Inleiding Tot Mens-Omgewings-Sisteme: Introduction To Human-Environmental Systems

Arts and Social Sciences | EyeAthsi neNzululwazi ngeNtlalo | Lettere en Sosiale Wetenskappe
GEO124
INLEIDING TOT MENS-OMGEWINGS-SISTEME
INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN-ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
Lesing : Plaattektoniek, vulkane en aardbewings

Lecture: Plate tectonics, volcanoes and earthquakes
Introductory remarks
• Course outline/schedule
• Prescribed textbook: Geography: An integrated
approach- D. Waugh (4th Ed)
• SUNLearn
• Consultation 2 times a week: 2-3pm Tuesdays, Thursdays
Lecture objectives
• Planet earth: composition

• Plate tectonics: - Origins of theory; Describe nature of plate
movement; Highlight the conditions and features on the plate
borders
• Discuss the origin and nature of earthquakes
• Highlight measurement and destructive effects on the landscape
• Identify types of volcanoes
• Highlight different classifications of volcanoes
The physical geographer’s perspective
• Physical geography is a dynamic discipline: science moves quickly

and our knowledge and understanding of world around us
constantly developing
• Documenting and mapping change in earth’s surface is central to
physical geography
The physical geographer’s perspective

Why study earth?
• We’re apart of it!

• Energy and mineral resources that we depend on for lifestyle
come from Earth
• Geologic hazards
• Curiosity
• NO plan B!
Birth of the Universe
• The “big bang” theory

−Based on scientific observations and widely accepted in
scientific community
−Universe was in a hot dense state, expansion and cooling,
energy converted to subatomic particles, later formed atoms
• Estimated 13.8 billion yrs old
• The Story of Earth and Life
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=57merteLsBc&t=2366s
Our solar system
• Formed about 4.6 billion yrs. ago, located ‘suburb’ of Milky way
• Presence Sun- Biggest object solar system
• Inner planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars
• Outer planets: Evolved further from sun- Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus
and Neptune
• Moon: 4.53 billion yrs., 3700km’s in diameter
Our solar system

Earth: Our only home
• Earth estimated to be 4.6 billion years old

• Orbits around sun at about 150million km’s-mod temp
• Slightly tilted on its axis
• Earth only place we know with water in liquid form
• Earth’s atmosphere: Not only makes life possible, also protects
life from harmful radiation and creates equitable climate
Internal structure of the Earth

• Crust:
- Continental(sial), “granatic” made mostly oxygen and silicon;
crust and ridged top layer of mantle collectively known as
lithosphere
- Oceanic (sima), consist mostly basalt
• Mantle:
- 3488 km thick, composed mainly of silicate rock, rocks in
remainder mantle (asthenosphere- solid but soft and flow easily)-
moves in response to temp
• Core:
- 2883 km radius, made of iron (Fe)& small amounts of Nickel (Ni)
Continental drift
• 1620 – Francis Bacon noted the fit between Africa and South
America
• 1912 Alfred Wegener proposed supercontinent “Pangaea” and
theory of continental drift
• Can you think of what evidence Wegener proposed for his
theory?
Continental drift
• Wegener’s evidence based on:

• Fossils of mesosaurus found common to South Africa and
Brazil
• Geological evidence (rocks of similar age, type, structure etc
found in SA and Brazil as well as North America and Europe)
• Deposits of coal found under Antarctic ice caps, glaciation
scars in warm areas etc
Continental drift
Continental drift: problems
• Continental shorelines constantly changing and eroding

• Plants seeds could have travelled by other means (i.e. wind,
currents)
• Fossil animals could have travelled other ways (i.e. island hop,
when sea level low)
Wegener could propose no realistic mechanism

Continental drift: Further evidence
• Mid-Atlantic ridge
−1000km wide
−2.5km high
−Volcanic rocks
−Relatively “young” rocks
• Earth’s magnetic pole
−171 reversals over last 76my
• Sea floor spreading
Plate tectonics
• Definition: Plate tectonics is the study of the movement of plates

and their resultant landforms
• But what is the mechanism for this movement?
Plate tectonics
• Convective movement in the earth’s mantle

Plate material: Continental vs Oceanic
• As a result of convective currents plates move relative to each

other
−Towards
−Away
−Along side
Maritime Boundaries
1. Due to its relatively low 2. Being denser, oceanic crust can

density- continental crust does sink: continuously being formed
not sink and so is permanent and destroyed
3. Continental plates: may 4. Continental crust may extend far
consist of both continental and beyond margins of landmass
oceanic crust 6. No ‘gaps’ may occur on earth
5. Plates cannot overlap surface- if 2 plates move apart new
7. Earth is neither expanding or oceanic crust is formed in the
shrinking in size mantle must be formed
9. Most significant landforms 8. Plate movement is slow and
are found at plate boundaries usually continuous
Plate margins
• 3 types of plate margins:

−Constructive
−Destructive
−Passive
Earthquakes
• China
−14 April 2010,
−Qinghai Province,
−Yushu County
−Magnitude: 7.1
−400 dead,10,000 injured
Earthquakes
• New Zealand • Japan
− 22 February, 2011 − 11 March, 2011
− Christchurch − Great East Japan Earthquake
− Magnitude 6.3 − Magnitude: 8.9, Tsunami >6m
− 182 deaths − 15,505 deaths, > 7,000 missing
Earthquakes
• Turkey-Syria
−6 February 2023,
−Southern & central Turkey,
−Northern & western Syria
−Magnitude: 7.8, 7.5
−>37000 dead
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hd4xCmuwiBw
Earthquakes
• Distribution and frequency of earthquakes referred to as

seismicity
• Most occur along narrow belts that coincide with plate
boundaries
• Earthquakes along such boundaries- divided into shallow focus
earthquakes(focal depth less than 70km) and deep focus
earthquakes (focal depth between 75 & 700 km)
Earthquakes
Haiti
• 12 January 2010
• Magnitude 7.0
• Three million people were affected, 1 million were left homeless,
300 000 were injured and 230 000 people died
Earthquakes
• Occur along:
- Divergent plate boundaries
- Subduction boundaries
- Collision boundaries
- Transform Fault boundaries
Earthquakes
• How earthquakes measured?

- Vibrations travel all directions
throughout earth and are called
seismic waves
- Exact location within earth were
seismic waves generated: focus
(hypocenter)
• Epicenter is point on surface
of earth directly above focus
Earthquakes
• Seismic waves recorded on instruments called seismometers and

resulting graph is seismogram
• Size of earthquake usually given in terms of scale- Richter
Magnitude
• For larger earthquakes a more accurate measurement of size is
the moment Magnitude- usually greater than Richter magnitude
Earthquakes
• What happens during earthquake?

- Ground shaking: caused by passage of seismic waves near
epicenter
- Ground rupture
- Fires: secondary effect
- Land and debris slides
- Aftershocks: “smaller earthquakes”
- Tsunami
Volcanic eruptions
• Iceland
−14 April, 2010
−Eyjafjallajokull (EYE-a-fyat-la-
jo-kult) volcanic eruption
−Closed Europe air space
−Highest level of airspace
disruption since WWII
Volcanoes
• Volcanology: Includes all processes by which solid, liquid or

gaseous material are forced into earth’s crust or are ejected onto
the surface
• Molten rock: Magma (below) and Lava (above)
• Lava reach surface called extrusive (resulting landforms vary in
size, from cones to lava flows)
• Material injected crust – intrusive
• Both extrusive and intrusive material cooled from magma-
produce igneous rocks
Volcanoes
• Lava produced upward motion from mantle is basaltic or basic

• Lava produced from subduction processes is described as
andesitic
• Pyroclastic material ejected by volcanoes in fragment form (flows
move down side of a volcano as a fast moving cloud-Fig 1.46
Waugh)
NB: Distinguish between Balsaltic (basic) and Andesitic (acid) lava
(Read Waugh, pp 24:fig 1.21)
Classification of volcanoes
• Shape of volcano and vent and nature of the eruption

a) Fissure eruptions: when two plates move apart lava may be
ejected through fissures
b) Basic or shield volcanoes: lava flows out of central vent and
spread over wide areas before solidifying= cone with long
gentle slides made up many layers lava
c) acid or dome volcanoes: acid lava solidifies quickly and

produces steep sided, convex cone
d) ash and cinder cones: ash and cinders building up into
symmetrical cone (cinder-extrusive igneous rocks)
e) e) composite cone: alternate layers of acidic lava and ash
f) f) calderas: “enlarged craters”- build up of gases become
extreme, huge explosions clear magma chamber beneath
volcano and removes summit cone- slides of the volcano
subside, widening the opening
• Nature of eruption: based on degree of violence of explosion

a) Icelandic: lava flows gently from fissure
b) Hawaiian: lava emitted gently from vent
c) Stombolian: small but frequent eruptions occur
d) Vulcanian: violent but less frequent
e) Krakatoan: exceptionally violent

explosion which may remove much of
cone
f) Pelean: violent eruption is
accompanied by pyroclastic flows and
may include ‘glowing cloud’
g) Plinian: large amount of lava and
pyroclastic material ejected
NB: Refer to Waugh pp 28 Figure 1.30

• Primary Effects of Volcanism

a) Lava Flows - lava flows are common in Hawaiian and
Strombolian type of eruptions- the least explosive. Although
they can travel fast most are slower and give people time to
move out of the way
b) Pyroclastic Flows - one of the most dangerous aspects of
volcanism. May cause death by suffocation and burning. Can
travel so rapidly that few humans can escape.
• http://www.discovery.com/tv-shows/discovery-
presents/videos/ultimate-guide-to-volcanoes-pyroclastic-flow/
• Secondary and Tertiary Effects of Volcanism

a) Mudflows (Lahars): Can both accompany an eruption and occur
many years after an eruption. Formed when water and loose
ash deposits come together and begin to flow.
b) Debris Avalanches, Landslides, and Debris Flows - Volcanic

mountains tend to become oversteepened as a result of the
addition of new material over time. Oversteepened slopes may
become unstable, leading to a sudden slope failure that results
in landslides, debris flows or debris avalanches.
c) Tsunami - Debris avalanche events, landslides and pyroclastic

flows entering a body of water may generate tsunami
d) Atmospheric Effects- Fined grained ash and sulfur gases
expelled into the atmosphere reflect solar radiations and cause
cooling of the atmosphere. CO2 released by volcanoes can
cause warming of the atmosphere

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Arts and Social Sciences | EyeAthsi neNzululwazi ngeNtlalo | Lettere en Sosiale Wetenskappe

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN-ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS

Lesing : Plaattektoniek, vulkane en aardbewings

• Planet earth: composition

The physical geographer’s perspective

• Physical geography is a dynamic discipline: science moves quickly

The physical geographer’s perspective

Why study earth?

• We’re apart of it!

Birth of the Universe

• The “big bang” theory

Our solar system

Our solar system

Earth: Our only home

• Earth estimated to be 4.6 billion years old

Internal structure of the Earth

Internal structure of the Earth

Internal structure of the Earth

• Wegener’s evidence based on:

Continental drift: problems

• Continental shorelines constantly changing and eroding

Wegener could propose no realistic mechanism

Continental drift: Further evidence

• Definition: Plate tectonics is the study of the movement of plates

• Convective movement in the earth’s mantle

Plate material: Continental vs Oceanic

• As a result of convective currents plates move relative to each

1. Due to its relatively low 2. Being denser, oceanic crust can

• 3 types of plate margins:

• Distribution and frequency of earthquakes referred to as

• How earthquakes measured?

• Seismic waves recorded on instruments called seismometers and

• What happens during earthquake?

• Volcanology: Includes all processes by which solid, liquid or

• Lava produced upward motion from mantle is basaltic or basic

• Shape of volcano and vent and nature of the eruption

c) acid or dome volcanoes: acid lava solidifies quickly and

• Nature of eruption: based on degree of violence of explosion

e) Krakatoan: exceptionally violent

NB: Refer to Waugh pp 28 Figure 1.30

• Primary Effects of Volcanism

• Secondary and Tertiary Effects of Volcanism

b) Debris Avalanches, Landslides, and Debris Flows - Volcanic

c) Tsunami - Debris avalanche events, landslides and pyroclastic

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