge Mr. Jun Sun, Mr.
Lizhe Jia for helping collect the case data.
References
Ahmad, S., Yew, K., 2019. Development of weighted triple-bottom line sustainability
indicators for the Malaysian food manufacturing industry using the Delphi
method. J. Clean. Prod. 229, 1167e1182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.
04.399.
AWA (Hangzhou Aihua Instruments Co), 2019. Product Details of ASV5910-2 Noise
Dosimeter. [WWW Document]. Available: http://www.hzaihua.com/products_
show.aspx?id¼56.
Azhar, I., Ahmad, S., Sein, M.K., 2010. Action research as a proactive research method
for construction engineering and management. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 136 (1),
87e98. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0000081.
Barlow, J., Childerhouse, P., Gann, D., Naim, M., Ozaki, R., Road, E., Systems, L.,
Group, D., Drive, C., 2010. Choice and delivery in housebuilding : lessons from
Japan for UK housebuilders. Build. Res. Inf. 31 (2), 37e41. https://doi.org/10.
1080/09613210302003.
Bergstro€m, M., Stehn, L., 2005. Benefits and disadvantages of ERP in industrialised
timber frame housing in Sweden. Constr. Manag. Econ. 23, 831e838. https://
doi.org/10.1080/01446190500184097.
Blismas, N., Pasquire, C., Gibb, A., Blismas, N., Pasquire, C., Gibb, A., 2007. Benefit
evaluation for off - site production in construction Benefit evaluation for off-site
production in construction. Constr. Manag. Econ. 6193, 121e130. https://doi.
org/10.1080/01446190500184444.
Bryman, A., 2003. Research Methods and Organization Studies. Routledge.
Buhamdan, S., Alwisy, A., Bouferguene, A., Al-hussein, M., 2019. Novel approach to
overcoming discontinuity in Knowledge : application in value-adding frame-
works in construction industry. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 145 (8), 1e16. https://doi.
org/10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0001670.
Cao, X., Li, Z., Liu, S., 2015a. Study on factors that inhibit the promotion of SI housing
system in China. Energy Build. 88, 384e394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.
2014.11.064.
Cao, X., Li, X., Zhu, Y., Zhang, Z., 2015b. A comparative study of environmental
performance between prefabricated and traditional residential buildings in
China. J. Clean. Prod. 109, 131e143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.04.120.
Court, P.F., Pasquire, C.L., Gibb, G.F., Bower, D., 2009. Modular assembly with post-
ponement to improve health, safety, and productivity in construction. Pract.
Period. Struct. Des. Constr. 14, 81e89. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1084-
0680(2009)14:2(81).
Eckelman, M.J., Brown, C., Troup, L.N., Wang, L., Webster, M.D., Hajjar, J.F., 2018. Life
cycle energy and environmental benefits of novel design-for-deconstruction
structural systems in steel buildings. Build. Environ. 143, 421e430. https://
15
doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2018.07.017.
Erdil, N.O., Aktas, C.B., Arani, O.M., 2018. Embedding sustainability in lean six sigma
efforts. J. Clean. Prod. 198, 520e529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.07.
048.
Gan, X., Chang, R., Wen, T., 2018a. Overcoming barriers to off-site construction
through engaging stakeholders: a two-mode social network analysis. J. Clean.
Prod. 201, 735e747. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.07.299.
Gan, X., Chang, R., Zuo, J., Wen, T., Zillante, G., 2018b. Barriers to the transition to-
wards off-site construction in China: an Interpretive structural modeling
approach. J. Clean. Prod. 197, 8e18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.06.184.
Gann, D.M., 1996a. Construction as a manufacturing process? Similarities and dif-
ferences between industrialized housing and car production in Japan. Constr.
Manag. Econ. 14, 437e450. https://doi.org/10.1080/014461996373304.
Gao, S., Low, S.P., Nair, K., 2018. Design for manufacturing and assembly (DfMA): a
preliminary study of factors influencing its adoption in Singapore. Architect.
Eng. Des. Manag. 14, 440e456. https://doi.org/10.1080/17452007.2018.1502653.
General Office of the State Council, 2016. No.71 [2016] of the General Office of the
State Council. Available: http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2016-09/30/
content_5114118.htm.
Gibb, A.G.F., 1999. Off-Site Fabrication: Prefabrication, Pre-Assembly and Modular-
isation. Whittles Publishing.
Gibb, A.G.F., 2001. Standardization and pre-assembly- distinguishing myth from
reality using case study research. Constr. Manag. Econ. 19, 307e315. https://doi.
org/10.1080/01446190010020435.
Gibb, A.G.F., Isack, F., 2001. Client drivers for construction projects: implications for
standardization. Eng. Construct. Architect. Manag. 8 (1), 46e58. https://doi.org/
10.1108/eb021169.
Gibb, A.G.F., Isack, F., 2003. Re-engineering through pre-assembly - client expec-
tations and drivers. Build. Res. Inf. 31 (2), 146e160. https://doi.org/10.1080/
09613210302000.
Green, S.D., May, S.C., Green, S.D., May, S.C., 2006. Lean construction : arenas of
enactment , models of diffusion and the meaning of ‘ leanness. Build. Res. Inf. 33
(6), 498e511. https://doi.org/10.1080/09613210500285106.
Hanafi, M.H., Farrell, P., Yusoff, M.N., Razak, A.A., 2018. Installation systems of on-
site prefabricated concrete components : a qualitative approach. Int. J. Constr.
Manag. 18 (5), 343e350. https://doi.org/10.1080/15623599.2017.1326297.
Holton, I., Glass, J., Price, A.D.F., 2010. Managing for sustainability: findings from
four company case studies in the UK precast concrete industry. J. Clean. Prod. 18,
152e160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2009.09.016.
Hosseini, M.R., Martek, I., Zavadskas, E.K., Aibinu, A.A., Arashpour, M., Chileshe, N.,
2018. Critical evaluation of off-site construction research: a Scientometric
analysis. Autom. ConStruct. 87, 235e247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2017.
12.002.
Ikuma, L.H., Nahmens, I., James, J., 2011. Use of safety and lean integrated kaizen to
improve performance in modular homebuilding. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 137 (7),
551e560. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0000330.
Jaafari, A., 1997. Concurrent construction and life cycle project management.
J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 123 (4), 427e436. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-
9364(1997)123:4(427).
Jiang, L., Li, Z., Li, L., Gao, Y., 2018a. Constraints on the promotion of prefabricated
construction in China. Sustain 10 (7), 2516e2533. https://doi.org/10.3390/
su10072516.
Jiang, L., Li, Z., Li, L., Li, T., Gao, Y., 2018b. A framework of industrialized building
assessment in China based on the structural equation model. Int. J. Environ. Res.
Public Health 15 (8), 1687e1707. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15081687.
Jin, R., Gao, S., Cheshmehzangi, A., Aboagye-nimo, E., 2018. A holistic review of off-
site construction literature published between 2008 and 2018. J. Clean. Prod.
202, 1202e1219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.08.195.
Jonsson, H., Rudberg, M., 2014. Classification of production systems for industrial-
ized building: a production strategy perspective. Constr. Manag. Econ. 32,
53e69. https://doi.org/10.1080/01446193.2013.812226.
Kamali, M., Hewage, K., 2017. Development of performance criteria for sustain-
ability evaluation of modular versus conventional construction methods.
J. Clean. Prod. 142, 3592e3606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.108.
Kamali, M., Hewage, K., Milani, A.S., 2018. Life cycle sustainability performance
assessment framework for residential modular buildings: aggregated sustain-
ability indices. Build. Environ. 138, 21e41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.
2018.04.019.
Koskela, L., 2003. Is structural change the primary solution to the problems of
construction? Build. Res. Inf. 31 (2), 85e96. https://doi.org/10.1080/
09613210301999.
Koskela, L., Vrijhoef, R., Koskela, L., Vrijhoef, R., 2001. Is the current theory of con-
struction a hindrance to innovation? Build. Res. Inf. 29 (3), 197e207. https://doi.
org/10.1080/09613210110039266.
Li, L., Li, Z., Li, X., Wu, G., 2019. A review of global lean construction during the past
two decades : analysis and visualization. Eng. Construct. Architect. Manag. 26
(6), 1192e1216. https://doi.org/10.1108/ECAM-03-2018-0133.
Li, C.Z., Shen, G.Q., Xue, X., 2014. Critical review of the research on the management
of prefabricated construction. Habitat Int. 43, 240e249. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.habitatint.2014.04.001.
Li, L., Li, Z., Li, X., Wu, G., 2018. Critical success factors for project planning and
control in prefabrication housing production: A China study. Sustain. 10 (3),
836e853. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10030836.
Li, X., Song, Z., Wang, T., Zheng, Y., Ning, X., 2016a. Health impacts of construction
noise on workers: a quantitative assessment model based on exposure
16 L. Li et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 244 (2020) 118469
measurement. J. Clean. Prod. 135, 721e731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.
2016.06.100.
Liu, D., Lu, W., Ph, D., Niu, Y., 2018. Extended technology-acceptance model to make
smart construction systems successful. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 144 (6), 1e9.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0001487.
Lu, W., Chen, K., Xue, F., Pan, W., 2018. Searching for an optimal level of prefabri-
cation in construction: an analytical framework. J. Clean. Prod. 201, 236e245.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.07.319.
Luo, W., Sandanayake, M., Zhang, G., 2019. Direct and indirect carbon emissions in
foundation constructiondTwo case studies of driven precast and cast-in-situ
piles. J. Clean. Prod. 211, 1517e1526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.11.
244.
Ma, L., Wang, L., Wu, K., Tseng, M., 2018. Assessing co-bene fi t barriers among
stakeholders in Chinese construction industry. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 137,
101e112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.05.029.
Mao, C., Xie, F., Hou, L., Wu, P., Wang, J., Wang, X., 2016. Cost analysis for sustainable
off-site construction based on a multiple-case study in China. Habitat Int. 57,
215e222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2016.08.002.
Martins, V.W.B., Rampasso, I.S., Anholon, R., Quelhas, O.L.G., Filho, W.L., 2019.
Knowledge management in the context of sustainability : literature review and
opportunities for future research. J. Clean. Prod. 229, 489e500. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.354.
Mayrhofer, J.P., Gupta, J., 2016. Environmental Science & Policy the science and
politics of co-benefits in climate policy. Environ. Sci. Policy 57, 22e30. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2015.11.005.
MHURDPRC, (Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of the People’s
Republic of China), 2013. Standard Method of Measurement for Building Con-
struction and Fitting-Out Works. GB 50854-2. ed. China Jihua Press, Beijing,
China.
Mostafa, S., Chileshe, N., 2018. Application of discrete-event simulation to investi-
gate effects of client order behaviour on off-site manufacturing performance in
Australia. Architect. Eng. Des. Manag. 14, 139e157. https://doi.org/10.1080/
17452007.2017.1301367.
Musa, M.F., Mohammad, M.F., Mahbub, R., Yusof, M.R., 2014. Enhancing the quality
of life by adopting sustainable modular industrialised building system (IBS) in
the Malaysian construction industry. Procedia - Soc. Behav. Sci. 153 (16), 79e89.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.10.043.
Nahmens, I., Mullens, M.A., 2011. Lean homebuilding: lessons learned from a pre-
cast concrete panelizer. J. Archit. Eng. 17 (4), 155e161. https://doi.org/10.1061/
(ASCE)AE.1943-5568.0000037.
Nawi, M.N.M., Lee, A., Kamar, K.A.M., Hamid, Z.A., 2012. Critical success factors for
improving team integration in Industrialised Building System (IBS) construction
projects: the Malaysian case. Malaysian Constr. Res. J. 10 (1), 44e62. https://doi.
org/10.9774/GLEAF.4700.2009.au.00009.
Ning, X., Qi, J., Wu, C., Wang, W., 2019. Reducing noise pollution by planning con-
struction site layout via a multi-objective optimization model. J. Clean. Prod.
222, 218e230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.03.018.
O’Connor, J.T., Tucker, R.L., 1986. Industrial project constructability improvement.
J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 112 (1), 69e82. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-
9364(1986)112:1(69).
Pan, W., Gibb, A.G.F., Dainty, A.R.J., 2012. Strategies for integrating the use of off-site
production technologies in house building. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 138 (11),
1331e1340. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0000544.
Peltokorpi, A., Olivieri, H., Granja, A.D., Seppa €nen, O., 2018. Categorizing modula-
rization strategies to achieve various objectives of building investments. Constr.
Manag. Econ. 36, 32e48. https://doi.org/10.1080/01446193.2017.1353119.
Poirier, E.A., Staub-French, S., Forgues, D., 2015. Measuring the impact of BIM on
labor productivity in a small specialty contracting enterprise through action-
research. Autom. ConStruct. 58, 74e84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2015.07.
002.
Sacks, R., Koskela, L., Dave, B.A., Owen, R., 2010. Interaction of lean and building
information modeling in construction. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 136 (9), 968e980.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0000203.
Saieg, P., Dominguez, E., Nascimento, D., Goyannes, R., 2018. Interactions of building
information modeling , lean and sustainability on the architectural , engineer-
ing and construction industry : a systematic review. J. Clean. Prod. J. 174,
788e806. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.11.030.
Sev, A., 2009. How can the construction industry contribute to sustainable devel-
opment ? Sustain. Dev. 17, 161e173. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.373.
Song, J., Fagerlund, W.R., Haas, C.T., Tatum, C.B., Vanegas, J.A., 2005. Considering
prework on industrial projects. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 131 (6), 723e733. https://
doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9364(2005)131:6(723).
Tam, V.W.Y., Fung, I.W.H., Sing, M.C.P., Ogunlana, S.O., 2015. Best practice of pre-
fabrication implementation in the Hong Kong public and private sectors.
J. Clean. Prod. 109, 216e231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.09.045.
Teng, Y., Mao, C., Liu, G., Wang, X., 2017. Analysis of stakeholder relationships in the
industry chain of industrialized building in China. J. Clean. Prod. 152, 387e398.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.03.094.
Tommelein, I.D., 2015. Journey toward lean construction: pursuing a paradigm shift
in the AEC industry. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 141 (6), 1e12. https://doi.org/10.1061/
(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0000926.
Tong, R., Cheng, M., Zhang, L., Liu, M., Yang, X., Li, X., 2018. The construction dust-
induced occupational health risk using Monte-Carlo simulation. J. Clean. Prod.
184, 598e608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.02.286.
Wang, Z., Hu, H., Gong, J., Ma, X., Xiong, W., 2019. Precast supply chain management
in off-site construction: A critical literature review. J. Clean. Prod. 232 (20),
1204e1217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.05.229.
Wang, J., Zhao, J., Hu, Z., 2016. Review and thinking on development of building
industrialization in China. Tumu Gongcheng Xuebao/China Civ. Eng. J. 49, 1e8.
https://doi.org/10.15951/j.tmgcxb.2016.05.001.
Wang, T., Gao, S., Li, X., Ning, X., 2018. A meta-network-based risk evaluation and
control method for industrialized building construction projects. J. Clean. Prod.
205, 552e564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.09.127.
Wu, K., Zhu, Y., Tseng, M., Lim, M.K., Xue, B., 2018. Developing a hierarchical
structure of the co-bene fi ts of the triple bottom line under uncertainty.
J. Clean. Prod. 195, 908e918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.05.264.
Xiao, J., Li, X., Zhang, Z., 2016. DALY-based health risk assessment of construction
noise in Beijing. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 13 (11), 1045e1063. https://
doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13111045.
Yang, R.J., Shen, G.Q.P., 2015. Framework for stakeholder management in con-
struction projects. J. Manag. Eng. 31 (4), 1e14. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)
ME.1943-5479.0000285.
Yin, X., Liu, H., Chen, Y., Al-hussein, M., 2019. Automation in Construction Building
information modelling for o ff -site construction : review and future directions.
Autom. ConStruct. 101, 72e91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2019.01.010.
Zabihi, H., Habib, F., Mirsaeedie, L., 2013. Definitions, concepts and new directions in
industrialized building systems (IBS). KSCE J. Civ. Eng. 17, 1199e1205. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s12205-013-0020-y.
Zhai, X., Reed, R., Mills, A., 2014. Factors impeding the offsite production of housing
construction in China: an investigation of current practice. Constr. Manag. Econ.
32, 40e52. https://doi.org/10.1080/01446193.2013.787491.
Zhang, X., Skitmore, M., 2012. Industrialized housing in China: a coin with two
sides. Int. J. Strateg. Prop. Manag. 16, 143e157. https://doi.org/10.3846/
1648715X.2011.638945.