Technological University of the Philippines

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

CONCRETE

Group 3:

ASUNCION, Rinalyn A.

MALABUYO, Dan Erwin D.

RUBIO, Rovic C.

DEL MUNDO, Saina Rose T.

FONTEJON, Ronald Kim C.

DULOT, Ma. Angeline U.

CAMESA, Nikko M.

AMEN, Carl Vincent L.

SORIA, Marc Lexter A.

CABRIGA, Hezekiel T.

QUERUBIN, Raztin Kimberly C.

Submitted to:

Engr. Jasinne Garna

DEFINITION

It is derived from the Latin word “concretus” which means “growing together”. Mixture
of cement, aggregates, and water. When mixed in specific proportions, it hardens to a strong
stony consistency over varying lengths of time. Concrete is one of the most used building
material. Concrete is a mixture of portland cement, water, aggregates, and in some cases,
admixtures. Concrete is a versatile material that can easily be mixed to meet a variety of special
needs and formed to virtually any shape. Concrete is often looked upon as “man-made rock”.
Concrete consists of a solid and chemically inert particulate substance, called aggregate (usually
sand and gravel), bonded together by cement and water.

Concrete is characterized by the type of aggregate or cement used, by the specific

qualities it manifests, or by the methods used to produce it. In ordinary structural concrete, the
character of the concrete is largely determined by a water-to-cement ratio. The lower the water
content, all else being equal, the stronger the concrete. The mixture must have just enough water
to ensure that each aggregate particle is surrounded by the cement paste, that the spaces between
the aggregate are filled, and that the concrete is liquid enough to be poured and spread
effectively. Another durability factor is the amount of cement in relation to the aggregate
(expressed as a three-part ratio—cement to fine aggregate to coarse aggregate). Where especially
strong concrete is needed, there will be relatively less aggregate.

Concrete that has been hardened onto embedded metal (usually steel) is called reinforced
concrete, or ferroconcrete. Its invention is usually attributed to Joseph Monier, a Parisian
gardener who made garden pots and tubs of concrete reinforced with iron mesh; he received a
patent in 1867. The reinforcing steel, which may take the form of rods, bars, or mesh, contributes
tensile strength. Plain concrete does not easily withstand stresses such as wind action,
earthquakes, and vibrations and other bending forces and is therefore unsuitable in many
structural applications. In reinforced concrete, the tensile strength of steel and the compressional
strength of concrete render a member capable of sustaining heavy stresses of all kinds over
considerable spans. The fluidity of the concrete mix makes it possible to position the steel at or
near the point where the greatest stress is anticipated.

BRIEF HISTORY

Prehistory

12,000,000 BCE: First deposits of cement compounds formed:

The earliest evidence of concrete that we know of was found in Israel. Reactions between
limestone and oil shale during spontaneous combustion caused natural deposits of cement
compounds to form. These deposits were discovered and described by Israel geologists in the
1960s and ’70s.

10,000 BCE: Earliest limestone structure

Limestone — also often called “lime” — plays an early role in the story of concrete, as the base
ingredient in cement, and it’s been used for millennia. Predating another massive stone temple,
Stonehenge, by 6,000 years, the Göbekli Tepe in modern-day Turkey was the earliest known
limestone structure. Limestone made up the T-shaped pillars of this temple, which were built and
carved by prehistoric people who had not yet developed metal tools or even pottery.

With no evidence to support the idea that people lived on the summit of Göbekli Tepe itself,
archeologists regard it as a historically significant place of worship — mankind’s first “cathedral
on a hill.” The people who created and used the structure were likely inhabitants of the Fertile
Crescent, a mild and farmable area spanning the land from the Persian Gulf to modern-day
Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, and Egypt.

Just as this event marks a step forward in humanity’s evolution, concrete continued to evolve,
too.

500 BCE: Desert cisterns

The first concrete-like structures, secret underground cisterns for storing scarce water, were built
by Nabataea or Bedouin traders who developed a small empire in the desert oases of southern
Syria and northern Jordan. Some of these cisterns still exist in those areas today.

5600 BCE: Pre-concrete floors

In the former country of Yugoslavia, in the area of Lepenski Vir along the Danube River, huts
were found in the mid-1960s with a semblance of concrete floors, dating back to 5600 BCE. The
lime cement that was used probably came from a deposit upriver and was mixed with sand,
gravel, and water to resemble concrete mixtures of our time.

Ancient

3000 BCE: Ancient Egyptians used mud and straw to bind bricks

One early predecessor to concrete was a building material created by the ancient Egyptians from
mud and straw. They used this to bind bricks to use in construction. Another bonding agent used
at this time was mortar made from gypsum and lime.

2500 BCE: Concrete-like materials used in building the Great Pyramids

2500 BCE marks the next major advance in concrete’s history. Some sources report that a burnt
gypsum mortar or lime concrete cementing material was used to construct the Great Pyramid at
Giza.

The earliest known illustration of concrete use in Egypt dates to about 1950 BCE, a mural on a
wall in Thebes.

1000 BCE: Grecian tombs built

Some archaeologists theorize that the introduction of concrete to society helped create the first
communities of people outside of worship activities. The Peloponnesian tombs in Greece, built
over 3,000 years ago, signify this.

Burying the dead, let alone constructing tombs for them, shows that civilization was beginning to
form and revolve around a stable area, a change from the lifestyles of more nomadic hunter-
gatherers.

600 BCE: Concrete hardening under water

The Greeks discovered a chemical reaction that changed the ways concrete could be used. By
mixing a natural pozzolan, found on Santorini Island, which contained silica-alumina with lime,
they created concrete that would harden under water as well as in the air. They used this material
to create protective coverings on structures made of unburned brick.

The Greeks also created a predecessor to concrete that consisted of broken up stone with a
mortar of lime and sand to bind. But this mixture wasn’t strong enough to be used for serious
building purposes.

300 BCE: The Great Wall of China Began Construction

300 BCE marks the start of the construction of The Great Wall of China. It continued to be built
and improved over the course of many years and dynasties.

200 BCE: Romans used volcanic ash to create concrete

Around 200 BCE, the Romans discovered a similar chemical reaction to the Greeks when they
mixed volcanic, pozzolanic ash with lime. The silica, alumina, and iron oxide in the ash reacted
with the calcium hydroxide in the lime, forming sturdier concrete. This improved concrete could
also hold up when submerged in water, something that previous building materials, like plaster
made from lime and sand, couldn’t withstand.

2 BCE: Roman concrete was developed

Though the use of mortar, made of sand, lime, and water, as a bonding agent had already existed
in ancient masonry by this time, the Romans innovated through their use of volcanic Italian sand,
or “pozzolana.”

When Roman builders added pozzolana to their mortar mixture in place of regular sand (and sea
water, which seems to increase concrete’s strength over time, instead of fresh water), they
realized that the resulting mortar was significantly stronger and more durable. It could also be set
under water, something that wasn’t possible with previous materials.

Though concrete wasn’t considered to be aesthetically pleasing, and Romans often plastered over
it with brick and tile, it completely changed the structural possibilities of Roman architecture,
initiating an architectural revolution. Since concrete retained the shapes of molds, builders could
be much more creative in their designs. Many of these structures were so durable that they still
stand today.

70 CE–80 CE: The Colosseum was built

The Colosseum in Rome was built on an artificial lake, part of Emperor Nero’s palace (who
ruled from 54 to 68 CE). It was built because of Emperor Vespasian (who ruled from 69 to 79
CE), who wanted to construct the largest theater in the world. Originally called the Flavian
Amphitheater, it became known as the Colosseum during the Middle Ages.

The Colosseum contains more than 50,000 seats and 76 archway entrances, corresponding with
the seats. About a third of the structure is still standing today.

118 CE–128 CE: The Pantheon was built using unreinforced concrete

Rome’s Pantheon, soon to celebrate its 1,900th birthday, is as sturdy as ever. The temple’s
unreinforced concrete dome was twice as wide and high as any dome ever created at the time,
spanning 143 feet with its famed “oculus” in the center. Its mammoth weight is buttressed by
incredibly thick concrete walls and eight barrel vaults, all reinforced with brick — but no internal
support.

Today’s engineers wouldn’t dare build an unreinforced dome of that size, and they may never
know the secret to the Pantheon’s enduring stability. We do know that Emperor Hadrian’s
engineers adjusted the concrete recipes, using more volcanic ash than rock to make the dome
lighter, and more rock aggregate in the walls for heavier reinforcement. But when the Roman
Empire fell in 476 CE, the unprecedented Roman recipe for concrete was lost to the world.

300 CE–500 CE: Roman architecture

Volcanic ash found near Pompeii and Mount Vesuvius was used to thicken a mixture of kilned
limestone, ground-up rocks, sand, and water — allowing the Romans to build ramps, terraces,
and the roads that eventually connected the whole empire. Pouring the mixture into molds soon
allowed builders to create vaults and domes, as well as the arches of the empire’s iconic
aqueducts and bathhouses. Roman concrete has endured earthquakes, lightning strikes, crashing
sea waves, and thousands of years of weathering.

Early Modern Period

As it sometimes happened in the earlier eras of civilization, practices and innovations that
became part of society for a time were poorly recorded or lost. This happened with the creation
and use of concrete cement, but it was rediscovered more than 1,000 years later. Our timeline
shows how concrete continued to evolve after its rediscovery during the early modern period.

1500s: Giovanni Gioconda’s concrete bridge attempt in the Renaissance period

Similarly, Giovanni Gioconda, an Italian friar trained in architecture and archaeology, tried and
succeeded to emulate concrete cement. The fact that it was hydraulic, or able to harden under
water, was his clue to try mixing lime with pozzolana, something that he read in Vitruvius’s On
Architecture.

Gioconda’s first attempt to use concrete was in the Pont Notre-Dame Bridge. Though it held for
a time and stood as the only attempt at concrete construction during the Renaissance, it was
ultimately demolished because it couldn’t hold the weight of houses built on top of it.

1700s: Discovery of trass

A bricklayer in Andernach, Germany, tried mixing volcanic ash called trass with lime mortar.
The resulting material was water-resistant and strong — and the chain reaction started by the
discovery would lead to the creation of modern cement.

In the 17th century, the Dutch (who were already adept at building in water) sold trass to France
and Britain for use on buildings that required waterproof properties. The two rival countries
immediately began competing to create their own hydraulic building materials.

1759: John Smeaton developed “hydraulic lime” which was a type of concrete

The first successful use of concrete was by John Smeaton in his reconstruction of the Eddystone
Lighthouse. He rediscovered hydraulic lime, the first type of concrete ever invented, while
preparing to construct the lighthouse, using it for its ability to hold up under water.

In the process — and more than 1,000 years after the secrets of concrete were lost — Smeaton
rediscovered how to make cement. Before long, manufacturers started marketing his discovery as
“Roman cement.” And the Eddystone Lighthouse stood for nearly 118 years (from 1759 to
1877), outlasting the rocks that eroded out from under it.

Modern Era

1824: Joseph Aspdin patented Portland cement

Joseph Aspdin created his patented Portland cement when he heated clay and limestone together
and then let it cool. This resulted in the use of vertical shaft kilns in cement manufacturing,
which would later be replaced by rotary kilns.

1843: The Thames Tunnel was the first large-scale application of Portland cement

The construction of the Thames Tunnel, led by William Aspdin, Joseph Aspdin’s son, civil
engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel, and Brunel’s father, used Portland cement in its first large-
scale application. This major engineering project encountered many issues during its
construction, but was completed and open to the public in 1843.

1849: Joseph Monier invented iron reinforced concrete

Joseph Monier, experimented successfully with pouring concrete over steel mesh. (Concrete and
steel expand at a similar rate when they heat up, making them a perfect pairing). Monier patented
several variants of his invention for use with railway sleeper cars, building slabs, and pipes.

This marked the invention of iron-reinforced concrete, for which Joseph Monier would receive a
patent in 1867. Concrete alone is made by mixing together cement, water and aggregates.
Reinforced concrete combines that with steel for increased tensile strength and
durability. Reinforced concrete is much stronger and more practical than when the unreinforced
stuff. It can span larger gaps, allowing concrete to soar in the form of bridges and skyscrapers.

1880s: Prestressing steel patented

The process of prestressing steel was patented to make concrete stronger and allow engineers to
use less steel and concrete.

1886: The first rotary kiln was created replacing vertical shaft kilns

The first rotary kiln was created for use in concrete manufacturing. Manufacturers wanted to
replace vertical shaft kilns because they weren’t as economical and the quality of what they
produced wasn’t uniform.
1889: Ernest Ransome patented reinforced concrete used in building the oldest surviving
concrete bridge

California engineer Ernest Ransome began testing concrete and two-inch iron rods to see if the
materials would bond. When they did, Ransome went a step further by twisting the iron bars to
create an armature around which he could “build” concrete into any desired shape — an
experiment which also worked. As a result, Alvord Lake Bridge is the oldest surviving bridge
made out of reinforced concrete.

Today we call this system reinforcing bar, or rebar, although modern engineers typically use
steel instead of iron, and Ransome’s new system, would be used early in the 20th-century for
commercial buildings, roads, bridges, and even the first skyscrapers. Famed architect Frank
Lloyd Wright began to implement rebar concrete technology in modern architecture. Some of
Wright’s most famous buildings — including Unity Temple in Oak Park, Illinois, considered the
world’s first modern building, and Fallingwater in Mill Run, Pennsylvania, his most celebrated
work — were made of reinforced concrete.

1891: First concrete street in America – Bellefontaine, Ohio

In 1891, a man named George Bartholomew built the first concrete street in America in
Bellefontaine, Ohio. Today, previous concrete is being advocated as the best, and most
environmentally friendly surface for streets.

1899: The most famous reinforced concrete bridge – Vienne River Bridge

The Vienne River Bridge in Chatellerault, France, built in 1899, is one of the most famous
reinforced concrete bridges in the world.

1903: First reinforced concrete high-rise – The Ingalls Building, Cincinnati

In Cincinnati in 1903, Ransome’s system made possible the first concrete high-rise, the 16-story
Ingalls Building. That neck-breaking height made the skyscraper one of the great engineering
feats of its time.

1913: First Ready-Mix delivery – Baltimore

“Ready-mix” concrete was unheard of before its first delivery in Baltimore, 1913. Having
concrete mixed in one place (a central plant) and then delivered by truck for use at a jobsite was
a revolution for the concrete industry.

1915: Colored concrete – L.M. Scofield, the first company to produce color for concrete

The first company that created color for concrete was L.M. Scofield. Founded by Lynn Mason
Scofield, the company manufactured products like color hardeners, color wax, integral color,
sealers, and chemical stains.
1931: The largest-scale concrete project completed – The Hoover Dam

Though concrete had been used to create some impressive modern structures, none were as large
at this time as the Hoover Dam. Located between Arizona and Nevada in the Black Canyon, the
Dam became the biggest and most elaborate concrete construction project by this point in
history, using over four million cubic yards of concrete (or five million barrels’ worth) in its
construction. It was also reinforced by an infrastructure made out of steel pipes.

1939: William Urschel created the first 3D printed concrete structure

In 1939, inventor William E. Urschel created his “Wall Building Machine,” an invention that
used the technique of layered, horizontal slip forming to construct multi storey structures that
contained a self-supporting infrastructure. He used this to construct the first 3-D printed building
from concrete behind a warehouse in Indiana.

1956–1992: The U.S. Interstate Highway System was built

During these years, construction of the U.S. interstate highway system was underway, ultimately
completed in 1992. The project used concrete as a primary building material, creating safer roads
that hold up better under the weight and pressure of vehicles. The creation of the highway system
not only made travel safer and easier but also made it much faster, connecting the United States
in an unprecedented way.

1963: Assembly Hall at the University of Illinois – first concrete sports dome

The first sports arena with a concrete dome was built on the campus of the University of Illinois
at Champaign-Urbana in 1963. Known as Assembly Hall for decades, it is now called State Farm
Center and looks like a flying saucer that seats more than 16,000 in a perfect concrete circle.

1970s: Fiber reinforcement method to strengthen concrete

Fiber reinforcement, in which glass, carbon, steel, nylon, or other synthetic fibers are mixed into
wet concrete before pouring, was an innovation that made concrete stronger. Fiber reinforcement
can be used to strengthen buildings as well as outdoor features from driveways, slabs, and
sidewalks to swimming pools, patios, and decks.

1992: Tallest reinforced concrete building – Chicago

At 65 stories, the skyscraper at 311 South Wacker Drive in Chicago, known by its street address,
was the world’s tallest reinforced concrete building at the time it was built.

1998: Silica fume was used to develop high-strength concrete buildings

Silica fume, a pozzolanic additive, was used to create very high-strength concrete. This material
was used in the construction of Two Union Square and the Pacific First Center.
1998: Green, eco-friendly, concrete was invented

In the face of increasing concerns about the environment, Dr. WG of Denmark invented green
concrete in 1998. What makes it greener than conventional concrete are the aggregates. Green
concrete uses materials like blast furnace slag, recycled demolition waste aggregate, fresh local
aggregate, and recycled concrete materials, which give it both a lower rate of shrinkage as well
as better resistance to damage from fire and corrosion.

2006: Self-healing concrete was invented to heal cracks

In 2006, another major innovation in concrete came about: self-healing concrete. It uses a
bacterial stimulant that secretes limestone, giving the material the ability to heal cracks and
repair other minor damage. It’s also an environmentally friendly concrete option.

2022: 3D printing for residential construction

3D printing has come a long way since the “Wall Building Machine.” Building on the advances
of the early 20th century, modern 3D printing combines concrete with wood framing for
residential construction. These hybrid designs are both more affordable and produce minimal
waste.

COMPOSITION OF CONCRETE

• Paste (cement and water)

• Mineral Aggregate ( coarse and fine aggregate)

• The volume of paste, including air voids, is about 30% and the volume if aggregate is
about 70% of the volume of concrete mix

REQUIREMENTS OF CONCRETE

• It should be uniform

• Watertight

• Resistant to wear, weather, and other destructive agencies

• It should not shrink excessively on cooling or drying nor expand excessively on wetting

• It should have high resistance to fire, chemicals or abrasion

• It should have the required strength

FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH/CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCRETE

• Quality of aggregate and cement

• Quality of mixing water and cement

• Curing conditions

• Time of mixing and age

• Concrete’s strength is affected by environmental factors, especially temperature and

moisture. If it is allowed to dry prematurely, it can experience unequal tensile stresses
that in an imperfectly hardened state cannot be resisted. In the process known as curing,
the concrete is kept damp for some time after pouring to slow the shrinkage that occurs as
it hardens. Low temperatures also adversely affect its strength. To compensate for this, an
additive such as calcium chloride is mixed in with the cement. This accelerates the setting
process, which in turn generates heat sufficient to counteract moderately low
temperatures. Large concrete forms that cannot be adequately covered are not poured in
freezing temperatures.

ADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE

• Ability to be cast.

• Economical

• Durable

• Fire Resistant

• Energy Efficient

• On-site fabrication

DISADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE

• Low tensile strength

• Low ductility

• Volume instability
 • Low strength to weight ratio

TYPES OF CONCRETE

1. Normal Strength Concrete

• Normal strength concrete is made up of a combination of several fundamental ingredients

— aggregate, concrete and sand — in a 1:2:4 ratio. This mixture produces normal
strength concrete that can be used for many applications. It takes about 30 to 90 minutes
to set, but this is dependent on the weather conditions at the concrete site and the
cement’s properties.

2. Reinforced Concrete

• This form of concrete is widely used in industry and modern construction. Reinforced
concrete gets its strength through the help of wires, steel rods or cables that are placed in
the concrete before it sets. A more familiar name for these items is rebar. Lately, people
have used fibers to reinforce this concrete.

3. Plain or Ordinary Concrete

• This is another concrete that uses the common mix design of 1:2:4 with its components of
cement, sand and aggregates. You can employ it to make pavement or buildings where
there is not a high demand for tensile strength. It faces the same challenges as normal
strength concrete — it doesn’t stand up very well to vibrations or wind loading. Plain or
ordinary concrete is also used in dam construction. The durability rating of this kind of
concrete is very satisfactory.

4. Prestressed Concrete

• Prestressed concrete units are used for many large concrete projects. To create
prestressed concrete, you must use a special technique. Like reinforced concrete, it
includes bars or tendons. But these bars or tendons are stressed before the actual
application of the concrete.

5. Precast Concrete

• As with most classes of concrete, precast concrete must be made and cast according to
specific measurements. These concrete units are eventually transported to the application
site and assembled for use.
 • You frequently see these units transported to worksites as you drive on highways. Precast
concrete is used for:

· Concrete blocks

· Precast walls

· Staircase units

· Poles

• The advantage of using precast concrete is its speedy assembly. Since the units are
manufactured in a factory, they are of very high quality.

6. Lightweight Concrete

• Lightweight concrete is any kind of concrete that has a density of less than 1920kg/m3.
Lightweight concrete is created by using lightweight aggregates. Aggregates are
ingredients that add to the density of the style of concrete. These lightweight aggregates
are made up of various natural, artificial and processed materials, which include:

· Clays

· Expanded shales

· Scoria

· Pumice

· Perlite

· Vermiculite

• The most important property of lightweight concrete is that it has very low thermal
conductivity. Common uses for lightweight concrete include creating long-spanning
bridge decks and building blocks. It can also be used to protect steel structures.

7. High-Density Concrete

• High-density concrete has a very specific purpose. It is frequently used in the

construction of atomic power plants. The heavyweight aggregates used in the creation of
high-density concrete help the structure resist radiation.

8. Stamped Concrete

• Also known as imprinted or textured concrete, stamped concrete is designed to

realistically replicate the look and pattern of natural stones, tiles, brick and granites.
 Stamped concrete is often used to construct patios, pool decks, interior floors and
driveways.

• This style is achieved by using professional stamping pads to create an impression on the
surface of the concrete. To get a natural finish, you can also use various texture work and
coloring stains.

9. Air-Entrained Concrete

• Some types of concrete hold billions of microscopic air cells in every cubic foot. These
tiny air pockets relieve the internal pressure on the concrete. They provide tiny chambers
where water can expand when it freezes.

• The air is entrained in the concrete by adding several foaming agents during the mixing
process, including:

· Fatty acids

· Resins

· Alcohols

• Because this concrete is mixed at the site of application, the mixing and entraining
process requires careful engineering supervision. The entrained air adds up to about 3%
to 6% of the volume of the concrete. Almost all concrete used in a freezing environment
or where there are freeze-thaw cycles is air-entrained.

10. Ready-Mix Concrete

• Concrete prepared and bathed in a centrally located plant is known as ready-mix

concrete. This concrete is mixed as it is transported to the site in the familiar cement
trucks seen often on roads and highways. Once the trucks reach the worksite, the cement
can be used immediately because it does not need further treatment. Ready-mix concrete
is a specialty concrete that is mixed based on specifications developed with great
precision.

11. Self-Consolidated Concrete

• Self-consolidating concrete will compact on its own due to its weight when put in place.
This non-segregating, highly flowable concrete will fill the formwork and spread easily
into place to encapsulate the reinforcement without the need for vibration or mechanical
consolidation. This highly workable concrete is best used for applications and areas
where there is thick reinforcement.

12. Volumetric Concrete

 • Volumetric concrete is extremely useful when a builder requires two different kinds of
concrete mix at a single site. Since the concrete can be mixed and delivered as needed, it
allows one truck to produce two different mixes of concrete. It is very useful on large
sites, basement constructions and multi-projects where you need different types of
concrete.

13. Decorative Concrete

• Decorative concrete creates visually and aesthetically appealing concrete mixes.

Decorative concrete can go through several processes, such as:

· Coloring

· Molding

· Polishing

· Etching

· Applying decorative toppings

• It is ideal for any project in which you want to make an aesthetic statement. It’s also a
great way to add a bit of “personality” to dull surfaces or structures. For instance,
swimming pools and flooring can make great use of decorative concrete.

14. Polymer Concrete

• Polymer concrete aggregates, compared to those in other concrete types, are bound
together in a matrix with polymer instead of cement. This type of concrete is made of
limestone gravels, silica, quartz, granite pebbles and other high-compressive strength
materials. If these materials are not dry, clean and dust-free, it can have a negative impact
on the concrete’s binding ability.

15. Rapid-Set Concrete

• It’s ideal when you’re short on time to complete a project. It has faster set times and is
very resistant to low temperatures, so it can be used any time of the year. It’s especially
useful in winters when the cold weather does not allow you to use many other kinds of
concrete.

16. Smart Concrete

• As the name suggests, smart concrete is the concrete technology of the future. The
creation of this type of concrete makes it easier to monitor the condition of reinforced
concrete structures. Smart concrete contains short carbon fibers that are added with a
conventional concrete mixer. This process affects the concrete’s electrical resistance
 when under strain or stress. This kind of concrete can be used to detect possible problems
before the failure of the concrete.

17. Pervious Concrete

• This is one of the most common kinds of concrete used to build roads and pavements. It
is designed to deal with the problems of stormwater runoff and pools of water and
puddles on roadways or airport runways.

18. Vacuum Concrete

• In certain applications, such as deck slabs, parking lots and industrial floors, concrete will
have a higher water content than necessary when poured into the formwork. In these
cases, the excess water must be removed with a vacuum pump before the concrete begins
to set. Compared to a normal construction method, the vacuum technique can help make
the concrete platform or structure ready to use sooner.

19. Pumped Concrete

• If you’ve ever wondered what types of cement mixtures used in the flooring of a very tall
building are, the answer is probably pumped concrete. The secret to pumped concrete is
that it is very workable, so it can be conveyed easily via a pipe to an upper floor. This
pipe will be a flexible or rigid hose that discharges the concrete to the required area.

20. Limecrete

• These concrete uses lime instead of cement, along with lightweight aggregates like glass
fiber or sharp sand. It’s mainly used for the construction of floors, vaults and domes.
Limecrete has many environmental benefits because it is so easily cleaned and is
renewable. It can also be used with radiant floor heating.

21. Roll Compacted Concrete

• It’s a familiar sight on many American highways — a heavy roller compacting a layer of
concrete. Roll-compacted concrete is a strong, dense concrete used on heavily trafficked
highways with vehicles that carry large loads. This concrete emits fewer emissions during
the production process, which benefits the environment.

22. Glass Concrete

• Another, more modern form of concrete, glass concrete features the use of recycled glass.
This form of concrete is used when aesthetic appeal is an important element in the design
of the concrete. Commonly used in the large-format slabs found in flooring or on
decorative façades, this concrete can have shining or colored glass embedded during the
mixing process to give it a distinctive splash of color or sparkle.
23. Asphalt Concrete

• More commonly known as “asphalt” or “blacktop,” this is a form of concrete often used
for constructing sidewalks, roads, parking lots, airport runways and highways— almost
anywhere pavement is needed. Asphalt is a dark mineral composed of bitumens, which
are a form of hydrocarbons.

24. Shotcrete Concrete

• Shotcrete differs from other forms of concrete primarily in the way it is applied.
Shotcrete is shot through a nozzle onto a frame or formwork. Since this application
requires higher air pressure, the compaction process takes place at the same time as the
placing.

25. High-Strength Concrete

• High-strength concrete is any concrete mix that is greater than 40 megapascal (40MPa),
which is the tensile strength of concrete. High-strength concrete that meets this
determinant can handle much more stress and pressure compared to concrete at 20MPa or
30MPa.

• This type of concrete can withstand strenuous conditions before it shears, cracks or
breaks. The increased strength in this concrete is accomplished by reducing the water-
cement ratio to a low rate.

26. High-Performance Concrete

• Though all high-strength concrete can be labeled as high-performance, not all high-
performance concrete (HPC) will be in the high-strength category. HPC meets particular
efficiency standards, such as:

· Easy placement

· Heat of hydration

· Environmental standards

· Longevity and durability

· Life-term mechanical properties

· Strength gain in early age

· Toughness
· Permeability and density factors

FRESH CONCRETE

Concrete is referred to as fresh when the setting and hardening process has not yet started. Fresh
concrete can be deformed and poured which means it can be transported or pumped and used to
fill molds and formwork.

Fresh concrete has two fundamental properties:

1. Moldability

Which means it can assume any shape.

2. Workability

The characteristics of the structure and the concrete placement techniques determine the
composition of the concrete whose consistency is then adjusted on the basis of the Abrams cone
slump test.

Workability is essential for the concrete to completely fill the molds and formwork, whose shape
may be complex, and in order to correctly cover the reinforcement.

Workability is influenced by many parameters: the nature and proportion of the cement, the
shape of the aggregate particles, the proportion of water and the use of additives.

Factors Affecting Workability

• Influence of Mix Proportions

• Influence of Aggregate Properties

• Influence of Admixtures

• Effect of Time

Test of Workability for Fresh Concrete

• Slump Test

• The Competing Factor Test

• The Vee-Bee Consistency Test

 • The Flow Test

• Spread / Flow Table

• Kelly Ball

• Ouimet

• K- Slump

• Visual Assessment

3. Temperature

Concrete is not recommended to be placed at a temperature above 40°C without proper

precautions. Special problems are encountered in the preparation, placement, and curing of
concrete in hot weather. The First 24 to 72 hours after placing fresh concrete are of extreme
importance. In this period, hydration of concrete occurs, which is a chemical process in which
concrete gains its strength. If the temperature of concrete is not controlled and it goes beyond
maximum range during hydration, then stresses are produced, and cracks are formed in concrete.
Also, if the temperature falls below the minimum temperature, then concrete takes a large time to
set, and the hydration process slows down. It is necessary to understand here that concrete can be
done at any temperature unless the temperature is controlled.

4. Water Cement Ratio

It is the ratio of cement and water utilized in the preparation of concrete. The quantity of water
used at mixing concrete is very important. If the percentage of water used is less, then there will
not be a sufficient quantity of water to hydrate cement. It will result in weak and porous
concrete. Therefore, the usual tendency is to use too much water that gives a more workable mix,
but it doesn’t give sound concrete. Too much water results in the segregation of aggregates and
gives porous concrete of low strength and low density. A certain minimum proportion of water is
necessary to hydrate the cement completely. To create the concrete sufficiently workable to be
placed in position, some more water is needed. So long as the concrete is sufficiently workable,
for the way of placing it, its strength depends on the proportion of water to the cement in the
mix.

The water-cement ratio shouldn’t be allowed to exceed the specified limits for various types of
concrete and should usually be kept as low as the methods of placing will allow. Abrahams, as a
result of a large number of experiments, states that “with given materials and conditions of the
test, the ratio of the quantity of mixing water into the quantity of cement alone determines the
potency of concrete as long as the mix is of workable plasticity.“ This is known as water-cement
ratio law. According to this law, the strength of concrete won’t increase by simply increasing the
quantity of cement unless the water-cement ratio is reduced.
 5. Segregation

Segregation is usually caused by excessive vibration of cement. The different materials that
make up the concrete mix have different weights, so while the concrete is in a liquid state, there
is a tendency for heavier materials to settle to the bottom, and the lighter slurry to rise to the top.

Isolation means the separation of newly designed solid ingredients from each other in a non-
uniform mixture. More specifically, it implies the separation of coarse aggregates from the
mortar in which they are composed due to differences in the size, density, shape, and other
properties of the material. Due to the separation, the hive is made into concrete, and it basically
affects the strength of the concrete and its porosity.

During concrete work, isolation in concrete can occur on-site, and this affects the durability of
your structures. In fine concrete, all the ingredients are properly distributed and form a
homogeneous mixture. If a concrete sample exhibits a tendency to separate coarse aggregates
from the rest of the material, it indicates the separation in the concrete.

Harmful Effects Due to the Segregation of Concrete

• To comb the concrete honey.

• The high permeability of concrete.

• Low compressive strength.

 • Poor finishing of surfaces.

6. Bleeding

Bleeding in concrete is sometimes referred to as water gain. This is a special form of separation,
in which some water from the concrete flows to the surface of the concrete, with the lowest
specific gravity among all concrete components. Excessive bleeding is seen in thin members
such as roof slabs or road slabs, and when the concrete is placed in sunny weather.

Prevention of bleeding in concrete

• Bleeding can be reduced with appropriate proportions and uniform and complete mixing.

• Bleeding is reduced by the use of finely divided pozzolanic materials, making a long way
to cross the water.

• The air-penetrating agent is very effective for reducing blood.

• Bleeding can be reduced by the use of fine cement or cement with low alkali content.

7. Plastic Shrinkage

If water is removed from the concrete before it sets, the volume of the concrete is reduced by the
amount of water removed. This volume reduction is known as plastic shrinkage. This is the
shrinkage that the fresh concrete undergoes until it sets completely. Water may be removed from
the plastic concrete by evaporation or by being absorbed by dry surfaces such as soil or old
concrete or by the dry wooden formwork.

8. Setting Time

When concrete changes its state from fresh to hardened then this process is called setting. And
the time required to complete this process is known as Setting Time of Concrete. Setting time
depends on the type of cement and it can be increased or decreased by adding admixture in
concrete.

9. Hydration

When cement comes in contact with water, a chemical reaction begins. This reaction is known as
hydration. If the mixing water dries out too rapidly before the cement has fully hydrated, the
curing process will stop, and the concrete will not harden to its intended strength. Hydration
occurs more rapidly at higher air temperatures. Hydration itself also generates heat. This heat of
hydration can be helpful during cold-weather construction but harmful during hot-weather
construction.

SLUMP TEST OF HYDRAULIC CEMENT CONCRETE

 This test method is intended to provide the user with a procedure to determine slump of
plastic hydraulic-cement concrete. This was originally developed to provide a technique to
monitor the consistency of unhardened concrete. Under laboratory conditions, with strict control
of all concrete materials, the slump is generally found to increase proportionally with the water
content of a given concrete mixture, and thus to be inversely related to concrete strength. Under
field conditions, however, such a strength relationship is not clearly and consistently shown.
Care should therefore be taken in relating slump results obtained under field conditions to
strength.

Warning—Fresh hydraulic cementitious mixtures are caustic and may cause chemical burns to
skin and tissue upon prolonged exposure.

Apparatus used in Slump Test:

SLUMP CONE/MOLD. The test specimen shall be formed in a mold made of metal not readily
attacked by the cement paste. The metal shall not be thinner than 0.060 in. [1.5 mm] and if
formed by the spinning process, there shall be no point on the mold at which the thickness is less
than 0.045 in. [1.15 mm]. The mold shall be in the form of the lateral surface of the frustum of a
cone with the base 8 in. [200 mm] in diameter, the top 4 in. [100 mm] in diameter, and the height
12 in. [300 mm]. Individual diameters and heights shall be within 61⁄8 in. [3 mm] of the
prescribed dimensions. The base and the top shall be open and parallel to each other and at right
angles to the axis of the cone. The mold shall be provided with foot pieces and handles similar to
those shown in the figure. The mold shall be constructed without a seam. The interior of the
mold shall be relatively smooth and free from projections. The mold shall be free from dents,
deformation, or adhered mortar. A mold which clamps to a nonabsorbent base plate is acceptable
instead of the one illustrated, provided the clamping arrangement is such that it can be fully
released without movement of the mold and the base is large enough to contain all of the
slumped concrete in an acceptable test.
Tamping Rod—A round, straight steel rod 5⁄8 in. [16 mm] in diameter and approximately 24 in.
[600 mm] in length, having the tamping end or both ends rounded to a hemispherical tip, the
diameter of which is 5⁄8 in. [16 mm].

The Sample

The sample of concrete from which test specimens are made shall be representative of the
entire batch. It shall be obtained in accordance with Practice C 172 or the Standard Practice for
sampling freshly made concrete

The Procedure

1. Dampen the mold and place it on a flat, moist, nonabsorbent (rigid) surface. It shall be held
firmly in place during filling by the operator standing on the two foot pieces. From the sample of
concrete obtained, immediately fill the mold in three layers, each approximately one third the
volume of the mold.

2. Rod each layer with 25 strokes of the tamping rod. Uniformly distribute the strokes over the
cross section of each layer. For the bottom layer, this will necessitate inclining the rod slightly
and making approximately half of the strokes near the perimeter, and then progressing with
vertical strokes spirally toward the center. Rod the bottom layer throughout its depth. Rod the
second layer and the top layer each throughout its depth, so that the strokes just penetrate into the
underlying layer.

3. In filling and rodding the top layer, heap the concrete above the mold before rodding is
started. If the rodding operation results in subsidence of the concrete below the top edge of the
mold, add additional concrete to keep an excess of concrete above the top of the mold at all
times. After the top layer has been rodded, strike off the surface of the concrete by means of a
screeding and rolling motion of the tamping rod. Continue to hold the mold down firmly and
remove concrete from the area surrounding the base of the mold to preclude interference with the
movement of slumping concrete. Remove the mold immediately from the concrete by raising it
carefully in a vertical direction. Raise the mold a distance of 12 in. [300 mm] in 5 6 2 s by a
steady upward lift with no lateral or torsional motion. Complete the entire test from the start of
the filling through removal of the mold without interruption and complete it within an elapsed
time of 21⁄2 min.

4. Immediately measure the slump by determining the vertical difference between the top of the
mold and the displaced original center of the top surface of the specimen. If two consecutive
tests on a sample of concrete show a falling away or shearing off of a portion of the concrete
from the mass of the specimen, the concrete probably lacks necessary plasticity and cohesiveness
for the slump test to be applicable. Disregard the test and make a new test on another portion of
the sample.

Note: The report of the slump test should be in terms of inches [millimeters] to the nearest 1⁄4 in.
[5 mm] of subsidence of the specimen during the test.

FLOW TABLE TEST FOR FRESH CONCRETE

• Concrete's workability, a complicated attribute, affects the material's strength, quality,

and appearance and dictates how readily freshly formed concrete can be mixed, placed,
compacted, and finished with little to no homogeneity loss.

• The flow test is used to evaluate how easily concrete can be worked. In this test, the
fluidity or flowing property of the concrete is used to determine how workable it is. An
easy laboratory test is the flow test. The standard mass of concrete is jolted during this
test, and the flow of concrete is used to gauge the results. Concrete's flow is a good
indicator of its usability.

• The flow test is used to evaluate how well high or very high workable concrete can be
worked before it slumps. It provides insight into the consistency and cohesion of the
concrete's quality. This workability test is the best for concrete with a nominal maximum
size of aggregate less than 38 mm since it is straightforward to conduct.

Apparatus for flow table test

• The flow table test mold is shaped like a cone frustum. The mold has a 25 cm base
diameter and a 17 cm top diameter. It stands 12 cm tall. On the sides of the molds, there
is a handle as well.
RELEVANT IS CODE

• IS 1199 – 1959

• ASTM C 124 – 39 (Re-approved 1966)

• BS 1881 :105: 1984

The procedure describe is as per IS 1199 -1959

APPARATUS USED

• Flow table

• Mould

• Scale

• Hand scoop

• Trowel

• Tamping rod

Procedure of flow table test:

1. Prepare concrete as per mix design and place the flow table on a horizontal surface.

2. Clean the dust or other gritty material on the Flow table and Sprinkle a hand of water on
it.

3. Now place the metal cone at the middle portion of the flow table and stand on it.
 4. Pour the freshly mixed concrete in the mold comprising two layers; each layer should be
tamped with a tamping rod for 25 times. After tamping the last layer, the overflowed
concrete on the cone is struck off using a trowel.

5. Slowly, lift the mold vertically up & let concrete stand on its own without any support.

6. The flow table is raised at the height of 12.5mm and dropped. The same is repeated 15
times in 15 secs.

7. Measure the spread of concrete in Diameter using centimeter scale horizontally and
vertically. The arithmetic mean of the two diameters shall be the measurement of flow in
millimeters.

Calculation:

• The term "flow of concrete" refers to the ratio of the average spreading concrete diameter
to the mold's base diameter.

• Flow% = (Spread diameter in cm – 25) / 25 * 100

• The value of the flow test varies from 0 to 150%.

Formula:

HARDENED CONCRETE

-is a type of concrete that is strong and have the capacity to withstand the structural as
well as service loads that are applied to it.It is also the strongest and most durable
construction material and must be durable enough for the environmental risk it is
designed for.
-The water causes the hardening of concrete through a process called hydration.
Hydration is a chemical reaction in which the major compounds in cement form chemical
bonds with water molecules and become hydrates or hydration products.
 -Flexible tensile tests are used to estimate the load at which concrete members can crack,
while compressive strength is taken as the maximum compression load that it can take
per unit area.\
-The strength of the hardened concrete varies between 25 to 40 MPa.

Factors Affecting the Strength of the Concrete

1. Strength

-is defined as the maximum stress it can withstand or the maximum it can yield. Strength is
considered one of the most important and valuable properties of concrete as it gives the overall
idea of the quality of the concrete and the materials used in the manufacturing of the concrete.

a. Type of Cement

-Cement is a binding material that is used to bind sand and aggregates with each
other to form hardened concrete. The finer the size of the particles of the cement
more will be the ultimate compressive strength.

b. Water Cement Ratio

-The compressive strength of the concrete decreases with an increase in the water-
cement ratio. The optimum water content should be used to ensure the complete
hydration of the cement.

c. Type of Aggregate

-Aggregates give volume to the concrete. The higher the compressive strength of
the admixture used; the better concrete strength will be produced.

d. Type of Admixture Used

-Admixtures are added to the concrete to achieve desired property. Admixtures in

the concrete help to improve compressive strength.

e. Weather Conditions

-The concrete which is cast in the hot climate and the concrete which is cast in the
cold climate have different values of compressive strength.

f. Curing Conditions

-Proper and adequate curing should be done to achieve concrete’s maximum

compressive strength.
 g. Method of Preparation

-Skilled and knowledgeable workers should work during the manufacturing of

concrete as the methods in the preparation of the concrete play a vital role in the
compressive strength of the concrete.

2. Deformation under load

-Dimensional stability is the behavior of concrete under various forces, normal and continuous
loading.

a. Under normal loading:

-Applying a load on concrete is to produce an elastic deformation. As the load

increases, the deformation increases.

b. Under continuous loading:

-Continuous application of tension causes a slow deformation called creep, the

increase of deformation is not proportional, as the deformation decreases as time
passes.

3. Durability of the Concrete

-is defined as the capacity of the concrete to bear all the forces of deterioration. It is also the
ability of the concrete to withstand harmful environmental effects over a long period of time.
Frost action, chemical reaction, and alkali-aggregate reaction are various causes that affect the
durability of hardened concrete.

4. Low-Permeability

-Impermeability is one of the properties of hardened concrete which resists the flow of water
through its pore. Permeability directly affects the durability of the concrete so concrete must be
less permeable. Complete compaction and proper curing are necessary to produce low-permeable
concrete. Having low permeable concrete is important to enhance its resistance against frost
action, and chemical attacks, and protect embedded steel against corrosion.

5. Shrinkage

-Shrinkage is cause by the disposal of solids and the loss of water free from plastic concrete, by
the chemical combination of cement with water, and by the drying of concrete.

a. Plastic Shrinkage
 -commonly known as initial shrinkage and the excessive shrinkage in the concrete
as its initial stage may affect the strength of the concrete. The rate of plastic
shrinkage mainly depends upon the rate of evaporation of water and the
temperature during the casting of the concrete. The plastic shrinkage of the
concrete is higher if the cement content in the concrete is more.

b. Thermal Shrinkage

-a type of shrinkage which occurs due to falling in the temperature of the concrete
from the time it is placed up to it sets completely.

c. Drying Shrinkage

-a type of shrinkage which occurs after the concrete has completely set and
hardens. The main cause of this is the loss of water content of the evaporation
from the freshly hardened concrete that is exposed to the environment.

MAKING AND CURING CONCRETE TEST SPECIMEN

(ASTM C-31)

Equipment and Tools:

• 6x12 cylinder molds

• 4x8 cylinder molds
• Beam molds
• Large tamping Rod
• Small tamping rod
• Internal vibrator
• Mallet
• Finishing tools
• Sample container
• Scoop
• Slump apparatus
• Air content apparatus
• Temperature measuring device

PROCEDURE:

Preparation:
· Mix concrete in a suitable mixer or by hand in batches of such size as to leave about 10 %
excess after molding the test specimens.

· Select the portions of the batch of mixed concrete to be used in tests for molding specimens
so as to be representative of the actual proportions and condition of the concrete. When the
concrete is not being remixed or sampled cover it to prevent evaporation.

· Measure the slump, air content, yield, and temperature of each batch of concrete.

Making Specimen:

· Molding
- The place of molding should be; flat, rigid, and free from vibration and
disturbance.
- Avoid jarring, striking, tilting, or scarring the surface of the specimens when
moving the specimens to the storage place.

· Placing
- Fill molds in the required number of layers using a scoop, blunted trowel, or
shovel, attempting to slightly overfill the mold on the final layer.
- Remix the concrete in the mixing pan with a shovel or trowel to prevent
segregation during the molding of specimens.
- Add or remove concrete prior to completion of consolidation to avoid a
deficiency or excess of concrete.

· Consolidations

Consolidation selection:
1. Rodding or Vibration – if the slump of the concrete is greater than or equal to 1 in. [25
mm].
2. Vibration – if the slump of the concrete is less than 1 in. Also, do not use internal vibration
for cylinders with a diameter less than 4 in. [100 mm], and for beams or prisms with breath
or depth less than 4 in.
a. Rodding
• Place the concrete in the mold, in the required number of layers.
• Rod each layer with the rounded end of the rod.
• Each subsequent layer shall penetrate the previous layer about 1”
6x12 cylinder 3 layers

4x8 cylinder 2 layers

Beams greater than 8” 3 layers

CYLINDER

Diameter of Cylinder, in. [mm] Number of Roddings/Layer

2 [50] to <6 [150] 25

6 [150] 25

8 [200] 50

10 [250] 70

Beams and Prisms

Top Surface Area of Specimen, {in.}^2 [{cm}^2] Number of Roddings/Layer

25 [160] or less 25

26 to 49 [165 to 310] one for each 1 in.2 [7 ] of surface

50 [320] or more one for each 2 in.2 [14 ] of surface

 • After each layer is rodded, tap the outsides of the mold lightly 10 to 1 times with the
mallet or lightly with the open hand (for single-use light-gauge molds) to close any holes
left by rodding and to release any large air bubbles that may have been trapped.
• Strike off the surface of the molds with a tamping rod, trowel, or other suitable tool and
begin initial curing.

a. Vibration
• Fill the mold and insert the vibrator at the required number of different points for each
layer. When placing the final layer, avoid overfilling by more than 1⁄4 in. [6 mm].
• Maintain a uniform duration of vibration for the particular kind of concrete, vibrator, and
specimen mold involved. The duration of vibration required will depend upon the
workability of the concrete and the effectiveness of the vibrator.
• Over-vibration may result in segregation as well as the loss of appreciable quantities of
intentionally entrained air.

6x12 cylinder 2 layers and vibrator inserted twice

4x8 cylinder 2 layers and vibrator inserted once

Beams 6”-8” 1 layer and vibrator inserted in intervals

Beams >8” 2 layers and vibrator inserted alternately using two lines

• Remove the vibrator slowly, so that no large air pockets are left in the material.
• When the finish is applied after vibration, add only enough concrete with a trowel to
overfill the mold about 1⁄8 in. [3 mm], work it into the surface and then strike it off.

· Finishing
- After consolidation, strike off extra concrete with the least manipulation and
float or trowel it in accordance with the method concerned.
- Finish the surface with a wood or magnesium float if no finish is specified.
- No depressions or projections larger than 1⁄8 in. [3mm] be tolerated.

· Curing
• Standard Curing

The resulting test data can be used for the following purposes:
· Strength Specification (ASTM C-94)
 · Checking the adequacy of mixture proportions for strength
· Quality Control

• Field Curing

The resulting test data can be used for the following purposes:
· Determining the capability of the structure to be put into service
· Comparison with test results of standard cured specimens or with test results
from various in-place test methods
· Adequacy of curing and protection of concrete in the structure
· Form or shoring removal time requirements.

• Standard Curing

• Storage
- The supporting surface on which specimens are stored shall be level to
within 20 mm/m [1⁄4 in./ft].
- Moved the specimen to the initial curing location no later than 15 min after
molding operations have been completed.
- Refinish the surface if the top surface of the specimen is disturbed during
movement.

• Initial Curing
- Cover the specimens immediately after finishing with a nonabsorptive,
nonreactive plate or a sheet of tough, durable impervious plastic, to prevent the
evaporation of water from unhardened concrete.
- When moving cylindrical specimens formed using single-use molds use
your hand, a trowel, or another object to support the bottom of the mold.
- Specimens shall be moist cured at a controlled temperature from the time of
molding until the moment of the test.

Specified Strength of Concrete Mixture Initial Curing Temperature

> 40 MPa [6000 psi] 16 - 27°C [60 - 80°F]

40 MPa [6000 psi] or greater 20 - 26°C [68 -78°F].

 - Store standard-cured specimens for a period of up to 48 h after molding to
maintain the specified temperature and moisture conditions.

• Final Curing
- For all specimens (cylinders or beams), upon completion of initial curing
and within 30 min after removing the molds, cure specimens with free water
maintained on their surfaces at all times at a temperature of 23.0 2.0°C
[73.5 3.5°F] using water storage tanks or moist rooms (ASTM c511)
- For cylinders, during the final 3 hours before testing the temperature
requirement may be waived, but free moisture must be maintained on specimen
surfaces at all times until tested.
- For final beams, the curing must include immersion in water saturated with
calcium hydroxide at 23.0 2.0°C [73.5 3.5°F] at least 20 h prior to testing.

• Field Curing

• Cylinder
- Store cylinders in or on the structure as close as possible to location where
the concrete represented was placed.
- Protect all surfaces of the cylinders and provide them with the same
temperature and moisture environment as the structural work.
- Test the specimens in the moisture condition resulting from the specified
curing treatment.
- Specimens shall be removed from the molds at the time of removal of
formwork.

• Beams
- Cure beams in the same manner as the concrete in the structure
- After 48 hours of molding, take the molded specimens to the storage
location and remove them from the molds.
- Store specimens representing pavements of slabs on a grade by placing
them on the ground as molded, with their top surfaces up.
- Store specimens of structure-representing concrete as close as possible to
the location in the structure that they represent and provide them with the same
moisture and temperature protection as the structure.
- For the final curing, store the specimen e in water saturated with calcium
hydroxide at 23.0 2.0°C [73.5 3.5°F] for 24 4 h immediately before the time of
testing to ensure uniform moisture condition from specimen to specimen.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

 Concrete mixtures can be designed to provide a wide range of mechanical and durability
properties to meet the design requirements of a structure. The compressive strength of concrete is
the most common performance attribute used by the engineer when designing structures.
Compressive strength is measured by breaking cylindrical concrete specimens in a compression-
testing machine.
Compressive strength is calculated from the failure load divided by the cross-sectional
area resisting the load and reported in units of pound-force per square inch (psi) or
megapascals (MPa). Concrete compressive strength can vary from 2500 psi (17 MPa) for
residential concrete to 4000 psi (28 MPa) and higher in commercial structures. Some
applications use higher strengths, greater than 10,000 psi (70 MPa).

Importance of Determining Concrete Strength

• Compressive strength results are used to ensure that the concrete mixture as delivered
meets the requirements of the specified strength in the job specification.
• Strength test results from cast cylinders may be used for quality control, acceptance of
concrete, for estimating the strength in a structure, or for evaluating the adequacy
of curing and protection afforded to the structure.
• Standard-cured cylinders are tested for acceptance and quality control.
• Field-cured cylinders are tested for estimating the in-place concrete strength.
• Procedures for standard-curing and field-curing are described in ASTM C31.
Cylindrical specimens are tested in accordance with ASTM C39. Standard sizes of test
specimens are 4×8 in. (100×200 mm) or 6×12 in. (150×300 mm) concrete cylinders. The
smaller specimens tend to be easier to make and handle in the field and the laboratory.
Compressive Strength Criteria

To comply with the strength requirements of a specification both the following

acceptance criteria apply:
• The average of 3 consecutive tests should equal or exceed the specified strength.
• No single strength test should fall below the specified strength by more than 500 psi (3.5
MPa); or by more than 0.10 of the specified strength when the specified strength is more
than 5000 psi (35 MPa).
Strength Test Result
• The average of at least two strengths specimens made from the same concrete
sample and tested at the same age. In most cases strength requirements for concrete are
at an age of 28 days.
• Design engineers use the specified strength to design concrete members. The specified
strength is stated in project specifications. The concrete mixture is designed to produce an
average strength, higher than the specified strength so that the possibility of strength tests
failing the acceptance criteria is very low. Historical strength test records from a similar
concrete are used to establish the target average strength of concrete mixtures.
• The same strength acceptance criteria are applicable for either cylinder size (refer to
compressive strength criteria).
• The probability of not complying with these acceptance criteria is about 1% and that for
an individual strength test to be less than the specified strength is about 10%.
• When strength test results indicate that the concrete delivered fails to comply with the
acceptance criteria, it is possible that the failure may be in the testing, and not the
concrete. This is especially true if the fabrication, handling, curing and testing of the
cylinders are not conducted in accordance with standard procedures.

Types of Concrete Fracture

ASTM C39
 ASTM C39 determines the compressive strength of cylindrical concrete specimens such
as molded cylinders and drilled cores. It is limited to concrete having a unit weight in excess of
50 lb/ft3 (800 kg/m3).
A compressive axial load is applied to molded cylinders or cores until failure occurs. The
compressive strength of the specimen is calculated by dividing the maximum load achieved
during the test by the cross-sectional area of the specimen. The results of this test method are
used as a basis for quality control of concrete.
A testing machine, capable of providing the load rates as prescribed in the standard
should be equipped with two steel bearing blocks, one of which is a spherically seated block that
will bear on the upper surface of the specimen, and the other a solid block on which the
specimen will be placed on. Before conducting ASTM C39, it is important to read the entire
specification in the relevant ASTM publication.

Testing Procedure:
1. Place the specimen on the lower bearing block so the axis of the specimen is
aligned with the center of thrust of the spherically seated bearing block.
2. Make sure the load indicator is set to zero prior to starting the test.
3. Apply a compressive load of 35 ± 7 psi/s (0.25 ± 0.05 MPa/s) continuously and
without shock until failure or until the operator is certain that the ultimate
capacity has been achieved.
4. Record the maximum load carried by the specimen during the test and note the
type of fracture pattern.

FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

What is Flexural Strength of Concrete?

 • The flexural strength of concrete is one measure of the tensile strength of unreinforced
concrete. It refers to the ability of the concrete beam or slab that is being tested to resist
bending.
• It is measured in Modulus of Rupture (MR), a measurement that is used to inform the
design of concrete products. As with compressive strength, the flexural strength of
concrete is another crucial property of concrete that must be tested thoroughly before it is
used in construction projects. Due to its tendency to crack, the flexural strength of
concrete is usually a lot lower than its compressive strength (between 10-20% of the
compressive strength) and this is what engineers can expect to see from the results of the
test.
• Flexural strength is one measure of the tensile strength of concrete. It is a measure of an
unreinforced concrete beam or slab to resist failure in bending. It is measured by loading
6 x 6-inch (150 x 150-mm) concrete beams with a span length at least three times the
depth. The flexural strength is expressed as Modulus of Rupture (MR) in psi (MPa) and is
determined by standard test methods ASTM C 78 (third-point loading) or ASTM C 293
(center-point loading).
• Flexural MR is about 10 to 20 percent of compressive strength depending on the type,
size and volume of coarse aggregate used. However, the best correlation for specific
materials is obtained by laboratory tests for given materials and mix design. The MR
determined by third-point loading is lower than the MR determined by center-point
loading, sometimes by as much as 15%

Why test Flexural Strength of Concrete?

• Designers of pavements use a theory based on flexural strength. Therefore, laboratory

mix design based on flexural strength tests may be required, or a cementitious material
content may be selected from experience to obtain the needed design MR. Some also use
MR for field control and acceptance of pavements. Very few use flexural testing for
structural concrete. Agencies not using flexural strength for field control generally find
the use of compressive strength convenient and reliable to judge the quality of the
concrete as delivered.

SET UP
Under strict laboratory conditions, the flexural strength of concrete is tested by applying
an external load to the sample until it fails i.e is unable to resist bending.
Whilst compressive strength can be measured directly, flexural strength must be
measured indirectly. This is because an apparatus has not yet been developed which allows the
tensile force to be evenly distributed to the sample. As a result, it is measured using either So the
‘one point loading’ or ‘two-point loading’ test.

TESTING
 Now, this is the point at which the Modulus of Rupture (MR) measurement which we
mentioned earlier comes in. MR measures the extreme fibre stresses which the sample
experiences when placed under a load during the test. As the tensile stress exceeds the flexural
strength of the sample, cracks will appear as the sample has reached the maximum point of
bending.

CALCULATIONS

Observations from the test are then used in a formula to calculate the flexural strength of
the concrete which looks something like this:
fb = Pl/bd2 (when a > 13.3 cm)
fb = 3Pa/bd2 (when a < 13.3 cm)

Where;
a = the distance between the line of fracture and the nearest support, measured on the centre line
of the tensile side of the specimen (cm)
b = width of specimen (cm)
d = failure point depth (cm)
l = supported length (cm)
P = Maximum Load taken by the specimen (kg)

DIFFICULTIES THAT MAY ARISE

Flexural tests are extremely sensitive to testing variations which is why the flexural
strength of concrete can be a difficult property to assess accurately. All specimens need to be
prepared, handled and cured to an exact standard before testing and this can be hard to manage
accurately which can lead to inaccurate results if the test is not regulated correctly.
IMPROVING FLEXURAL STRENGTH
The flexural strength of concrete can be improved by a number of methods, for example
by adding pozzolanic additives to the mix. Another option is to reduce the porosity and water:
cement ratio of the mix. Concrete that has been prestressed will also have a higher overall tensile
strength than other concrete products.

TENSILE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

• One extremely significant factor taken into account throughout the design is the
tensile strength of the concrete. Given that it accounts for 10% of the compressive
strength of concrete, it can have a major impact on the other strengths of the structural
element inflexion.

What Is the Tensile Strength of Concrete?

• The tensile strength of concrete refers to its capacity to bear a pull force (tensile stress)
without cracking. Force per Cross-Sectional Area (N/Sq.mm. or Mpa), a unit of force, is
used to measure the tensile strength of concrete.
• As is well known, concrete performs well in compression but poorly in tension. Concrete
reinforcement has been added to the mix to balance this situation and stop cracks from
forming.
•

Why is Concrete Weak in Tension?

• Steel is a single, solid substance that is strong in both tension and compression, whereas
concrete is not. Cementing ingredients, water, and aggregate are combined to create it.
(and sometimes admixtures).
• As the concrete is being cast, the cement paste creates a distinct microstructure around
the aggregate particles and creates a gradient in the water-to-cement ratio. The Interface
Transit Zone is what this area is known as.
Interfacial Transition Zone
The "interface transition zone" is the structure's weakest link because when a compressive force
or stress is applied there, the aggregate transfers the load from one place to another. As a result,
concrete in compression does not need a lot of strength to withstand compressive pressures.

Since the strength of this interface zone is weaker than the aggregates, the failure starts at much
lower stresses in the case of tensile stresses developed in concrete because the aggregates are
trying to pull apart from each other, so this interfacial transition zone has to bear tensile stresses
to hold the whole system together.

Factors Affecting Tensile Strength Concrete

• Quality of Raw Materials – Cement, Sand & Aggregate.
• Water Cement ratio
• Coarse to fine aggregate ratio
• Aggregate cement ratio
• Age of Concrete
• Compaction of concrete
• Temperature
• Relative humidity
• Curing

Tensile Strength of Concrete Test

 • When creating prestressed concrete structures, roadways, and runways, the tensile
strength of concrete is a crucial attribute. This test must adhere to the IS Code 5816.
• “The tensile strength of concrete is generally in the range of 10% to 12% of its
compressive strength.”
• The concrete cube was used to measure the concrete's compressive strength, but a
cylindrical specimen is required to measure the concrete's tensile strength.

Tensile Strength of Concrete Test Methods

We can employ the following test procedures to determine the tensile strength of concrete:
1. Uniaxial Tensile Test: In this direct tension test, a concrete specimen is pulled apart while
being held at the ends, causing uniaxial tensile stress. The uniaxial tensile test is one of
the hardest and most intricate tests to perform on concrete, yet it reveals the material's
actual tensile strength.
2. Split Cylinder Test: A horizontal concrete cylinder is loaded along its diameter in this test
by being positioned between loading surfaces. The cylinder experiences splits in tension
along its diameter as a result of this loading, which causes lateral tensile stress. The split
cylinder test process is described in ASTM C 496.
3. Flexure Test: In this test, a concrete beam is forced to break while being loaded from four
different directions. Under pure bending, the specimen fractures as a result of tensile
forces placed on the bottom fibers. This provides the concrete's concrete modulus of
rupture. It is carried out in accordance with ASTM C78. Another test for the flexure test
is available that uses center point loading in accordance with ASTM C 293. Flexural
strength, which will be slightly higher than the 4-point load test, is also provided by this
test.

Tensile Strength of Concrete Test

• The tensile strength of concrete is measured by the split cylinder test of the concrete
method and is one of the major properties of concrete, especially in the case of making
roads and runways.
• The tensile strength of concrete generally varies from 10% to 12% of its compressive
strength.
• For determination of the compressive strength of a concrete cube, samples are used and
for testing tensile strength generally, cylindrical samples are cast.

Specification of Tensile Strength Test

• Specimen: The cylindrical concrete specimen has a diameter of 150 mm and a length of
300 mm.
 • Range of Load: The loading machine can apply a constant load range of 1.2 MPa/min to
2.4 MPa/min. ( Generally, the test is conducted on the universal testing machine.
• Age of Test: The test should be conducted at the age of 7 days and 28 days.
• Number of Specimens: For better results comparison at least 3 samples should be tested.

Apparatus

1. Testing Machine (1.2 Mpa/min to 2.4 Mpa)

2. Tamping Rod (Dia. – 16mm und Länge – 600mm)
3. Concrete Mould ( Made of Steel)
4. Trowel

Sample Preparation

• Take a sample from a good-quality mix of concrete.

• Clean the cylindrical mold and ensure the mold is free from dust and rust.
• Fill the mold with concrete in three equal layers with proper compaction with the help of
a tamping rod.
• Keep the top surface of the concrete smooth with the trowel.

Curing

• Mold with concrete samples should be covered with wet gunny bags or kept in
undisturbed water for 24 hours at a temperature of 27 ° Celsius ± 2.
• At the end of 24 hours take out the sample and remove the concrete samples from the
mold and it should be immersed in the water for 7 or 28 days based on the test.
• Take out a sample from the water after 24 hours prior to the test and it should be in a dry
condition.

How to Find the Tensil Strength of Concrete?

• There is the empirical method proposed by different researchers to find the tensile
strength and the values to be considered for the design.
• In this article, we are concentrating on the values given in the different standards.

▪ BS 8110 Part 01 1997

•Code specifies the tensile strength criteria for post-tension ad pretension
members.
▪ Eurocode 2
• The table below indicates the tensile strength of concrete for each grade of
concrete and an equation has been given to calculate it depending on its
 compressive strength.

Here, fck denotes the cylinder strength, fck denotes the cube strength and fctm denotes the
tensile strength of concrete.

Tensile Strength Test Procedure

• The procedure for split tensile strength of concrete as per is 456 is given below,

1. The bearing surfaces of the machine and the loading strip are free from dust.
2. The specimen should be weighed in Newton prior to the test.
3. Now, place the specimen centrally between the loading strips and ensure the
upper platen is parallel to the bottom platen.
4. Then apply the load gradually until the specimen break and note down the Value.
5. The same method has been repeated for other samples
 Tensile Strength of Concrete Formula

• The formula for the tensile strength of concrete is given below,

• Fct – Tensile Strength of Concrete

• P – Maximum load in N/Sqm
• L – Length of the Specimen
• D – Diameter of the specimen

REBOUND NUMBER OF HARDENED

The Rebound Hammer has been around since the late 1940’s and today is a commonly
used method for estimating the compressive strength of in-place concrete. Developed in 1948 by
a Swiss engineer named Ernst Schmidt, the device measures the hardness of concrete surfaces
using the rebound principle. The device is often referred to as a Swiss Hammer. The Swiss
Hammer, at times, is not used properly. This usually happens when someone attempts to solely
use the rebound values obtained and the correlation chart provided by the equipment producer to
determine the compressive strength of the concrete. The ASTM standard test method has been
revised several times in recent years and the current revision of the document is ASTM C805-13,
Standard Test Method for Rebound Number of Hardened Concrete.
How does it work?
ASTM C805, “Standard Test Method for Rebound Number of Hardened Concrete”,
summarizes the procedure as “A steel hammer impacts, with a predetermined amount of energy,
a steel plunger in contact with a surface of concrete, and the distance that the hammer rebounds
is measured.”
The device consists of a plunger rod and an internal spring loaded steel hammer and a
latching mechanism. When the extended plunger rod is pushed against a hard surface, the spring
connecting the hammer is stretched and when pushed to an internal limit, the latch is released
causing the energy stored in the stretched spring to propel the hammer against the plunger tip.
The hammer strikes the shoulder of the plunger rod and rebounds a certain distance. There is a
slide indicator on the outside of the unit that records the distance traveled during the rebound.
This indication is known as the rebound number. By pressing the button on the side of the unit,
the plunger is then locked in the retracted position and the rebound number (R-number) can be
read from the graduated scale. A higher R-number indicates a greater hardness of the concrete
surface.
The tests can be performed in horizontal, vertically upward, vertically downward or any
intermediate angled positions in relation to the surface (Figs 1 and 2). The devices are furnished
with correlation curves by the manufacturer. ASTM C805 now states that these references to the
relationship between the rebound number and compressive strength provided by the
manufacturer “shall be used only to provide indications of relative concrete strength at different
locations in a structure.” To obtain greater accuracy of test results, it is recommended that the
user develop a correlation for the device on each concrete mixture design to be tested and at the
intended test angle.
What is the significance and use of this test?
ASTM C805 states that this method is applicable for the following uses:
• To assess the in-place uniformity of concrete
• To delineate regions in a structure of poor quality or deteriorated concrete
• To estimate in-place strength if a correlation is developed

This standard also states that to use the device to estimate in-place strength, a relationship
between strength and rebound number needs to be established for the specific concrete mixture
design(s) of interest. Different rebound hammers of the same design and manufacture may give
rebound numbers differing from 1 to 3 units; therefore, when developing the strength to rebound
number relationship, the operator should use the same device in all of the tests.

ASTM C805 states that the relationship must be established by correlating the rebound
numbers obtained for a given area of concrete to the results of cores obtained from the
corresponding locations. The reason stated for the required use of cores is that “The use of
molded test specimens to develop a correlation may not provide a reliable relationship because
the surface texture and depth of carbonation of molded specimens are not usually representative
of the in-place concrete.

ASTM C805 requires a minimum of two cores obtained from at least six locations with
different rebound numbers. The test locations should be selected so that a wide range of rebound
numbers is obtained. The ASTM standard also states that the locations where it is intended to
estimate strength based on the correlation data shall have a similar surface texture and have been
exposed to similar conditions as the locations used to develop the correlation data. ASTM C805
also provides a recommendation to reference ACI 228.1R for additional information on the
proper development of correlation data.

What factors affect the test results?

Surface Smoothness – The surface texture significantly affects the R-number obtained. Tests
performed on a rough-textured finish will typically result in crushing of the surface paste,
resulting in a lower number. Alternately, tests performed on the same concrete that has a hard,
smooth texture will typically result in a higher R-number. Therefore, it is recommended that test
areas with a rough surface be ground to a uniform smoothness. This can be achieved easily with
a Carborundum stone or similar abrasive stone. The Guide to Nondestructive Testing of
Concrete, September 1997 (FHWA-SA-97- 105) published by the U.S. Department of
Transportation Federal Highway Administration (herein referred to as the FHWA Guide) states:
“Past research has also shown that troweled surfaces or surfaces formed by metal forms yield
rebound numbers 5 to 25 percent higher than surfaces cast against wooden forms.”

The FHWA Guide also states that troweled surfaces result in a higher scatter of results,
hence lowering confidence in the estimated strengths. ASTM C805 states that when formed
surfaces were ground, increases in rebound number of 2.1 for plywood formed surfaces and 0.4
for high density plywood formed surfaces have been noted.

Age of Concrete – Concrete continues to develop strength with age due to cement hydration.
This is the reason behind the development of data relating rebound numbers to the compressive
strength of the concrete mixture or cores from the structure. Testing of concrete less than 3 days
old or concrete with expected strengths less than 1000 psi is not recommended. This is because
the R-numbers will be too low for an accurate reading, and the testing will be more destructive to
the concrete surface.

Moisture Content – This has a profound effect on the test results. Dry concrete surfaces result in
higher rebound numbers than wet surfaces. The FHWA Guide references a study where saturated
surface-dry (SSD) specimens were left in a room at 70°F and air-dried. The specimens gained 3
units in 3 days and 5 units in 7 days. It is recommended that to achieve the most accurate results
when the actual moisture condition is unknown, the surface of the cores should be pre-saturated
with water for several hours prior to testing and use the correlation developed for SSD
specimens.

Surface Carbonation – With greater amounts of surface carbonation, higher rebound numbers
will be obtained. Rebound numbers of a carbonated surface can be as much as 50 percent higher
than non-carbonated surfaces. Older concrete surfaces may have much deeper amounts of
surface carbonation than younger concrete. ASTM states that the effects of moisture content and
carbonation can be reduced by thoroughly wetting the surface for 24 hours before testing, and
that where a thick layer of carbonation is present, it may be necessary to use a power grinder to
remove the carbonated concrete to obtain more accurate data.
Aggregate, air voids, and steel reinforcement – The presence of materials in the immediate area
where the plunger comes into contact with the concrete will have an obviously profound effect as
well. If the test is performed over a hard aggregate particle or a section of steel reinforcement,
the result may be an unusually high rebound number. ASTM C805 states that tests directly over
reinforcing bars with cover less than 0.75 inches should not be conducted. The use of a
pachometer or similar device is recommended for determining the location and cover in
structurally reinforced concrete. Likewise, if the test is performed over a very soft aggregate
particle or an air void, an unusually low rebound number may result. The FHWA guide reported
that for equal compressive strengths, concrete made with crushed limestone resulted in rebound
numbers approximately 7 units higher than concrete made with gravel, representing a difference
of approximately 1000 psi compressive strength estimation.

Because of the factors mentioned above, ASTM C805 requires that for each test area, ten
readings be obtained, with no two tests being closer to one another than one inch. Readings
differing from the average of the ten readings by more than six units should be discarded. Also,
if two readings differ from the average by six units or more, the operator should discard the
entire set of readings and take ten new readings within the test area.

Temperature – Tests should not be performed on frozen concrete surfaces. Wet concrete at
temperatures of 32ºF or less may result in higher rebound numbers. Also, the temperature of the
Swiss Hammer itself in extreme cold (0ºF) may result in rebound numbers reduced by as much
as two or three units.

Calibration of the Rebound Hammer – The device itself should be serviced and verified
annually or whenever there is a reason to doubt proper performance. Verification of proper
performance of the device includes the use of a test anvil. The required dimensions and steel
hardness is listed in ASTM C805. Impacting the proper test anvil with a properly functioning
device will typically result in rebound numbers of 80 ± 2. If the device is believed to not be
functioning properly, it is recommended to send it back to the manufacturer or experienced
facility for repairs and re-verification.

How to interpret the test results?

There is an advantage in using the rebound hammer as a means of evaluating concrete to
assess the in-place uniformity, to delineate regions in a structure of poor quality or deteriorated
concrete, and to estimate in-place strength. The unit is easy to use and a large number of readings
can be obtained in a relatively short amount of time. The method is for the most part non-
destructive and typically more economical than other methods. However, with these advantages
come disadvantages related to limitations on accuracy, and the need for proper calibration and
correlation with cores for evaluation of an existing structure.

The rebound hammer can be a valuable tool for evaluating the uniformity of concrete in
the field provided that the concrete is under the same conditions related to age, moisture content,
surface carbonation, and temperature. It should not be used as a substitute for performing normal
specified quality control procedures.
Of most importance is that the current version of ASTM C805 states “This test method is
not suitable as the basis for acceptance or rejection of concrete.” As stated previously, when
ASTM C805 is followed, it will provide an estimation of the in-place compressive strength;
however, it is not a direct measurement, and the data obtained should not be used to accept or
reject the concrete in place.