where v1 and v2 are the velocities of m1 and m2 after Since total momentum before impact = total momen-
impact. tum after impact:
Problem 1. Determine the momentum of a pile
driver of mass 400 kg when it is moving downwards
with a speed of 12 m/s.
Momentum = mass velocity = 400 kg
= 4800 kg m/s downwards
Problem 2. A cricket ball of mass 150 g has a
momentum of 4.5 kg m/s. Determine the velocity
of the ball in km/h.
Momentum = mass velocity, hence
momentum 4.5 kg m/s
velocity =  = 30 m/s
mass 150 10 3kg
m s 1km
This chapter is of considerable importance in the states: 30 m/s = 30 3600
s h 1000m
study of the motion and collision of vehicles, ships,
a body continues in a state of rest or in a state of = 30 3.6 km/h = 108 km/h
uniform motion in a straight line unless acted on = velocity of cricket ball.
momentum, impulse, together with Newton’s laws of
by some external force
motion. It then applies these laws to solving practical
Hence the momentum of a body remains the same pro- Problem 3. Determine the momentum of a rail-
vided no external forces act on it way wagon of mass 50 tonnes moving at a velocity
At the end of this chapter you should be able to: The principle of conservation of momentum for a of 72 km/h.
closed system (i.e. one on which no external forces act)
may be stated as: Momentum = mass velocity
calculate momentum given mass and velocity the total linear momentum of a system is a Mass = 50 t = 50000 kg (since 1 t = 1000 kg)
constant km 1h
and velocity = 72 km/h = 72
The total momentum of a system before collision in a h 3600s
forces occur
given direction is equal to the total momentum of the 72
system after collision in the same direction. In Figure = m/s = 20 m/s.
calculate impulse and impulsive force 3.6
13.1, masses m1 and m2 are travelling in the same direc-
use the equation of motion v2 = u2 + 2as in Hence, momentum = 50000 kg 20 m/s
tion with velocity u1 > u2. A collision will occur, and
calculations = 1000000 kg m/s = 106kg m/s
applying the principle of conservation of momentum:
Problem 4. A wagon of mass 10 t is moving at
a speed of 6 m/s and collides with another wagon
of mass 15 t, which is stationary. After impact,
the wagons are coupled together. Determine the
The momentum common velocity of the wagons after impact.
its mass and its velocity, i.e.
momentum = mu Mass m1 = 10 t = 10000 kg,
Figure 13.1 m2 = 15000 kg and velocity u1 = 6 m/s, u2 = 0.
where m = mass (in kg) and u = velocity (in m/s). The
unit of momentum is kg m/s. Total momentum before impact = m1u1 + m2u2
total momentum before impact = total momentum after
Since velocity is a vector quantity, momentum is = (10000 6) + (15000 0) = 60000 kg m/s
impact
a vector quantity, i.e. it has both magnitude and
i.e. m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 Let the common velocity of the wagons after impact
direction.
be v m/s.
Mechanical Engineering Principles, Bird and Ross, ISBN 9780415517850
60000 = m1v + m2v
= v(m1 + m2) = v(25000)
60000
Hence v= = 2.4 m/s
25000
12 m/s
i.e. the common velocity after impact is 2.4 m/s in
the direction in which the 10 t wagon is initially
travelling.
Problem 5. A body has a mass of 30 g and is
moving with a velocity of 20 m/s. It collides with
a second body which has a mass of 20 g and which
is moving with a velocity of 15 m/s. Assuming that
the bodies both have the same velocity after impact,
determine this common velocity, (a) when the initial
velocities have the same line of action and the same
sense, and (b) when the initial velocities have the
same line of action but are opposite in sense.
Mass m1 = 30 g = 0.030 kg, m2 = 20 g = 0.020 kg,
velocity u1 = 20 m/s and u2 = 15 m/s.
(a) When the velocities have the same line of action
and the same sense, both u1 and u2 are considered
as positive values.
Total momentum before impact
= m1u1 + m2u2 = (0.030 20) + (0.020 15)
m = 0.60 + 0.30 = 0.90 kg m/s.
1000
km Let the common velocity after impact be v m/s.
Total momentum before impact = total momen-
tum after impact
i.e. 0.90 = m1v + m2v = v(m1 + m2)
0.90 = v(0.030 + 0.020)
0.90
from which, common velocity, v = = 18 m/s
0.050
in the direction in which the bodies are initially
travelling.
(b) When the velocities have the same line of action
but are opposite in sense, one is considered as
positive and the other negative (because velocity
is a vector quantity). Taking the direction of mass
m1 as positive gives:
velocity u1 = +20 m/s and u2 = –15 m/s.
Total momentum before impact
= m1u1 + m2u2 = (0.030 20) + (0.020 –15)
= 0.60 – 0.30 = + 0.30 kg m/s
 and since it is positive this indicates a momentum
in the same direction as that of mass m1.
If the common velocity after impact is v m/s then
0.30 = v(m1 + m2) = v(0.050)
0.30
from which, common velocity, v = = 6 m/s
0.050
in the direction that the 30 g mass is initially
travelling.
Problem 6. A ball of mass 50 g is moving with
a velocity of 4 m/s when it strikes a stationary ball
of mass 25 g. The velocity of the 50 g ball after
impact is 2.5 m/s in the same direction as before
impact. Determine the velocity of the 25 g ball
after impact.
Mass m1 = 50 g = 0.050 kg, m2 = 25 g = 0.025 kg.
Initial velocity u1 = 4 m/s, u2
v1 = 2.5 m/s, v2 is unknown.
Total momentum before impact
= m1u1 + m2u2
= (0.050 4) + (0.025 0) = 0.20 kg m/s
Total momentum after impact
= m1v1 + m2v2
= (0.050 2.5) + (0.025 v2) = 0.125 + 0.025 v2
Total momentum before impact = total momentum
after impact, hence
0.20 = 0.125 + 0.025v2
from which, velocity of 25 g ball after impact,
0.20 0.125
v2 = = 3 m/s
0.025
Problem 7. Three masses, P, Q and R lie in a
straight line. P has a mass of 5 kg and is moving
towards Q at 8 m/s. Q has a mass of 7 kg and a
velocity of 4 m/s, and is moving towards R. Mass
R is stationary. P collides with Q, and P and Q then
collide with R. Determine the mass of R assuming
all three masses have a common velocity of 2 m/s
after the collision of P and Q with R.
Mass mP = 5 kg, mQ = 7 kg,
velocity uP = 8 m/s and uQ = 4 m/s.
Total momentum before P collides with Q
= mPuP + mQuQ
= (5 8) + (7 4) = 68 kg m/s.
Let P and Q have a common velocity of v1m/s after
impact.
Total momentum after P and Q collide
= mPv1 + mQv1
= v1 (mP + mQ) = 12v1
Total momentum before impact = total momentum
after impact, i.e. 68 = 12v1, from which, common
68 2 hit head-on by a lorry of mass 2000 kg
velocity of P and Q, v1 =  5 m/s.
12 3 change of momentum it produces.
Total momentum after P and Q collide with R =
(mP+Q 2) + (mR 2) (since the common velocity after
impact = 2 m/s) = (12 2) + (2 mR)
Total momentum before P and Q collide with R = total
momentum after P and Q collide with R, i.e.
2 impulse = applied force time
(mP + Q 5 ) = (12 2) + 2 mR
3 Assuming that the bodies both have the
2 same speed after impact, determine their
i.e. 12 5 = 24 + 2 mR
3 common velocity (a) when the speeds have
68 – 24 = 2 mR
44
from which, mass of R, mR = = 22 kg.
2 [(a) 26.25 m/s (b) 11.25 m/s]
Now try the following Practise Exercise
(Where necessary, take g as 9.81 m/s2)
1. Determine the momentum in a mass of
50 kg having a velocity of 5 m/s.
[250 kg m/s]
2. A milling machine and its component have
a combined mass of 400 kg. Determine the
momentum of the table and component
when the feed rate is 360 mm/min.
[2.4 kg m/s]
3. The momentum of a body is 160 kg m/s
when the velocity is 2.5 m/s. Determine the
mass of the body. [64 kg]
4. Calculate the momentum of a car of mass
750 kg moving at a constant velocity of
108 km/h. [22500 kg m/s]
5. A football of mass 200 g has a momentum
of 5 kg m/s. What is the velocity of the ball
in km/h. [90 km/h]
6. A wagon of mass 8 t is moving at a speed
of 5 m/s and collides with another wagon
of mass 12 t, which is stationary. After
impact, the wagons are coupled together.
Determine the common velocity of the
wagons after impact. [2 m/s]
7. A car of mass 800 kg was stationary when
travelling at 15 m/s. Assuming no brakes
are applied and the car and lorry move as
one, determine the speed of the wreckage
immediately after collision. [10.71 m/s]
8. A body has a mass of 25 g and is moving
with a velocity of 30 m/s. It collides with a
second body which has a mass of 15 g and
which is moving with a velocity of 20 m/s.
the same line of action and the same sense,
and (b) when the speeds have the same line
of action but are opposite in sense.
9. A ball of mass 40 g is moving with a veloc-
ity of 5 m/s when it strikes a stationary ball
of mass 30 g. The velocity of the 40 g ball
after impact is 4 m/s in the same direction
as before impact. Determine the velocity of
the 30 g ball after impact. [1.33 m/s]
10. Three masses, X, Y and Z, lie in a straight
line. X has a mass of 15 kg and is mov-
ing towards Y at 20 m/s. Y has a mass of
10 kg and a velocity of 5 m/s and is moving
towards Z. Mass Z is stationary. X collides
with Y, and X and Y then collide with Z.
Determine the mass of Z assuming all three
masses have a common velocity of 4 m/s
after the collision of X and Y with Z.
[62.5 kg]
Newton’s second law of motion states:
the rate of change of momentum is directly propor-
tional to the applied force producing the change,
and takes place in the direction of this force
In the SI system, the units are such that:
the applied force = rate of change of momentum
change of momentum
= (13.1)
time taken
When a force is suddenly applied to a body due to
either a collision with another body or being hit by an
object such as a hammer, the time taken in equation
cases, the total effect of the force is measured by the
Forces that act for very short periods of time are
called impulsive forces. The product of the impul-
sive force and the time during which it acts is called
the impulse of the force and is equal to the change of
momentum produced by the impulsive force, i.e.
= change in linear momentum
Examples where impulsive forces occur include when
a gun recoils and when a free-falling mass hits the
ground. Solving problems associated with such occur-
rences often requires the use of the equation of motion:
v2 = u2 + 2as, from Chapter 12.
When a pile is being hammered into the ground,
the ground resists the movement of the pile and this
resistance is called a resistive force.
Newton’s third law of motion may be stated as:
for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction
pile exerts an equal and opposite force on the ground.
In practice, when impulsive forces occur, energy is not
entirely conserved and some energy is changed into
heat, noise, and so on.
Problem 8. The average force exerted on the
work-piece of a press-tool operation is 150 kN,
and the tool is in contact with the work-piece for
50 ms. Determine the change in momentum.
From above, change of linear momentum = applied
force time (= impulse).
Hence, change in momentum of work-piece
= 150 103 N 50 10–3s
= 7500 kg m/s (since 1 N = 1 kg m/s2).
Problem 9. A force of 15 N acts on a body of mass
4 kg for 0.2 s. Determine the change in velocity.
Impulse = applied force time Rate of change of momentum By the principle of conservation of momentum, (c) Resistive force of ground = mass acceleration.
= change in linear momentum change of momentum The acceleration is determined using v2 = u2 + 2as
= where v u = initial velocity =
i.e. 15 N 0.2 s = mass change in velocity change of time 0 = 7500 + 1500v, from which,
7500 3.49 m/s and s = distance driven in ground =
= 4 kg change in velocity 1000 5.425 velocity v = = – 5 m/s (the negative sign
= = 217000 N 200 mm = 0.2 m.
25 10 3 1500
from which, change in velocity indicating recoil velocity) Hence, 02 = (3.49)2 + 2(a)(0.2), from which,
Since the impulsive force is the rate of change of
15 N 0.2s i.e. the initial velocity of recoil = 5 m/s. (3.49) 2
= momentum, the average force exerted on the pile is acceleration, a = = –30.45 m/s2 (the
4 kg (b) The retardation of the recoil, a, may be deter- 2 (0.2)
217 kN.
= 0.75 m/s (since 1 N = 1 kg m/s2). mined using v2 = u2 + 2as minus sign indicates retardation, because accel-
Problem 12. A mass of 40 g having a velocity of velocity, is zero, u, the initial velocity, is 5 m/s eration is a vector quantity).
Problem 10. A mass of 8 kg is dropped vertically 15 m/s collides with a rigid surface and rebounds and s, the distance, is 200 mm, i.e. 0.2 m. Thus, resistive force of ground
with a velocity of 5 m/s. The duration of the impact = mass acceleration
velocity of 10 m/s. The mass rebounds with a Rearranging v2 = u2 + 2as for a gives:
is 0.20 ms. Determine (a) the impulse, and (b) the
velocity of 6 m/s. If the mass-plane contact time v2 u2
02 52 = 1100 kg 30.45 m/s2 = 33.5 kN
impulsive force at the surface. a= 
is 40 ms, calculate (a) the impulse, and (b) the 2s 2 (0.2)
average value of the impulsive force on the plane. Mass m = 40 g = 0.040 kg, 25
62.5 m/s 2 Now try the following Practise Exercises
initial velocity, u = 15 m/s 0.4
(a) Impulse = change in momentum = m(u1 – v1) Force necessary to stop recoil in 200 mm
where u1 = impact velocity = 10 m/s and and v = –5 m/s (negative since the
= mass acceleration
v1 = rebound velocity = –6 m/s rebound is in the opposite
direction to velocity u) = 1500 kg 62.5 m/s2
(v1 is negative since it acts in the opposite direc- = 93750 N or 93.75 kN
(a) Momentum before impact = mu = 0.040 15 (Where necessary, take g as 9.81 m/s2)
tion to u1, and velocity is a vector quantity)
= 0.6 kg m/s
Thus, impulse = m(u1 – v1) = 8 kg (10 – –6) m/s Problem 14. A vertical pile of mass 100 kg is 1. The sliding member of a machine tool has
Momentum after impact = mv = 0.040 – 5 driven 200 mm into the ground by the blow of a 1 t a mass of 200 kg. Determine the change
=8 16 = 128 kg m/s. = – 0.2 kg m/s in momentum when the sliding speed is
hammer which falls through 750 mm. Determine
impulse 128 kg m/s Impulse = change of momentum (a) the velocity of the hammer just before impact increased from 10 mm/s to 50 mm/s.
(b) Impulsive force =  = 0.6 – (–0.2) = 0.8 kg m/s (b) the velocity immediately after impact (assuming [8 kg m/s]
time 40 10 3s
the hammer does not bounce), and (c) the resistive
= 3200 N or 3.2 kN (b) Impulsive force 2. A force of 48 N acts on a body of mass
force of the ground assuming it to be uniform.
change of momentum 8 kg for 0.25 s. Determine the change in
 velocity. [1.5 m/s]
Problem 11. The hammer of a pile-driver of change of time (a) For the hammer, v2 = u2 + 2gs, where v
mass 1 t falls a distance of 1.5 m on to a pile. The 0.8 kg m/s velocity, u = initial velocity = 0, g = 9.81 m/s2 3. The speed of a car of mass 800 kg is
blow takes place in 25 ms and the hammer does   4000 N or 4 kN and s = distance = 750 mm = 0.75 m
0.20 10 3 s increased from 54 km/h to 63 km/h in 2 s.
not rebound. Determine the average applied force
Hence, v2 = 02 + 2(9.81)(0.75), from which, Determine the average force in the direc-
exerted on the pile by the hammer.
tion of motion necessary to produce the
Problem 13. velocity of hammer, just before impact,
change in speed. [1 kN]
Initial velocity, u = 0, mass 15 kg horizontally with a velocity of 500 m/s.
v = 2(9.81)(0.75) = 3.84 m/s
Determine (a) the initial velocity of recoil, and 4. A 10 kg mass is dropped vertically on to
acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m/s2 (b) Momentum of hammer just before impact
(b) the uniform force necessary to stop the recoil
and distance, s = 1.5 m of the gun in 200 mm. = mass velocity velocity of 15 m/s. The mass rebounds with
Using the equation of motion: v2 = u2 + 2gs = 1000 kg 3.84 m/s = 3840 kg m/s a velocity of 5 m/s. If the contact time of
gives: v2 = 02 + 2(9.81)(1.5) Mass of gun, mg = 1.5 t = 1500 kg, mass and plane is 0.025 s, calculate (a) the
Momentum of hammer and pile after impact =
mass of shell, ms = 15 kg, momentum of hammer before impact. impulse, and (b) the average value of the
from which, impact velocity, v = (2)(9.81)(1.5) impulsive force on the plane.
and initial velocity of shell, us = 500 m/s. Hence, 3840 kg m/s = (mass of hammer and pile) [(a) 200 kg m/s (b) 8 kN]
= 5.425 m/s (velocity immediately after impact)
Neglecting the small distance moved by the pile and (a) Momentum of shell = msus = 15 500 5. The hammer of a pile driver of mass
i.e. 3840 = (1000 + 100)(v), from which,
hammer after impact, = 7500 kg m/s. 1.2 t falls 1.4 m on to a pile. The blow
velocity immediately after impact, takes place in 20 ms and the hammer
momentum lost by hammer = the change of momentum Momentum of gun = mgv = 1500v 3840
v= = 3.49 m/s does not rebound. Determine the average
= mv = 1000 kg 5.425 m/s where v = initial velocity of recoil of the gun. 1100
 applied force exerted on the pile by the 3. State the principle of the conservation of 7. A force of 100 N acts on a body of mass 8. Calculate the velocity of the hammer im-
hammer. momentum. 10 kg for 0.1 s. The change in velocity of mediately before impact.
[314.5 kN] the body is:
9. Calculate the momentum of the hammer
6. A tennis ball of mass 60 g is struck from (a) 1 m/s (b) 100 m/s just before impact.
rest with a racket. The contact time of (c) 0.1 m/s (d) 0.01 m/s.
10. Calculate the momentum of the hammer
ball on racket is 10 ms and the ball leaves A vertical pile of mass 200 kg is driven and pile immediately after impact assum-
the racket with a velocity of 25 m/s. 100 mm into the ground by the blow of a ing they have the same velocity.
Calculate (a) the impulse, and (b) the aver- 1 t hammer which falls through 1.25 m.
age force exerted by a racket on the ball. In questions 8 to 12, take g as 10 m/s2 and 11. Calculate the velocity of the hammer and
[(a) 1.5 kg m/s (b) 150 N] select the correct answer from the following: pile immediately after impact assuming
they have the same velocity.
7. In a press-tool operation, the tool is in (a) 25 m/s (b) 25/6 m/s
contact with the work piece for 40 ms. If (c) 5 kg m/s (d) 0 12. Calculate the resistive force of the ground,
the average force exerted on the work (e) 625/6 kN (f) 5000 kg m/s assuming it to be uniform.
piece is 90 kN, determine the change in (g) 5 m/s (h) 12 kN
momentum. [3600 kg m/s] (Answers on page 297)
1. A mass of 100 g has a momentum of
with a velocity of 400 m/s. Determine 100 kg m/s. The velocity of the mass is:
(a) the initial velocity of recoil, and (b) the (a) 10 m/s (b) 102m/s
uniform force necessary to stop the recoil (c) 10–3m/s (d) 103m/s
of the gun in 150 mm.
[(a) 4 m/s (b) 64 kN] momentum when the muzzle velocity is
9. In making a steel stamping, a mass of 108 km/h is:
100 kg falls on to the steel through a dis- (a) 54 kg m/s (b) 1.5 kg m/s
tance of 1.5 m and is brought to rest af- (c) 15000 kg m/s (d) 21.6 kg m/s
ter moving through a further distance of
A body P of mass 10 kg has a velocity of
15 mm. Determine the magnitude of the re-
5 m/s and the same line of action as a body
sisting force, assuming a uniform resistive
Q of mass 2 kg and having a velocity of
force is exerted by the steel. [98.1 kN]
25 m/s. The bodies collide, and their veloc-
10. A vertical pile of mass 150 kg is driven ities are the same after impact. In questions
120 mm into the ground by the blow of a 1.1 t 3 to 6, select the correct answer from the
hammer, which falls through 800 mm. following:
Assuming the hammer and pile remain in
(a) 25/3 m/s (b) 360 kg m/s
contact, determine (a) the velocity of the
(c) 0 (d) 30 m/s
hammer just before impact (b) the velocity
(e) 160 kg m/s (f) 100 kg m/s
immediately after impact, and (c) the resis-
(g) 20 m/s
tive force of the ground, assuming it to be
uniform. 3. Determine the total momentum of the
[(a) 3.96 m/s (b) 3.48 m/s (c) 63.08 kN] system before impact when P and Q have
the same sense.
4. Determine the total momentum of the
system before impact when P and Q have
the opposite sense.
5. Determine the velocity of P and Q after im-
pact if their sense is the same before impact.
6. Determine the velocity of P and Q after
impact if their sense is opposite before
impact.
 Thus, if a person is taken as one object and the Earth
as a second object, a force of attraction exists between
the person and the Earth. This force is called the gravi-
tational force,
and is the force that gives a person a certain weight
force that gives freely falling objects a constant accel-
eration in the absence of other forces.
It follows that 1 m/s2 = 1 N/kg. Hence a gravitational
acceleration of 9.8 m/s2 is the same as a gravitational
Newton’s third law of motion may be stated as:
For every force, there is an equal and opposite
reacting force
Thus, an object on, say, a table, exerts a downward
force on the table and the table exerts an equal upward
force on the object, known as a reaction force or just
a reaction.

Problem 1. Calculate the force needed to

To make a stationary object move or to change the accelerate a boat of mass 20 tonne uniformly
direction in which the object is moving requires a force from rest to a speed of 21.6 km/h in 10 minutes.
to be applied externally to the object. This concept is
known as and may be The mass of the boat, m, is 20 t, that is 20000 kg.
stated as:
The law of motion, v = u + at can be used to determine
An object remains in a state of rest, or continues the acceleration a.
When an object is pushed or pulled, a force is applied in a state of uniform motion in a straight line,
perform calculations involving centripetal The initial velocity, u
to the object. The effects of pushing or pulling an unless it is acted on by an externally applied
object are to cause changes in the motion and shape mv 2 force km 1h 1000 m
force = v = 21.6 km/h = 21.6
of the object. If a change occurs in the motion r h 3600s 1km
Since a force is necessary to produce a change of 21.6
of the object then the object accelerates. Thus, motion, an object must have some resistance to a change = = 6 m/s,
3.6
acceleration results from a force being applied to an in its motion. The force necessary to give a stationary and the time, t = 10 min = 600 s.
object. If a force is applied to an object and it does pram a given acceleration is far less than the force
not move, then the object changes shape. Usually Thus, v = u + at i.e. 6 = 0 + a 600
necessary to give a stationary car the same acceleration
the change in shape is so small that it cannot be 6
on the same surface. The resistance to a change in motion from which, a= = 0.01 m/s2
detected by just watching the object. However, 600
is called the inertia of an object and the amount of
when very sensitive measuring instruments are As stated above, when an object is pushed or pulled, a F = ma
inertia depends on the mass of the object. Since a car
used, very small changes in dimensions can be force is applied to the object. This force is measured
has a much larger mass than a pram, the inertia of a car i.e. force = 20000 0.01 N = 200 N
detected. A force of attraction exists between all in newtons (N). The effects of pushing or pulling an
is much larger than that of a pram.
objects. If a person is taken as one object and the object are:
Newton’s second law of motion may be stated as: Problem 2. The moving head of a machine tool
Earth as a second object, a force of attraction exists (i) to cause a change in the motion of the object, and
between the person and the Earth. This force is The acceleration of an object acted upon by an requires a force of 1.2 N to bring it to rest in 0.8 s
(ii) to cause a change in the shape of the object. from a cutting speed of 30 m/min. Find the mass of
called the gravitational force and is the force that external force is proportional to the force and is
gives a person a certain weight when standing on If a change occurs in the motion of the object, that is, in the same direction as the force the moving head.
the Earth’s surface. It is also this force that gives its velocity changes from u to v, then the object accel-
Thus, force acceleration, or force = a constant F
freely falling objects a constant acceleration in erates. Thus, it follows that acceleration results from a F = ma, thus m = , where
acceleration, this constant of proportionality being the a
force being applied to an object. If a force is applied to
mass of the object, i.e. force is given as 1.2 N. The law of motion
force and acceleration, states Newton’s three an object and it does not move, then the object changes
shape, that is, deformation of the object takes place. force = mass acceleration v = u + at a,
demonstrated via practical everyday situations. Usually the change in shape is so small that it cannot be 30
where v = 0, u = 30 m/min = m/s = 0.5 m/s,
detected by just watching the object. However, when 60
in terms of mass and acceleration. One newton is and t = 0.8 s.
At the end of this chapter you should be able to: very sensitive measuring instruments are used, very
the force required to give a mass of 1 kilogram an
small changes in dimensions can be detected. Thus, 0 = 0.5 + a 0.8
acceleration of 1 metre per second squared. Thus
A force of attraction exists between all objects. The 0.5
factors governing the size of this force F are the masses F = ma from which, a = – = – 0.625 m/s2 or a retardation
0.8
of the objects and the distances between their centres: where F is the force in newtons (N), m is the mass in 2
of 0.625 m/s .
perform calculations involving force F = ma
m1m2 kilograms (kg) and a is the acceleration in metres per F 1.2
F 1kg m Thus the mass, m = = = 1.92 kg
d2 second squared (m/s2), i.e. 1 N = a 0.625
s2
Mechanical Engineering Principles, Bird and Ross, ISBN 9780415517850
 (ii) a force of mg acting vertically downwards, i.e.
Problem 3. A lorry of mass 1350 kg accelerates Problem 6. The bucket of cement in Problem 5 Calculate the tension in the cable supporting
the weight of the bucket and cement
uniformly from 9 km/h to reach a velocity of is now hoisted vertically upwards with a uniform the cage during
45 km/h in 18 s. Determine (a) the acceleration of acceleration of 0.4 m/s2. Calculate the tension in the The resultant force, F = mg – T
(a) the initial period of acceleration
the lorry (b) the uniform force needed to accelerate rope during the period of acceleration. Hence, ma = mg – T (b) the period of constant speed travel
the lorry.
from which, tension, = m(g – a)
With reference to Figure 14.1, the forces acting on the
= 40(9.81 – 1.4) [(a) 11.6 kN (b) 19.6 kN (c) 24.6 kN]
(a) The law of motion v = u + at can be used to deter- bucket are:
= 336.4 N 6. A miner having a mass of 80 kg is standing
(i) a tension (or force) of T acting in the rope
km 1h 1000 m 45 in the cage of Problem 5. Determine the
v = 45 = m/s, initial (ii) a force of mg acting vertically downwards, i.e. By comparing this result with that of Problem 5,
h 3600 s 1km 3.6 it can be seen that there is a decrease in the ten-
the weight of the bucket and cement of the cage during (a) the initial period of
9 sion in the rope when an object is accelerating
velocity u = m/s and time t = 18 s. acceleration (b) the period of constant speed
3.6 downwards.

45 9 [(a) 464.8 N (b) 784.8 N (c) 984.8 N]

Thus = + a 18
3.6 3.6 Now try the following Practise Exercise 7. During an experiment, masses of 4 kg and
1 45 9 1 36 5 kg are attached to a thread and the thread
from which, a = = is passed over a pulley so that both masses
18 3.6 3.6 18 3.6
hang vertically downwards and are at the
10 5 same height. When the system is released,
= = m/s2 or 0.556 m/s2
18 9
Figure 14.1 (Take g as 9.81 m/s2, and express answers to (b) the tension in the thread, assuming no
losses in the system.
5 The resultant force F = T – mg
force, F = ma = 1350 = 750 N 1. A car initially at rest, accelerates uniformly [(a) 1.09 m/s2 (b) 43.6 N]
9 Hence, ma = T – mg
to a speed of 55 km/h in 14 s. Determine the
i.e. 40 0.4 = T – 40 9.81 accelerating force required if the mass of the
Problem 4. Find the weight of an object of mass
from which, tension, = 408.4 N car is 800 kg. [873 N]
2).
By comparing this result with that of Problem 5, 2. The brakes are applied on the car in Question
it can be seen that there is an increase in the ten- 1 when travelling at 55 km/h and it comes to When an object moves in a circular path at constant
The weight of an object is the force acting vertically sion in the rope when an object is accelerating rest uniformly in a distance of 50 m. Calcu- speed, its direction of motion is continually changing
downwards due to the force of gravity acting on the upwards. late the braking force and the time for the car and hence its velocity (which depends on both magni-
object. to come to rest. [1.87 kN, 6.55 s] tude and direction) is also continually changing. Since
Thus: weight = force acting vertically downwards Problem 7. The bucket of cement in Problem 5 is acceleration is the (change in velocity)/(time taken) the
now lowered vertically downwards with a uniform 3. The tension in a rope lifting a crate ver-
= mass object has an acceleration.
acceleration of 1.4 m/s2. Calculate the tension in the tically upwards is 2.8 kN. Determine its
= 1.6 9.81 = 15.696 N Let the object be moving with a constant angular
rope during the period of acceleration. acceleration if the mass of the crate is 270 kg.
velocity of and a tangential velocity of magnitude v
[0.560 m/s2]
Problem 5. A bucket of cement of mass 40 kg and let the change of velocity for a small change of angle
is tied to the end of a rope connected to a hoist. With reference to Figure 14.2, the forces acting on the of (= ) be V (see Figure 14.3(a)). Then, v2 – v1 = V.
4. A ship is travelling at 18 km/h when it stops
Calculate the tension in the rope when the bucket bucket are:
its engines. It drifts for a distance of 0.6 km
is suspended but stationary. Take the gravitational (i) a tension (or force) of T acting vertically upwards and its speed is then 14 km/h. Determine the
g, as 9.81 N/kg (or 9.81 m/s2). value of the forces opposing the motion of
the ship, assuming the reduction in speed is
The tension in the rope is the same as the force acting uniform and the mass of the ship is 2000 t.
in the rope. The force acting vertically downwards due [16.5 kN]
to the weight of the bucket must be equal to the force
acting upwards in the rope, i.e. the tension. 5. A cage having a mass of 2 t is being lowered
down a mineshaft. It moves from rest with
Weight of bucket of cement, F = mg = 40 9.81
an acceleration of 4 m/s2, until it is travelling
= 392.4 N at 15 m/s. It then travels at constant speed
Thus, the tension in the rope = 392.4 N
Figure 14.2 Figure 14.3
The vector diagram is shown in Figure 14.3(b) and 750 14 2 Now, force F = ma
since the magnitudes of v1 and v2 are the same, i.e. v, Thus, centripetal force = this force should not exceed 750 N, deter-
150 or Ft = m at
the vector diagram is also an isosceles triangle. mine the reduction in speed of the vehicle to
= 980 N = m( )
Bisecting the angle between v2 and v1 gives: meet this requirement. [988 N, 34.86 km/h]
Problem 9. An object is suspended by a thread 2. A speed-boat negotiates an S-bend consisting Multiplying both sides of the above equation by r,
V /2 V
sin =  250 mm long and both object and thread move in of two circular arcs of radii 100 m and gives:
2 v2 2v 2
a horizontal circle with a constant angular velocity 150 m. If the speed of the boat is constant at Ft r =
of 2.0 rad/s. If the tension in the thread is 12.5 N, 34 km/h, determine the change in acceleration
i.e. V = 2v sin (14.1) Since is a constant
2 determine the mass of the object. when leaving one arc and entering the other.
[0.3 m/s2]
Ft r mr 2
mv 2
Since = , then t = (14.2) Centripetal force (i.e. tension in thread) = 3. An object is suspended by a thread 400 mm
r
= 12.5 N long and both object and thread move in a But T = Ft r
Dividing (14.1) by (14.2) gives: horizontal circle with a constant angular
The angular velocity, = 2.0 rad/s and mr2 = Io
velocity of 3.0 rad/s. If the tension in the
V 2v sin v sin and radius, r = 250 mm = 0.25 m. thread is 36 N, determine the mass of the
 2  2 Hence, = Io (14.3)
t Since linear velocity v = , v = 2.0 0.25 object. [10 kg]
2 = 0.5 m/s, where T = the total turning moment exerted on the
rigid body = Ft r
mv 2 Fr
sin and since F = , then m = 2
2 is very nearly equal to unity r v and Io = the mass moment of inertia (or second
For small angles,
12.5 0.25 moment) about O (in kg m2).
2 i.e. mass of object, m = = 12.5 kg
0.5 2 Equation (14.3) can be seen to be the rotational equiva-
V lent of F = ma
Therefore, v A rigid body is said to be a body that does not change
t Problem 10. An aircraft is turning at constant alti- its shape or size during motion. Thus, any two particles
V change of velocity tude, the turn following the arc of a circle of radius on a rigid body will remain the same distance apart Problem 11. Determine the angular acceleration
or,  1.5 km. If the maximum allowable acceleration of that occurs when a circular disc of mass moment
t change of time during motion.
the aircraft is 2.5 g, determine the maximum speed Consider the rigidity of Figure 14.4, which is rotating of inertia of 0.5 kg m2 is subjected to a torque of
= acceleration, a =
of the turn in km/h. Take g as 9.8 m/s2. O. 6 N m. Neglect friction and other losses.
v v2
But, = v/r, thus =v = = acceleration
r r v2 From equation (14.3), torque T = ,
.
The acceleration of an object turning in a circle is
r
v2 T 6Nm
That is, the acceleration a is and is towards the Thus, to determine the maximum speed of turn from which, angular acceleration, = =
r I 0.5 kg m 2
centre of the circle of motion (along V). It is called the v2
= 2.5 g. = 12 rad/s2
centripetal acceleration. If the mass of the rotating r
object is m centrip- Hence, speed of turn, v = 2.5gr = 2.5 9.8 1500
mv 2
etal force is , and its direction is towards the cen- = 36750 = 191.7 m/s
r
tre of the circle of motion. = 191.7 3.6 km/h
= 690 km/h The moment of inertia is required for analysing
Problem 8. A vehicle of mass 750 kg travels round
problems involving the rotation of rigid bodies. It is
a bend of radius 150 m, at 50.4 km/h. Determine the
centripetal force acting on the vehicle. Now try the following Practise Exercise
Figure 14.4
I = mk2 = mass moment of inertia (kg/m2)
mv 2 In Figure 14.4, or moment of inertia,
The centripetal force is given by and its direction
r where m = the mass of the rigid body
is towards the centre of the circle. = the constant angular acceleration
m = the mass of a particle k = its radius of gyration about the point of
m = 750 kg, 1. Calculate the centripetal force acting on rotation (see Chapter 8).
r = the radius of rotation of m
50.4 a vehicle of mass 1 tonne when travelling
v = 50.4 km/h = m/s = 14 m/s at = the tangential acceleration of m In general, I = mr 2
3.6 round a bend of radius 125 m at 40 km/h. If
and r = 150 m Ft = the elemental force on the particle Figure 14.4 apply.
Some typical values of mass and the radius of Mass moment of inertia about its centroid,
gyration are given in Table 14.1, where 9. Explain why an object moving round a 6. The tension in a cable when the lift is mov-
mR 2 49.386 0.2 2 circle at a constant angular velocity has an ing at a constant speed vertically upward is:
Io = = kg m 2
A = cross-sectional area 2 2 acceleration. (a) 4250 N (b) 5750 N
L = length = 0.988 kg m2 (c) 4600 N (d) 6900 N
t = disc thickness 7. The tension in the cable supporting the lift
R = radius of the solid disc when the lift is moving at a constant speed
Now try the following Practise Exercises vertically downwards is:
R1 = internal radius
(a) 4250 N (b) 5750 N
13. A rigid body has a constant angular accel-
R2 = external radius (c) 4600 N (d) 6900 N
eration when subjected to a torque T. The
= density mass moment of inertia, Io = ...... 8. The reaction force between the man and the
Table 14.1 1. Calculate the mass moment of inertia of a a constant speed vertically upwards is:
thin rod, of length 0.5 m and mass 0.2 kg, (a) 750 N (b) 900 N
Component mass k2
about its centroid. [0.004167 kg m2] (c) 600 N (d) 475 N

Rod, about L2 2. Calculate the mass moment of inertia of the 9. The reaction force between the man and the
mid-point 12 thin rod of Problem 1, about an end.
(Answers on page 297) a constant speed vertically downwards is:
L2 [0.01667 kg m2]
Rod, about 1. The unit of force is the: (a) 750 N (b) 900 N
an end 3 3. Calculate the mass moment of inertia of a
(a) watt (b) kelvin (c) 600 N (d) 475 N
R2 solid disc of uniform thickness about its
Flat disc 2t
centroid. The diameter of the disc is 0.3 m (c) newton (d) joule A ball of mass 0.5 kg is tied to a thread and
2
and its thickness is 0.08 m. The density of its 2. If a = acceleration and F = force, then mass rotated at a constant angular velocity of
2
(R1  R2 2)
material of construction is 7860 kg/m3. m is given by: 10 rad/s in a circle of radius 1 m. Use this
Annulus (R22 – R12)t 2 data to determine the answers to questions
[0.50 kg m2] F
(a) m = a – F (b) m = 10 and 11
4. If a hole of diameter 0.2 m is drilled through a
Parallel axis theorem a 10. The centripetal acceleration is:
This is of similar form to the parallel axis theorem of the centre of the disc of Problem 3, what (c) m = F – a (d) m =
F 100
Chapter 8, where will be its mass moment of inertia about its (a) 50 m/s2 (b) m/s2
2] 3. The weight of an object of mass 2 kg at a 2
50 2
Ixx = IG + mh2 - (c) m/s (d) 100 m/s2
2
Ixx = the mass moment of inertia about the xx axis, 11. The tension in the thread is:
which is parallel to an axis passing through the (a) 20 N (b) 0.2 N 50
(c) 20 kg (d) 5 N (a) 25 N (b) N
centre of gravity of the rigid body, namely at G 2
4. The force required to accelerate a loaded 25
IG = the mass moment of inertia of the rigid body (c) N (d) 50 N
barrow of 80 kg mass up to 0.2 m/s2 on 2
about an axis passing through G and parallel to 1. Force is measured in ........
the xx axis friction-less bearings is:
2. The two effects of pushing or pulling an (a) 400 N (b) 3.2 N (a) An externally applied force is needed to
h = the perpendicular distance between the above object are ........ or ........ (c) 0.0025 N (d) 16 N change the direction of a moving object.
two parallel axes. (b) For every force, there is an equal and
3. A gravitational force gives free-falling 5. A bucket of cement of mass 30 kg is tied to
objects a ........ in the absence of all other opposite reaction force.
Problem 12. Determine the mass moment the end of a rope connected to a hoist. If the
forces. (c) A body travelling at a constant velocity
of inertia about its centroid for a solid uniform g = 10 N/kg, the tension in a circle has no acceleration.
thickness disc. For the disc, its radius is 0.2 m, its in the rope when the bucket is suspended (d) Centripetal acceleration acts towards
thickness is 0.05 m, and its density is 7860 kg/m3. but stationary is: the centre of the circle of motion.
5. Describe what is meant by the inertia of an
(a) 300 N (b) 3 N 13. An angular acceleration of 10 rad/s2 occurs
From Table 14.1, for a disc, object.
(c) 300 kg (d) 0.67 N when a circular disc of mass moment of
2t
mass, m =
A man of mass 75 kg is standing in a inertia of 0.5 kg m2 is subjected to a torque.
kg lift of mass 500 kg. Use this data to de- The value of the torque is:
= 7860 (0.2 m)2 0.05 m (a) 25 N m (b) 5 N m
m3 termine the answers to questions 6 to 9.
Take g as 10 m/s2. (c) 20 N m (d) 0.05 N m
= 49.386 kg

and energy. It also provides the mid-ordinate rule,
together with an explanation on how to apply it to
areas of ship’s water planes. It can also be used for
calculating the work done in a force-displacement
or similar relationship, which may result in the
form of an irregular two-dimensional shape. This
chapter is fundamental to the study and application
of dynamics to practical problems.
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
perform simple calculations on work done
appreciate that the area under a force/distance
graph gives work done
perform calculations on a force/distance graph
to determine work done
state several forms of energy
state the principle of conservation of energy and
give examples of conversions
understand that power = force velocity
perform calculations involving power, work
perform calculations involving kinetic energy in
1 2
rotation =
2
If a body moves as a result of a force being applied to
it, the force is said to do work on the body. The amount
of work done is the product of the applied force and the
distance, i.e.
work done = force distance moved in the
direction of the force
The unit of work is the joule, J
amount of work done when a force of 1 newton acts
for a distance of 1 m in the direction of the force. Thus,
1J=1Nm
If a graph is plotted of experimental values of force
(on the vertical axis) against distance moved (on
the horizontal axis) a force/distance graph or work
diagram is produced. The area under the graph
represents the work done.
For example, a constant force of 20 N used to raise
a load a height of 8 m may be represented on a force/
distance graph as shown in Figure 15.1. The area

perform calculations involving potential energy

= mgh

perform calculations involving kinetic energy =

1 2
mv
2
distinguish between elastic and inelastic
collisions
Figure 15.1
Mechanical Engineering Principles, Bird and Ross, ISBN 9780415517850