Name: Sheeba Javed

Roll number: CB567532

Subject name: Curriculum and Instruction
Course code: 6503
Date: 7th july,2021
Semester Terminal Exam

Q1. Explain the specific principles applied to each instructional style. Compare the cost
effectiveness of different styles of instruction.
Instructional Methods

1. Problem solving method

We all know that education is through the life and for the life. In our life, we face many good and bad
times. There are problems in various situations. We learn solving them, without which life is incomplete.
We train and educate our learners how to deal with situations, how to tackle and settle things in context
to school learning We may define problem solving as: "A manner of dealing with that, which is
problematic. A method involving clear definition of problems confronted, formation of hypothetical
solutions, hunch or suggestion, deliberate test of hypothesis until evidence warrants its acceptance".

It may be defined as a planned attack upon a difficulty or perplexity for the purpose of finding a
satisfactory solution. So, it is a method in which the felt hurdle to act in an educational situation is
realized and an attempt is made in a conscious, planned and purposeful way to find its solution.

Location

Students should be directed to locate some problem and their interest in its solution should be aroused.
Questions and discussions are a very important tool at this stage. They should take a problem as
challenge and find a solution.

Explanation

Either a teacher has to explain a problem or else pupils know of it, after adiscussion Student's age level
and their understanding are important in determining a problem. Collection of data

After discussion, data is to be procured. Sources are to be given by ateacher. Pupils getting data,
startevaluation.

Evaluation

Only pertinent data should be included in evaluation, which should bebased on careful analysis.

Tentative Solutions
All inferences are tentative in the beginning. Here a teacher's guidance isvery important and his
pationce is also tested. He should suggest inferences and solutions in the right way without
discouraging the pupils.

Verification of results

After the best conclusion has been drawn, it should be proved to be right, for acceptance. This can be
achieved as below:-

By using hypothesis in new contexts:

By further experimentation, and

By collecting new information data through study and

Investigation Methods

There are two methods of problem solving:

Inductive

Deductive

1. Inductive

In this method generalizations are drawn from particulars. Principles are framed from observations and
rules are made from instances or examples.

Sensing a problem

The pupils define their problem.

Analysis

: After analysis, relevant information is found out. Books help after study, pursuing references and visits
to places etc. are some of the ways.

Organization

After collecting information, the pupils put it in order, under the guidance of their teacher.

Making solutions

Pupils find out the probable solutions, while the teacher remains in background. Here we may say that
tentative solutions and its alternatives are developed and framed by pupils independently.

Elimination

Learning the most probable solution, others are excluded.

Verification

Solutions are applied to the situation and results are checked. Repetition of this step is carried out until
correct solution is found out.

2. Deductive
In this process, rules, principles and conclusions are applied to particular cases. Following steps are
proceeded:

Understanding Problem

Pupils follow it. They define the problem and formulate it.

Collection of information

They gather information for study later.

Review

Principles and generalizations are reviewed to find as to which may be applicable to find a suitable
solution.

Drawing Inferences

Generalizations, principles or rules are applied to a case and inference is drawn that a problem falls
under a particular principle.

Verification

The principle is applied to a case, if it solves the problem; otherwise the method is repeated to find the
correct one.

Advantages

Problem solving method do possess benefits that are listed as below:

Pupils learn facts themselves. This is real education/ learning. Discovery takes place. Acting in new
situation is learnt. Confidence to face the problem is developed. Defining the problem and verification
of result is learnt. Curiosities of pupils are satisfied and devices are found out. Ideas are born and
originality is developed.

Project Method

We may define it as, "A problematic act carried out to its completion in its natural setting".

This method builds a unit around an activity that is carried out in education setting, might be formal or
informal. Its main aim is to accomplish a useful task in-group setting, whereby all work is done in a
cooperative manner. In this method students are given freedom to select their projects after careful
thinking. Two important laws of a project are:

Learning by Doing

Learning by Living

New we will look at the steps of a project.

Steps in a Project

Provision of a situation
A situation is identified or arranged in which some problems are available with interesting ingredient for
the pupils.

Selection of Objectives

A teacher guides and facilitates his pupils in this phase too, to select and find out aims and objectives of
the project being selected, keeping in mind real needs of pupils,

Planning

This is a very important step, so one must be careful in drawing a blueprint for a project. Planning should
include a few alternatives. A discussion to exchange group ideas and views is very crucial. Suggestions
must be critically examined and utilized.

Execution

Among group members are assigned duties in a way that all get activities of their choice and capability.
No doubt, it needs patience of contributors to make it a success. In one project many activities can be
developed. They all help in knowledge growth.

Evaluation

Work done on project must be evaluated by themselves (student group) and supervisor (teacher) as
well, to locate the follies. Self-criticism is worth training giving. In this step objectives (pre-sct) of that
project are the standard and performance is measured against this standard.

Recording

Group/individuals must maintain a full record of various steps.

Planning, discussions, assignment of duties, criticisms and such like other points are noted for future
reference and guidance.

Qualities of a good Project

To make this method a fruitful and purposeful one it must possess following qualities:

• Clear and solid aim.

• Practicable.

• Interesting and relevant to pupilo' need.

• Knowledge based to bring some development

• Encouraging Ingredient and have pupils' level.

• Clear and well defined scope.

• cal terms of money and time,

• Time oriented neither too short nor too long.

• Challenging
• Attainable. (Availability of material, information, tools, etc. should be kept in mind before
starting

work on a project.)

A Project Aims to Bring a Child out of Bewilderment. After looking at qualities, now we will learn about
merits and demerits of this method. Like other methods, it possesses benefits and drawbacks. So
keeping in mind these aspects we can use this method in the best way.

Demerits

• Time consuming

• Teacher is overloaded with work.

• Teacher does forced correlation, which is much harmful.

• Syllabus of advance classes cannot be covered with this method, as it requires greater time.

• Teacher is expected to have full knowledge of all subjects, which is ideal but not practicable.

• Students gain outward ideas of subjects only.

• Text and reference materials are found with scarcity.

• Expensive, as well as fully equipped laboratory and library, is required.

Q2. Explain the need of conceptual framework for curriculum design. How can it help in
foreseeing the problems of curriculum design.

Answer:

Curriculum design is a term used to describe the purposeful, deliberate, and systematic organization of
curriculum (instructional blocks) within a class or course. In other words, it is a way for teachers to plan
instruction. When teachers design curriculum, they identify what will be done, who will do it, and what
schedule to follow.

Purpose of Curriculum Design

Teachers design each curriculum with a specific educational purpose in mind. The ultimate goal is to
improve student learning, but there are other reasons to employ curriculum design as well. For example,
designing a curriculum for middle school students with both elementary and high school curricula in
mind helps to make sure that learning goals are aligned and complement each other from one stage to
the next. If a middle school curriculum is designed without taking prior knowledge from elementary
school or future learning in high school into account it can create real problems for the students.

Types of Curriculum Design

There are three basic types of curriculum design:

Subject-centered design

Learner-centered design

Problem-centered design

Subject-Centered Curriculum Design

Subject-centered curriculum design revolves around a particular subject matter or discipline. For
example, a subject-centered curriculum may focus on math or biology. This type of curriculum design
tends to focus on the subject rather than the individual. It is the most common type of curriculum used
in K-12 public schools in states and local districts in the United States.

Subject-centered curriculum design describes what needs to be studied and how it should be studied.
Core curriculum is an example of a subject-centered design which can be standardized across schools,
states, and the country as a whole. In standardized core curricula, teachers are provided a pre-
determined list of things that they need to teach their students, along with specific examples of how
these things should be taught. You can also find subject-centered designs in large college classes in
which teachers focus on a particular subject or discipline.

The primary drawback of subject-centered curriculum design is that it is not student-centered. In

particular, this form of curriculum design is constructed without taking into account the specific learning
styles of the students. This can cause problems with student engagement and motivation and may even
cause students to fall behind in class.

Learner-Centered Curriculum Design

In contrast, learner-centered curriculum design takes each individual’s needs, interests, and goals into
consideration. In other words, it acknowledges that students are not uniform and adjusts to those
student needs. Learner-centered curriculum design is meant to empower learners and allow them to
shape their education through choices.

Instructional plans in a learner-centered curriculum are differentiated, giving students the opportunity
to choose assignments, learning experiences or activities. This can motivate students and help them stay
engaged in the material that they are learning.

The drawback to this form of curriculum design is that it is labor intensive. Developing differentiated
instruction puts pressure on the teacher to create instruction and/or find materials that are conducive
to each student’s learning needs. Teachers may not have the time or may lack the experience or skills to
create such a plan. Learner-centered curriculum design also requires that teachers balance student
wants and interests with student needs and required outcomes, which is not an easy balance to obtain.

Problem-Centered Curriculum Design

Like learner-centered curriculum design, problem-centered curriculum design is also a form of student-
centered design. Problem-centered curricula focus on teaching students how to look at a problem and
come up with a solution to the problem. Students are thus exposed to real-life issues, which helps them
develop skills that are transferable to the real world. Problem-centered curriculum design increases the
relevance of the curriculum and allows students to be creative and innovate as they are learning. The
drawback to this form of curriculum design is that it does not always take learning styles into
consideration.

Curriculum Design Tips

The following curriculum design tips can help educators manage each stage of the curriculum design
process.

Identify the needs of stakeholders (i.e., students) early on in the curriculum design process. This can be
done through needs analysis, which involves the collection and analysis of data related to the learner.
This data might include what learners already know and what they need to know to be proficient in a
particular area or skill. It may also include information about learner perceptions, strengths, and
weaknesses.

Create a clear list of learning goals and outcomes. This will help you to focus on the intended purpose of
the curriculum and allow you to plan instruction that can achieve the desired results. Learning goals are
the things teachers want students to achieve in the course. Learning outcomes are the measurable
knowledge, skills, and attitudes that students should have achieved in the course.

Identify the instructional methods that will be used throughout the course and consider how they will
work with student learning styles. If the instructional methods are not conducive to the curriculum, the
instructional design or the curriculum design will need to be altered accordingly.

Establish evaluation methods that will be used at the end and during the school year to assess learners,
instructors, and the curriculum. Evaluation will help you determine if the curriculum design is working or
if it is failing. Examples of things that should be evaluated include the strengths and weaknesses of the
curriculum and achievement rates related to learning outcomes. The most effective evaluation is
ongoing and summative.

Remember that curriculum design is not a one-step process; continuous improvement is a necessity. The
design of the curriculum should be assessed periodically and refined based on assessment data. This
may involve making alterations to the design part way through the course to ensure that learning
outcomes or a certain level of proficiency will be achieved at the end of the course.

Q3. Design strategies for the evaluation of specific educational programmes and suggest means for
their improvement.

Answer:

Evaluation has been defined by Oerman and Gaberson as “a process of making judgements about
student learning and achievement, clinical performance, employee competence, and educational
programs, based on assessment data”. Keating defined evaluation as “a process by which information
about an entity is gathered to determine its worth” and involves making “value judgements about
learners, as value is part of the word evaluation”. Evaluation is used in various professional contexts on a
daily basis in order to make decisions for complex matters that require individuals or methods of
practice to be either certified, secured or improved. With regard to the educational context, many of the
terms, concepts, and theories of educational evaluation originated from business models, and have
been adapted to education, especially in light of an increased emphasis on outcomes.

A variety of evaluation approaches have been developed throughout the relatively short but plentiful
life of evaluation. Evaluation in education has received both criticism and approval from the scientific
community. Many authors expressed their scepticism about the application of evaluation in education,
and have discussed the difficulties of implementing evaluation theory in practice. From the early years of
evaluation, programme evaluation was considered as a problematic issue for several reasons. The
impracticality of evaluation instruments, the lack of students’ involvement in the evaluation process, the
low response rate and poor commitment of faculty staff are some of the issues that have thrown doubt
on the practicality of programme evaluation. In the past, programme evaluation was characterised as a
time-consuming, monotonous procedure, with doubtful results and struggling processes. Others
considered evaluation as a necessary but complex component of curriculum design, development and
implementation. Traditionally, the complexity of evaluation was highlighted and, for this reason,
evaluation was the least understood and the most neglected element of curriculum design and
development. In the same context, however, programme evaluation was considered as an important
element of programme development, despite being neglected due to its complex nature and the
increased problems for policy makers and programme planners.

Different views were presented in the past by various authors who revealed the constructive nature of
evaluation and claimed that evaluation is a vital component of programme development. Rolfe for
example, who expressed concerns about the practicality of educational evaluation, also emphasised that
evaluation is an important element of curriculum development and implementation. O’Neill stressed
that evaluation is one of the most significant facets of curriculum development, even if it is carried out
solely for the purpose of providing the faculty with a sense of security. In addition, Shapiro and Grant-
Haworth and Conrad, associate the notion of quality with evaluation and consider evaluation as a
prerequisite for developing and sustaining high–quality educational programmes. The authors
underscored that programme quality and programme evaluation have been strongly emphasised in
higher education, despite the fact that evaluators and educators often conveyed criticism and divergent
opinions.

Historically, these contrasting views highlight the value of educational evaluation as well as its
complexity and impracticality. These can be the reasons for poor and unsuccessful implementation of
evaluation in practice. Despite, however, the opposing views on the utilization and usefulness of
programme evaluation, there is a general agreement among authors of the earlier and later times that
evaluation is an essential part of the educational process. Perhaps this is the reason that successive
attempts have been made throughout the 20th century to evaluate educational programmes and
curricula. These attempts will be reviewed in chronological order.

The evaluation of educational programmes is considered as an important action for educators in the
field of nursing. Throughout the history of nursing education a variety of methods and models of
evaluation have been developed and used to evaluate educational activities. Aim: The aim of this paper
is to review the history of evaluation in nursing education, and to highlight its contribution to modern
evaluation thinking. Methodology: A literature search of the electronic databases ProQuest, Google
Scholar, CINHAL+ and PubMed was conducted, benchmarking texts on evaluation and education as well
as articles and documents describing evaluation theories and methods in education. Findings: ?
significant number of evaluation models were developed and tested in real educational contexts. Their
utilization in education had a significant impact on course improvement and quality, but most of the
evaluation models were criticized for their multifaceted nature. Despite this, their contribution to the
development of modern evaluation approaches is evident. Conclusion: The history of evaluation in
education highlighted the contradictory attributes of educational evaluation, its usefulness in different
educational contexts, and its complexity in implementation. These opposing characteristics led to the
development of novel evaluative activities focuses on flexibility.