MATH 20 REVIEWER

PART 1
ROLES OF A TEACHER
• Manager/Task Setter
• sees to it that use of time is fully maximized in teaching-learning activities.
• Designs activities suited for a particular group of students so they will enjoy while learning.
• Resource Person
• Discusses what to learn and how to learn.
• explains the possible ways of getting solutions to any situation.
• Counselor
• recognizes, acknowledges, and praises student’s success.
• assists and guides students in their difficulties and limitation.
• Encourages students to try again in case of failure.
• Assessor
• checks out continuously to what extent the teaching-learning processes have been efficient and
effective.
• Fellow Student
• A teacher too, learns from student’s work, responses/feedbacks

NARROW QUESTIONS
• require only short answers, simple recall, and practice.
BROAD QUESTIONS
• invite a variety of responses, stimulate thinking, explore ideas, provide thoughtful discussion, and
require decision making.
WAIT TIME
• Wait time is recommended to answer broad questions and to allow students to think about the
answer.
EFFECTS OF WAIT TIME
• Students give longer answers.
• Students’ confidences increase.
• Failure to respond decreases.
• “Slow” students contribute more.
• Students ask more questions.
FREEDOMS IN THE CLASSROOM
1. The Freedom to Make Mistakes
• We learn through our mistakes. Guide students to learn with confidence. Listen, observe and
encourage them to explain why they think what they do.
2. The Freedom to Ask Questions
• When students ask questions they reveal what they think and how they understand where they are.
Never make a child feel that the question should never have been asked.
3. The Freedom to Think Oneself
• Give the students the opportunity to think. Getting to the right answers by themselves will be worth
rewarding for them.
4. The Freedom to Choose Their Own Method or Solution
• A problem or a question has a variety of solutions. Respect how students understand and solve the
problem. Make them realize the importance of thinking rather than remembering.
CONTINUAL PRAISE
• Continual praise makes a student dependent on what the teacher is thinking rather than developing
his own ideas.
• Continual praise becomes common and meaningless, thus, losing its purpose.
• Praise is essential for a class when dealing with new topics and when lack of confidence is
observed.
• Words of encouragement are necessary for a student whose self-concept is poor.
LISTENING SKILLS
• Focus on the Speaker and what he is saying.
• Keep alert for reactions of students who wish to respond like: 1.raising their arms, 2.pressing lips as if to
say something, 3.glancing at you, 4.standing, and 5.mumbling.
• Give non-verbal signals to indicate active interest by: 1. maintaining eye contact, 2. showing a concerned
posture, such as turning your body toward the speaker, and 3. using appropriate gestures, such as nodding,
smiling, etc.
PROBLEM SOLVING
• A problem is a situation in which: 1. we do not have an immediate solution, 2. we do not know instantly
how to solve it, 3. and we want or need to solve it.
• To be a good problem we should feel we have a reasonable chance of solving it.
• To be a mathematical problem the situation must involve mathematical reasoning.
HELPFUL HINTS FOR PROBLEM SOLVERS
1. To Start
2. Read and Understand the Problem
3. Find out what you want to do and what you know about it.
APPROACHES TO PROBLEM SOLVING
1. Teaching For Problem Solving
• Students are taught various mathematical concepts and skills. Then they are given opportunities to
apply those to problem solving situations.
• The emphasis is on first ensuring that students learn the concepts and skills. The use of these to
solve problems is seen as the final step.
2. Teaching Through Problem Solving
• The practice of learning mathematical ideas as they arise in solving problems.
3. Teaching Problem Solving
• The practice of teaching general methods of attacking problems that are relevant to various
mathematical problems.
PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES
1. Make a Table/Look for A Pattern
• Recording data in a table organizes the data. When data are organized in a table, numerical patterns
are easier to recognize.
2. Guess and Check
• This is one of the least appreciated strategies in problem solving. In this strategy, educated guesses
and not blind guesses are advocated.
3. Make a systematic/ organized listing
• This strategy involves listing information in a systematic or organized way. The key to a successful
list is organization. It is necessary to try several ways of organizing data before finding a way that
leads to a solution.
4. Write and equation
• Writing an equation is one of the powerful tools to solve a problem. Often it is preceded by some
other strategies like drawing and simplifying the problem.
5. Act it out
• Some problems are best solved by the strategy of acting out the situation involved. Such an
approach allows the students to become active participants rather than passive spectators. It also
helps them see and understand the meaning of the problem.
6. Use logical Reasoning
• This strategy refers to a specific logical approach in which some information is given and “if-then”
reasoning is used for further conclusion, building up enough information to solve the problem.
7. Simplify the problem
• A problem that may seem difficult because of the large numbers involved can be solved more
easily using this strategy. A problem can be simplified by solving related problems using small
numbers.
8. Work backward
• There are problems which can be solved by starting with the final conditions of the action. This
strategy is often used with problems where the original number is asked.
9. Draw a diagram
10. Using an Aid or a Model
• The strategy of using an aid or a model can make the situation real for a student. It helps motivate
and generate interest in solving the problem.
PART 2
STRATEGIES IN MATHEMATICS TEACHING
1. Discussion
• It is more than the short question and answer which arise during exposition. It takes place between
teacher and students or between students themselves.
2. Practical Work
• It develops students’ confidence to discover solutions to problems.It consists of more student-
centered activities.
• The learners in this approach manipulate concrete objects and/or perform activities to arrive at a
conceptual understanding of phenomena, situation or concept.
• The environment is a laboratory where the natural events/phenomena can be subjects of
mathematical or scientific investigations.
• Activities can be done in the garden, in the yard, in the field, in the school grounds, or anywhere
as long as the safety of the learners are assured. That’s why elementary schools are encouraged to
put up a Math park.
• EXAMPLE:
AIM: To derive the formula for the volume of a cone.
 MATERIALS AND INSTRUMENTS: cone and cylinders of the same diameter and height, at
least 3 sets of varying dimensions, sawdust, water and sand.

PROCEDURE: ask the students to do the following activity.

1. Take each pair of cylinder and cone having the same diameter and height.
2. Note down the diameter and height.
3. Fill the cone with saw dust/water or sand and empty into the cylinder till the cylinder is full.
4. Count the number of times the cone is emptied into the cylinder and note it down in a tabular
column.
3. Practice and Consolidation
• It provides opportunities to link concepts.
• It provides opportunities to practice skills and routines which have been acquired.
• Practice of fundamental skills is not sufficient to develop ability to solve problems and investigate.
• It develops mastery of a particular concept which is needed in problem solving and investigational
work.
• EXAMPLES: Addition puzzles
4. Problem Solving
• It is a convergent approach
• It is a process of applying mathematics to unfamiliar situations.
• It involves the exploration of the solution to a given situation.
• SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM
➢ DRAW A DIAGRAM
➢ SIMPLIFY THE PROBLEM
➢ MAKE A LIST
➢ WORK BACKWARDS
➢ MAKE A TABLE
➢ USE LOGICAL REASONING
➢ ACT IT OUT
➢ WRITE AN EQUATION
5. Mathematical Investigation
• It is a divergent approach.
• It involves the exploration of a mathematical situation.
• It is an open-ended problem solving
6. Exposition
• The teacher controls the flow of the lesson by lecturing and questioning.
• The teacher discusses the objectives.
• The teacher defines the concepts.
• It identifies the prerequisite skills.
• It develops, practices, demonstrates, and evaluates skills. It applies the principles
7. Cooperative Learning
• It is through cooperative efforts where interest and involvement can be generated, where all
members are encouraged to work as a team in exchanging ideas, successes and failures that real
learning takes place.
• Through these processes students demonstrate the growth of knowledge and confidence and the
realization that MATHEMATICS IS WORTH APPRECIATING.
PART 3
MATHEMATICAL INVESTIGATION
• Teaching mathematics entails developing a personal knowledge of oneself which can be used to improve
the mathematical power of our students. This power includes the ability to explore, make conjectures and
reason logically.
• This also involves the development of self confidence, curiosity and inventiveness. Mathematics teachers
should facilitate learners’ construction of their own knowledge of mathematics.
• Mathematical Investigation is the sustained exploration of a Mathematical situation.
IN MATHEMATICAL INVESTIGATIONS
• there is a desire to solve.
• there is a feeling that the work is within the ability of the student.
• the student believes that he can begin an attack on the problem.
• the student reflects a degree of success and convincing others of the findings.
WHY MATHEMATICAL INVESTIGATIONS?
• It improves mathematical thinking.
• Students learn from the experience.
• It develops positive attitudes towards mathematics.
• Students learn to be creative and resourceful.
• Ideas are expressed freely.
• It develops a feeling of satisfaction and fulfilment in mathematics achievement.
 • It can be a source of enjoyment.
INVESTIGATIONS AS HOMEWORK
• an extension of class discussion.
• other ways of solving problems.
• use different strategies in problem solving.
INVESTIGATIONS AS PROJECT
• when investigation takes a longer period of time.
• when the degree of difficulty is to be considered.
INVESTIGATIONS AS THE NEED ARISES
• a situation where there is a need for further exploration.
INVESTIGATIONS AS ENJOYMENT
• after the unit has been covered, an investigation activity can be given for this purpose.
MATHEMATICAL INVESTIGATIONS
1. GETTING STARTED
➢ Pose the problem.
➢ Attain familiarity with the problem or situation.
➢ Start from the simplest or whatever is interesting.
2. GENERATING EXAMPLES
➢ Make a systematic list.
➢ Draw a picture or diagram.
➢ Make a model.
3. ORGANIZING DATA
➢ Collect information
4. GESTATING
➢ Take a break when: there is no progress in investigating and one cannot see any way to pursue.
5. MAKING CONJECTURES
➢ Look for patterns or relationships.
➢ Use logic.
➢ Make a guess.
6. REORGANIZING
7. TESTING CONJECTURES
➢ Check the consistency of conjectures.
➢ Predict results for untried cases.
8. JUSTIFYING
➢ Explain why the conjectures hold.
➢ Provide a formal proof if necessary.
9. EXTENSION
10. SUMMARIZING
➢ Written report including all conjectures, tests and proofs carried out.
➢ An oral presentation can also be required to improve students’ ability to communicate.
WHY SET HOMEWORK?
• It is an integral part of the teaching-learning process.
• There is a community expectation that teachers will assist students by setting and marking homework.
• It is a most valuable means of monitoring students’ progress and of diagnosing student weakness.
TYPES OF HOMEWORK
1. Consolidation-Type Homework
• This is the kind of homework that teachers set when they ask their students to do another five
examples of the type they have been doing in class. Such homework recognizes that learning is a
very personal business. It should be marked by students themselves. The teacher checks
periodically that this homework is being done.
2. Diagnostic-Type Homework
• This is the kind of homework that teachers collect and mark in detail. The purpose of this kind of
homework is to identify weaknesses so they can be eradicated.
3. Challenge-Type Homework
• This is the kind of homework that teachers may occasionally give to challenge a group of students.
The teacher should warn the group that the question is a difficult one.
4. Review-Type Homework
• This is the kind of homework that requires recall of previously learned concepts and skills.
WHY ASSESS?
1. to find out if the objectives of the curriculum have been attained.
2. to assign grades.
3. to diagnose strengths and weaknesses in knowledge and learning strategies.
4. to let students how the activities and learning outcomes we value.
5. to improve the teaching of the lesson by identifying these strategies which were not successful.
WHAT TO ASSESS?
1. thinking skills.
2. knowledge of mathematical content.
3. attitude towards mathematics.
4. problem solving ability.
5. ability to communicate mathematics both in oral and written form.
6. behavior in group activities.
HOW TO ASSESS?
• We teach mathematics, how to learn mathematics, and valuing mathematics.
WE CANNOT RELY ON WRITTEN TESTS ALONE
• Reflective Writing - gives the students an opportunity to reflect on what they have been doing
and link them to old learning. enables the teacher to gain valuable insights into the understanding
and beliefs of their students.
• Interviews- may be done outside the classroom, during or after group activities, or towards the
end of the class period. diagnose students’ misconception or lack of understanding.
• Student Constructed Test- best done in groups. ¨ questions may be written or oral. ¨ a good
assessment tool and an effective way to review the unit or topic, concept or skills.
• Student Work Folios- best done individually. gives the teacher a broader view of the student’s
interests and abilities in mathematics. A student work folio is a collection of a few sample of a
student’s mathematics works (writings, projects, artworks…)
• Observation Checklist
• Projects, Investigations, and Problem Solving

PART 4
THE EDUCATIONAL VALUES OF MATHEMATICS

3 MAIN CONSIDERATIONS FOR WHICH A CHILD IS SENT TO SCHOOL

1. Knowledge and skills (practical/utilitarian)
2. Intellectual habits and power (disciplinary)
3. Desirable attitude and ideals (cultural)

PRACTICAL VALUE
➢ A common man can get on sometimes very well without learning how to read and write, but he can never
pull on without learning how to count and calculate.
DISCIPLINARY VALUE
➢ “Mathematics is a way to settle in the mind a habit of reasoning.” (Locke) It trains or disciplines the mind.
CULTURAL VALUE
➢ The understanding of the world in which man lives, of the civilization to which he belongs and of the
culture of which he is very proud, requires the understanding of scientific and social principles the
development of which depends, in turn, upon mathematical principles. “Mathematics is the mirror of
civilization.”
CHARACTERISTICS OF REASONING IN MATHEMATICS
1. Characteristic of Simplicity
➢ Mathematics teaches that definite facts are always expressed in a simple language and definite facts are
always easily understandable.
2. Characteristic of Accuracy
➢ Accurate reasoning, thinking and judgment are essential for the study of mathematics.
3. Characteristic of Certainty of Results
➢ There is no place for subjectivity and personal equation in mathematics. The answer is either right or
wrong.
4. Characteristic of Originality
➢ Most work in mathematics demands original thinking. Without original thinking and intelligent reasoning
there cannot be satisfactory progress in mathematics.
5. Characteristic of Similarity to the Reasoning of Life
➢ Clear and exact thinking is as important in daily life as in mathematical study.
6. Characteristic of Verification of Results
➢ Results can be easily verified.
7. Characteristic of Power and not Knowledge
➢ In every field of life new ideas and new methods are being introduced rapidly.
8. Characteristic of Application of Knowledge
➢ Knowledge itself becomes real and useful only when the mind is able to apply it to new situations.
OTHER EDUCATIONAL VALUES
1. Social Value
➢ Mathematics plays an important role in the organization and maintenance of our social culture.
2. Moral Value
 ➢ The study of mathematics helps in moral development and character formation. It helps in developing
proper moral attitudes as there is no place for prejudiced feelings, biased outlook, doubts and half truths,
discrimination, maldistribution of resources, unreasonableness, and irrationality in learning of this subject.
3. Aesthetic Value
➢ People wrongly consider mathematics as unrealistic and non-aesthetic. For a true student of mathematics,
the subject is all beauty, symmetry, balance, harmony, fineness, art and music.
4. Intellectual Value
➢ The study of mathematics helps us in the development of many intellectual traits like power of thinking
and reasoning, induction, analysis, synthesis, originality, generalization, discovery, etc
5. International Value
➢ Mathematics is a universal subject and its helps in creating international understanding. Its history presents
a very good picture of the overall development of our civilization
6. Vocational Value
➢ The study of mathematics prepares us for various occupations like engineering, accountancy, auditing,
taxation, banking, surveying, trade, designing, teaching, agriculture, planning, financing, weights and
measures inspection, quality control, budgeting, construction, computer applications, etc.
SOME MORE VALUES
1. Development of Concentration
2. Art of Economical Living
3. Power of Expression
4. Self-Reliance
5. Attitude of Discovery
6. Understanding of Popular Literature
7. Quality of Hard Work

PART 5
RELATION OF MATHEMATICS WITH OTHER SUBJECTS

1. MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

➢ Mathematics has played a very important role in building up modern civillization by perfecting all sciences
– pysics, chemistry, biology, medicine and engineering.
➢ Mathematics is an efficient and necessary tool which is employed by all these sciences and without which
these sciences would not have been made much progress.
➢ Mathematics is a science of all sciences and are of all arts. It is a pivot of all the sciences and arts.
➢ It may be a back-stage performer, but it is a very powerful one.
2. MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS
➢ No other science is as close to mathematics as physics is. Only mathematical mind can take up the study
of physics with confidence.
3. MATHEMATICS AND CHEMISTRY
➢ All chemical combinations and their equations are governed by certain mathematical laws. Formation of
chemical compounds is governed by mathematical calculations
4. MATHEMATICS AND BIOLOGY
➢ Biological study depends largely on its branches biophysics and biochemistry, which have attained a rank
almost equal to that of independent sciences.
➢ The biologist begins with his investigation with a series of direct observations of phenomena. The
phenomena are described, classified and compared for generalizing and deriving a biological law.
5. MATHEMATICS AND ENGINEERING
➢ Mathematics is considered to be the foundation of engineering. That is why a good mathematics
qualification is necessary for admission to an engineering course.
6. MATHEMATICS AND AGRICULTURE
➢ Agriculture as a science is going to depend extensively on mathematics. Without a calculating attitude
towards this important means of livelihood desirable targets cannot be attained.
7. MATHEMATICS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
➢ “The social sciences mathematically developed are to be the controlling factors of civilization.” W.F.
White
8. MATHEMATICS AND ECONOMICS
➢ Mathematical language and methods are used frequently in describing economic phenomena.
9. MATHEMATICS AND PYSCHOLOGY
➢ Experimental educational psychology has become highly mathematical due to its concern with such
factors as intelligence quotient, standard deviation, mean, median, mode, correlation coefficients, and
probable errors.
10. MATHEMATICS AND LOGIC
➢ Geometry is a true demonstration of logic. Mathematics is the only branch of knowledge, in which logical
reasoning or logical laws are applied and the results can be verified by the method of logical reasoning
11. MATHEMATICS AND PHILOSOPHY
➢ “The real finisher of our education is Philosophy, but it is the office of mathematics to ward off the dangers
of philosophy.” Herbert
 12. MATHEMATICS AND FINE ARTS
➢ “Music is a hidden exercise in arithmetic of a mind unconscious of dealing with numbers.” Leibniz
13. MATHEMATICS AND GEOGRAPHY
➢ Mathematics finds many applications in Geography.

PART 6
METHODS OF TEACHING
1. LECTURE METHOD
• It is the method of presenting a word picture of an idea; or the method of imparting information
through a speech.
2. DOGMATIC METHOD
• In this method of teaching, mathematics rigor is extremely emphasized – ‘rigor’ means ‘the strict
enforcement or observance of rules’.
• The dogmatists say that the foremost educational value of mathematics is the training in exactness
which it amply provides
3. INDUCTIVE-DEDUCTIVE METHOD
• INDUCTIVE-It leads from concrete to abstract, particular to general and from examples to
formula.
• It is the method of constructing a formula with the help of a sufficient number of concrete examples.
• DEDUCTIVE- the learner proceeds from general to particular, abstract to concrete, and formula
to examples
• A preconstructed formula is told to the students and they are asked to solve the relevant problems
with the help of that formula.
• The formula is accepted by the learners as a preestablished and well-established truth.
• DEDUCTION is a process peculiarly suitable for a final statement, and INDUCTION is most
suitable for the exploration of new fields.
4. HEURISTIC METHOD
• The term ‘Heuristic’ is derived from a Greek word, which means ‘I find’.
• the child is put in the place of a discoverer.
• The method involves finding out by the student, instead of merely telling of everything by the
teacher.
• It aims at removing the shortcomings attributed to lecture method.
• Contrary to lecture method, it demands complete self-activity or self-education on the part of the
learner
• It is a method by which pupils learn to reason for themselves. Staunch supporters of this method
are of the opinion that every child should be made a discoverer and inventor.
• When this method is applied in its extreme form, the teacher stands aside as an onlooker and the
child selects his own path and proceeds according to his own lights.
5. ANALYTIC METHOD
• It proceeds from unknown to known.
• ‘Analysis’ means ‘breaking up’ of the problem in hand so that it ultimately gets connected with
something obvious or already known.
• It is the process of unfolding of the problem or of conducting its operation to know its hidden
aspects
6. SYNTHETIC METHOD
• It is the opposite of the analytic method.
• one proceeds from known to unknown
• It starts with something already known and connects that with the unknown part of the statement.
7. LABORATORY METHOD
• Mathematics is a subject which has to be learnt by doing rather than by reading.
• This activity method leads the pupil to discover mathematical facts.
• It is based on the principles of ‘learning by doing’, ‘learning by observation’ and proceeding from
concrete to abstract.
• In one sense, it is only an extension of the Inductive Method. It is a more elaborated and practical
form of the Inductive Method
• The drawing of a line, construction of an angle, construction of a triangle or a quadrilateral or a
parallelogram, etc., all involve the use of some equipment and therefore their nature is that of
practical or laboratory work.
8. PROJECT METHOD
• It is based on John Dewey’s philosophy of pragmatism.
• Stevenson defined it as “A problematics act carried to its completion in its natural setting.”
• “A project is a bit of real life that has been imported into the school.” Ballard
• Project plan is a modified form of an old method called “concentration of-studies”.
• The main feature of the ‘concentrationof-studies-plan’ is that some subjects is taken at the core or
center and all other school subjects, as they arise, are studied in connection with it.
 •It is based on the principle of learning by doing. It assumes that knowledge grows by application.
•Two types of projects:
1. Individual Project – carried out by a single individual; and
2. The Social Project – carried out by a group of individuals
9. TROPICAL METHOD
10. CONCENTRIC METHOD
11. PROBLEM METHOD
• It can also be called problem-solving method.
• problem itself is the crux of the problem.
• It pre-supposes the existence of a problem in the teaching-learning situation.
• A problem is a sort of obstruction or difficulty which has to be overcome to reach the goal.
• The problem method aims at presenting the knowledge to be learnt in the form of a problem.

PART 7
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF MATHEMATICS TEACHING

OBJECTIVES
• short term immediate goals or purposes that may be achieved within the specified classroom situation.
• help in bringing about behavioural changes in the learners for the ultimate realization of the aims of
teaching mathematics.
AIMS OF MATHEMATICS
• Utilitarian Aim- knowledge and skills needed in his day-to-day life; function al; purposeful; relation
between the subject and practical life
• Disciplinary Aim- training the mind and develop intellectual habits
• Cultural Aim- understand the contribution of mathematics in the development of role of mathematics in
civilization and culture; f mathematics in civilization and culture; fine arts and beautifying human life
• Adjustment Aim- develop a healthy, purposeful, productive, exploratory, and controlling adjustment with
environment.
• Social Aim- imbibe essential social values
• Moral Aim- imbibe the attributes of morality
• Aesthetic Aim- develop aesthetic sensibilities; meet varying interests; utilize their leisure time
• International Aim- international outlook and understanding
• Vocational Aim- prepare for technical and other vocations where mathematics is applied
• Inter-Disciplinary Aim- insight to application of mathematics in other subjects
• Self-education Aim- independent in learning
• Educational Preparation Aim- prepare for higher education in sciences, engineering, technology, etc
• Developing of Powers Aim- development of powers of thinking, reasoning, concentration, expression,
discovery, etc.
• Harmonious Development Aim- ensure all-round and harmonious development of the personality of the
child
OBJECTIVES OF THE ENTIRE SCHOOL STAGE
• Knowledge and Understanding Objectives
✓ Language of Mathematics
✓ Various Concepts
✓ Mathematical Ideas
✓ Development of the Mathematics
✓ Inter-Relationship Between Different Branches
✓ Nature of Mathematics
• Skill Objectives
✓ Skill in the Use and Understanding of Mathematical Language
✓ Speed, Neatness, Accuracy, Brevity and Precision in Mathematical Calculations
✓ Technique of Problem-Solving
✓ Estimate, Check and Verify Results
✓ Perform Calculations Orally and Mentally
✓ Think Correctly, Draw Conclusions, Generalizations and Inferences
✓ Use Mathematical Tools and Apparatuses
✓ Drawing Geometrical Figures
✓ Drawing, Reading, Interpreting Graphs, and Statistical Tables
✓ Measuring, Weighing and Surveying
✓ Mathematical Tables and Ready References
• Application Objectives
✓ Solve Mathematical Problems Independently
✓ Makes Use of Mathematical Concepts and Processes in Everyday Life
✓ Analyze, Draw Inferences, Generalize from the Collected Data and Evidence
✓ Think and Express Precisely, Exactly, and Systematically by Making Proper Use of Mathematical
Language
 ✓ Use Mathematical Knowledge in the Learning of Other Subjects Especially Sciences
✓ Apply Mathematics in his Future Vocational Life
• Attitude Objectives
✓ Analyze the Problems 0Habit of Systematic Thinking and Objective Reasoning
✓ Heuristic Attitude and Discover Solutions and Proofs with Own Independent Efforts
✓ Collect Enough Evidence for Drawing Inferences, Conclusions, and Generalizations
✓ Adequacy or Inadequacy of Given Data in Relation to Any Problem
✓ Verifies Results
✓ Understands and Appreciates Logical, Critical and Independent Thinking in Others
✓ Expresses Opinions Precisely, Accurately, Logically, and Objectively Without any Biases and
Prejudices
✓ Personal Qualities: Regularity, Honesty, Objectivity, Neatness, and Truthfulness
✓ Self-confidence for Solving Mathematical Problems
✓ Mathematical Perspective and Outlook for Observing the Realm of Nature and Society
✓ Originality and Creativity
• Appreciation and Interest Objectives
✓ Role of Mathematics in Everyday Life
✓ Role of Mathematics in Understanding Environment
✓ Mathematics as the Science of All Sciences and Art of All Arts
✓ Contribution Made by Mathematics in the Development of Civilization and Culture
✓ Aesthetic Nature of Mathematics by Observing Symmetry, Similarity, Order and Arrangement in
Mathematical Facts, Principles, and Processes
✓ Contribution of Mathematics in the Development of Other Branches of Knowledge
✓ Recreational Values of Mathematics and Utilization of Leisure Time
✓ Vocational Value of Mathematics
✓ Role of Mathematical Language, Graphs, and Tables in Giving Precision and Accuracy to
Expression
✓ Power of Computation Developed Through Mathematics
✓ Role of Mathematics in Developing Power of Acquiring Knowledge
✓ Mathematical Problems, Their Intricacies and Difficulties
✓ Interest in the Learning of Mathematics
✓ Entertained by Mathematical Recreations
✓ Active Interest in the Activities of Mathematics Clubs
✓ Active Library Reading, Mathematical Projects, and Doing Practical Work in Mathematics
Laboratory
FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES
• provide a definite direction to the teacher for the planning of his work.
• help us to determine what to teach, how to teach, how to illustrate and how to test.
WHILE FRAMING OBJECTIVES…
• Think of the nature of the subject matter.
• Think of the needs and interests of the students.
• Think of the availability of resources.
EVALUATION
• Discuss the relationship between aims and objectives of teaching mathematics.
• Select any learning unit and formulate the objectives of teaching that unit of mathematics

PART 8
TECHNIQUES IN TEACHING
• Oral Work
➢ It is the work which is done orally without the help of written work and record.
• Written Work
➢ Oral Work must be supplemented by written work.
➢ Whereas oral work forms the beginning, written work forms the end in the earning of a new process.
• Drill Work
➢ It is one of the most widely used devices and practices in our schools.
➢ It is a serious activity which provides opportunity of self-improvement.
• Home Work
➢ School time is insufficient to exhaust everything provided in the curriculum of mathematics.
➢ Giving homework means creating in the child school mania at home also.
• Assignment
➢ It is a work allotment.
➢ It is the work assigned to the student, which may be done by the student at home or at school.
• Self-Study
➢ It is a sort of undertaking or commitment on the part of the learner. He undertakes upon himself
the responsibility of carrying out the work assigned.
• Group Work
 ➢ It is a via-made between class teaching and the individual’s independent work.
➢ It aims at securing the advantages of individualized instruction retaining at the same time the
economic and socially advantageous way of teaching the students together.
• Review
➢ It is one of the important and effective fixing devices.
➢ It is the mental process of going over the material already learnt.
• Supervised Study
➢ It is self-study on the part of the students but in the presence and under the direct supervision of
the teacher. It may be conducted in the regular periods or in case of residential school in after-
school hours.

PART 9
AIDS TO TEACHING AND MATHEMATICS LABORATORY

TWO CATEGORIES OF EQUIPMENT FOR MATHEMATICAL INSTRUCTION

1. Personal Equipment of the Student
2. Equipment of the Mathematics Laboratory
3. Placement of the Material
4. Blackboard
5. Concrete Materials
6. Teach a Number Kit
7. Place-Value Pockets
8. Fractional Parts
9. Charts
10. Models
11. Excursions
12. Collections
13. Radio
14. Television
15. Computers
16. Home-made Equipment
SOME SPECIAL INSTRUMENTS
1. Angle Mirror – useful and inexpensive instrument used as a quick ,easy and practical means of laying out
right angles in the field.
2. Plane Table and Alidade – used for elementary mapping and surveying.
3. Proportional Dividers – can be used to enlarge or reduce maps, diagrams, or pictures; based on the
principle of proportionality in similar triangles.
4. Combined hypsometer and clinometer- a simple device for finding angles of elevation and depression and
for measuring distances and heights of objects indirectly; used for many purposes in simple engineering
or surveying and in numerous activities connected with scout work; extremely valuable in mathematics
classes because of the clear, simple and striking manner in which it illustrates the principles of indirect
measure.
5. Level – another instrument used in finding differences in elevation; necessary in contour mapping, general
surveying and civil engineering
6. Transit – an angle measurer and a leveling instrument
7. Slide rule – one of the most interesting and important of all mathematical instruments; provides a rapid
means of multiplying and dividing numbers, of taking certain powers and roots and of solving proportions;
being increasingly used as a computing instrument in commercial and industrial work.
8. Calculating machine – for demonstration purposes.

PART 10
AROUSING AND MAINTAINING INTEREST IN MATHEMATICS (PRINCIPLES OF MEANINGFUL
LEARNING)

1. LOSS OF INTEREST - one of the principal causes of student failure

2. MATHEMATICS STUDENTS- work effectively at tasks in which they are genuinely interested; and
readily become interested in things which are new and exciting, for which they can perceive practical
values and which involve puzzle elements or elements of mystery.
3. STUDENTS’ WORK- should present a continual challenge, which should be a challenge in the real sense
and not merely drudgery at meaningless, difficult tasks.
PRIMARY STIMULI FOR THE AWAKENING OF INTEREST
➢ elements of novelty,
➢ usefulness, and
➢ sheer intellectual curiosity.
THREE MOTIVES OF INTELLECTUAL ACTIVITIES
➢ thirst for knowledge;
➢ love of truth and beauty;
 ➢ and desire to interpret and control environment.
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES SHOULD ENABLE STUDENTS TO
➢ apply mathematics to other fields of study;
➢ apply mathematics to professional fields;
➢ realize the practical values, cultural values, and recreational values of mathematics.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS FOR STUDY
➢ Avoid unnecessary distractions and interruptions.
➢ Cultivate concentration.
➢ Keep the mind alert.
➢ Develop self-confidence
➢ Practice critical thinking

MEANINGFUL LEARNING
➢ that learning which is oriented towards good experiences and outcomes.
➢ must ensure positive results.
➢ constructive, productive, purposeful and progressive in nature.
PRINCIPLES OF MEANINGFUL LEARNING
➢ Interest and attention
➢ Definite aim
➢ Principle of utility (need-based)
➢ Importance of learning activities
➢ Motivation Proper attitude
➢ Proper methods
➢ Correlation
➢ Proper use of mental faculties
➢ Law of exercise
PURPOSES OF A MATHEMATICS CLUB
➢ It can provide a forum to those interested in mathematics for mathematical activities
➢ The students get opportunities of mathematical hobbies, recreational mathematics, mathematical projects,
mathematical games, mathematical discussions and debates, and mathematical innovations.
➢ The club will be a medium of developing students’ interest in the subject.
➢ Its activities will relate knowledge with activity and life.
➢ It will provide to the students an opportunity of listening to experts and teachers from outside.
➢ They can be invited through this agency to address the students on different topics.

PART 11
THE MATHEMATICS TEACHER

QUALITIES AND ACTIVITIES OF A TEACHER

1. Prerequisite qualifications
2. Professional training
3. Selective academic training
4. Supervised practice training
5. In-service training
6. Professional activities
7. School activities
8. Mathematical organizations
9. Departmental duties
10. Administrative duties
11. Community activates

PART 12
MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION

PURPOSES OF EVALUATION
➢ To help provide more intelligent guidance in teaching and learning.
➢ To develop more effective curricula and educative experiences.
➢ To secure more intelligent and effective cooperation form parents and community.
➢ To provide an adequate and objective basis for reporting progress.
➢ To see that desired behavioral changes have taken place in the students.
CRITERIA FOR MEASURING TESTS
➢ Validity
⚫ A test ⚫ should be worthwhile; ⚫ should measure abilities or traits for which it is intended; ⚫
should be valid for a given group of pupils; ⚫ should satisfactorily fulfill its objectives.
➢ Reliability
⚫ determined by the consistency with which it measures that which it does measure.
 ➢ Administrability

➢ Student Consciousness
➢ Objectivity
➢ Motivation for the student
➢ Utility
⚫ determined directly by the service which it renders.

COMPREHENSIVENESS
The test should be good enough to test the entire classroom work and full contents. It should assess
the knowledge, skills, abilities, interests and attitudes as adequately as possible.
PROGNOSTIC TEST
Given to predict whatever a student is likely to succeed in a particular field of work or not.
DIAGNOSIS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING
⚫ Its aim is to analyze the difficulties of a student in a particular phase of work. ⚫ Its aim is to
reveal reliable information concerning the weaknesses in order to overcome them by concentrated
action, and for determining needs for remedial teaching.
TWO MORE TYPES OF TESTS
1. SURVEY TEST – usually broad in scope; may cover the instructional materials for one… of two or three
months or for an entire year. Its chief purpose is to show the¥¥… amount of student achievement and to
indicate whether the students, sufficient basic preparations to proceed with advanced work of a similar….
a good survey test can be used as a final test in a special topic or in a …subject.
2. Achievement test – used to measure the degree of mastery of skills, fundamental…processes and general
knowledge of a subject, attained by the students …educational tests are actually achievement tests used
for particular…. The so called standardized achievement test are somewhat broad in… and closely
resemble the survey type. The informal tests given in class….work are frequently referred to as
achievement tests, regardless of the… for which they are used.
CLASSIFICATION OF NEW TYPE TESTS
1. Completion Tests – in these tests are provided blanks that have to be filled in by the pupils. These should
be carefully worded so that there should be in pupil's mind no doubt about the correct answer
2. Multiple choice tests – composed of a number of items each of which presents two or more responses, one
of which is correct; regarded as one of the best means of testing, and is definitely superior to the other
types; it tests reasoning, reasoned understanding, sound judgment and discrimination.
3. Matching Tests – consists of two columns where each item in the first column is to be paired with a word
or phrase in the second column upon some basis suggested.
4. True False Tests – their merits are apparent in the case of construction, applicability to a wide range of
subject-matter, objectivity of scoring and wide sampling of knowledge tested per unit of time. But there
is a greater scope of guess work in them.
5. Short-Answer Tests – here each item appears as a direct question. These belong to the category of simple-
recall tests. The answer or response has to be recalled by the pupil from his past experience. It is
differentiated from the easy examination primarily on the basis of length of response or answer required.
Testing can be made more comprehensive with their help

INTELLIGENT ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS

⚫ It is important to know here to use the essay type examination as it is to know how to use it.

PART 13
GIFTED STUDENTS-
Two types of backwaRd students
1. General backwardness
➢ This means all-round backwardness.
➢ It is almost inherited and is due to a low IQ which may be between 50-70.
➢ We can at the most raise it by 7 or 8 points.
2. Particular backwardness
➢ The child is otherwise intelligent, but is weak in mathematics.
➢ Removal here is easier than removal of general backwardness, because the former is a hopeful
case.
Causes and remedies
1. Wrong influence at home
2. Teacher’s behavior
3. Mild session changes
4. Teacher’s reputation
5. Apathy towards method
6. Lack of practice
7. Neglect of home work
8. Irregular attendance
9. Defective handwriting
 10. Examination system

PART 14
DEFECTS IN THE PRESENT-DAY TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS IN SCHOOLS AND THEIR
POSSIBLE REMEDIES

➢ Teacher’s Qualifications – Most of the subject teachers are not adequately qualified in the subjects
concerned and so they fail to do justice to the subject.
DEFECTS AND POSSIBLE REMEDIES
➢ Teacher’s Burden – The teacher is overburdened on all sides and he emphasizes cram work. He cannot
adopt and prepare for effective methods as he has no spare time. His burden does not allow him time to
remove individual difficulties. It should be lightened to enable him to show his originality and initiative.
➢ Teacher’s Salary – His economic position is not good. He remains worried; and a worried teacher cannot
give his best to the learners. He runs after other activities to supplement his income. He is frustrated,
disconnected and half-hearted worker. In these are days he must be suitably paid.
➢ Teacher’s Attitude – Maybe he does not have genuine love for this subject and profession. He may have
been forced by circumstances to take to this profession. He remains on the outlook for a better job and
leaves the profession as soon as he gets an opportunity to do so.
➢ Lack of Purpose – The students do not recognize the purposes behind the study of the topics of
mathematics. The particular and general aims of every topic should be emphasized effectively. The
purpose should be attractive to stimulate the students to work hard.
➢ Lack of Equipment – There is a serious lack of mathematical apparatus in the schools. There should be
an adequate provisions of concrete material in the classroom. Without it, the subject becomes abstract.
➢ Method of Teaching – The teacher clings to traditional methods because these offer the … of least
resistance. The powers of thinking, understanding and retention are not thus developed in the students.
➢ Rigor in Study – The rules, formulae and set patterns are strictly enforced. The study becomes a
tightening belt, not allowing even free breathing. When unfortunately the student cannot adjust himself to
his rigidity, he starts thinking that he is unfit. Thus discouraged, he does not make much progress.
➢ Large Classes – It is a general defect. No individual attention can be paid out becomes difficult for the
teacher to establish close contacts with the students. He cannot easily judge the capacities of the
individuals. This defect can be removed only by limiting the number of students in each class up to a
maximum of forty-five.
➢ Practical Aspect – The practical and application aspect of knowledge is not generally emphasized.
Knowledge given in the classroom is divorced from practical life.
➢ Mathematical Language – Mathematical symbols have their own meanings and have their own
significance within the teachers generally fail to bring home to the students.
➢ Syllabus – The greater defect of the syllabus is that it does not proved hints and instructions for teachers
guidance. The teacher cannot deal with the syllabus effectively, because most of the details are left to him.
the syllabus has to be thoroughly comprehensive so that the teachers can get some help form it.
➢ Text-Books – The authors have not been able to get rid of dogmatism and traditionalism. The illustrations
and problems given in the textbooks are divorced from actual life.
➢ The Students – Math is a sequence subject, and if a student is absent even for a few days, the sequence
is broken and he fails to comprehend the subsequent steps. An irregular student cannot pull on well in this
subject.
➢ Child-Centric Approach – Teaching has been subject-centric and not child centric. The child has been
treated a miniature adult. Knowledge is thrust on him. It has been presumed that all the students of a class
have the same capacity, same tastes, aptitudes, power of grasp and speed of work.
➢ Libraries and laboratories – The library should offer books of general interest and also books on the
method of teaching. The laboratory should provide for bb instruments, charts, models, instruments and
various other materials. The mathematics room should look as such.
➢ Ban on short-cut methods – The quickest shortest and easiest methods of solving problems should be
popularized. The desire to save the time and effort is natural/ quick methods of calculation are much
wanted in actual life also.
➢ Examinations – The aim is to get through the examination rather than to understand and grasp the subject.
The student’ enthusiasm and interest are curbed. The dominance of examination should go. The system
needs a thorough overhauling.