Welcome: Water Chemistry and Operation of DM Plant

WELCOME
WATER CHEMISTRY AND

OPERATION OF DM PLANT
PRESENTED BY
PREMPAL SINGH CHAUHAN
SHIFT ENGINEER (PROD. CP&O)
1
REFERENCES
DM Plant manual
Chemistry for Environmental Engineering by
C.N. SAWYER
Mass Transfer Operations by Robert Treybal
Ion Exchange And Inorganic Adsorption
by Dennis A. Clifford, Ph.D., P.E., DEE
Ion Exchange Processes by TECHNIFAX
BS2486, British Standards Institution, 1978
Different Websites
2
DM PLANT
The process of removing the dissolved solids from
water using Ion Exchange is known as
Demineralization.
This process comprises of:-
Conversion of salts to their corresponding acids
by hydrogen cation exchanger.
Removal of acids by anion exchangers.
PURPOSE OF DM PLANT
To produce demineralized water after removal of
ionic impurities to make suitable as boiler feed
water for different boilers in the complex either
from filter water or from steam cond. & Process
cond.
3
KNOW YOUR WATER ?
The chemical name of water is Dihydrogen monoxide and
IUPAC name of water is Oxidane. Water is a chemical substance
with the chemical formula H2O. Its molecule contains one oxygen
and two hydrogen atoms connected by single covalent bonds.
Water is a liquid at ambient temperature, but it often co-exists on
Earth with its solid state, ice, and gaseous state (water vapor).
As per the universal acceptability, water safe for drinking is called
pure. Pure water is a non-conductive substance and is insipid.
Water itself contains H+ ions and OH- ions. Pure water dissociates
to yield a concentration of H+ ions equal to about 10-7 mol/L.
Reactions H++OH- = H2O (1) & 2H2O = H3O++OH- (2)
Pure water at about 25°C
[H+ ][OH- ] = 10-7*10-7 =10-14 (Ion product)
Impure water is water that has impurities, such as salts, hardness,
metal ions, etc. 4
HOW WATER BECOME IMPURE?
Water is one of the basic requirements in production of steam. In
nature water is available in abundance. Its physical and chemical
characteristics vary depending upon the source and strata on which
it flows. It picks up mineral salts from the soil, which go in to
solution.
Water, therefore contains mineral salts in dissolved condition, in
varying proportions, composition and degree. It gets polluted
further with multifarious organic and in organic impurities due to
disposal of industrial and domestic wastes.
Decayed vegetation and micro-organism also contribute to
contamination.
Water also contains coarse substance in suspended form,
constituting of silt and clay matters, generally termed as turbidity.
Silicate matters are present in dissolved as well as in colloidal forms,
proportion of which varies depending mainly on the following
conditions:
Temperature
Seasonal Conditions
Chemical characteristics of the particulate
Velocity of the flow 5
TYPE OF IMPURITIES
Dissolved mineral matters present in water are composed of metallic
component (cations) and acidic component(anions) in equal quantity of
positively charged cations & negatively charged anion.
Ionic &Dissolved Nonionic And Gaseous
Cationic Anionic Undissolved
Calcium Bicarbonate Turbidity, Silt Carbon Dioxide
Magnesium Carbonate Mud ,Dirt And Hydrogen Sulfide
Sodium Hydroxide Other Suspended Ammonia
Matters.
Potassium Sulphate Colour Methane
Ammonium Chloride Organic Matter Oxygen
Iron Phosphate Collodial Silica, Chlorine
Manganese Bisilicate (HSiO3), Micro-organism
Silicate (SiO3), Plankton, Bacteria
Silicic Acid (H2SiO3)
Organic Oil And Corrosion

Matter Products
6
SOLUBLE AND SUSPENDED IMPURITIES
FOUND IN WATER AND THEIR FFFECTS
Chemical
Constituent Difficulties caused Means of treatment
formula
Non-
1. Imparts unsightly appearance to
expressed in Coagulation, settling,
water; deposits in water lines,
Turbidity analysis as and filtration
process equipment, etc.
units
calcium and Softening;

Chief source of scale in heat
2. magnesium demineralization;
exchange equipment, boilers, pipe
salts, internal boiler water
Hardness lines, etc.; Forms curds with soap,
expressed as treatment; surface
interferes with dyeing, etc.
CaCO3 active agents
3. Aeration, deaeration,
Corrosion in water lines, particularly
Carbon CO2 neutralization with
steam and condensate lines
dioxide alkalies
7
---contd-2
4. Hydrogen ion
pH concentration pH varies according to acidic or pH can be increased by
defined as: alkaline solids in water; most natural alkalies and decreased by
= - Log( H+) waters have a pH of 6.0-8.0 acids
Adds to solids content of water, but

5. Demineralization, reverse
in itself is not usually significant,
SO42- osmosis, electrodialysis,
Sulfate combines with calcium to form
evaporation
calcium sulfate scale
Adsorption with
6. Cause of mottled enamel in teeth; magnesium hydroxide,
F- also used for control of dental decay: calcium phosphate, or
Fluoride not usually significant industrially bone black; alum
coagulation
Adds to solids content of water:

7. Demineralization, reverse
when combined with OH-, causes
Na+ osmosis, electrodialysis,
Sodium corrosion in boilers under certain
evaporation
conditions
8
---contd-3
Aeration; coagulation and
Discolors water on precipitation;
8. filtration; lime softening;
Fe2+ (ferrous) source of deposits in water lines,
cation exchange; contact
Iron Fe3+ (ferric) boilers. etc.; Interferes with dyeing,
filtration; surface active
tanning, papermaking, etc.
agents for iron retention
9.
Mn2+ Same as iron Same as iron
Manganese
10. Corrosion of water lines, heat

Deaeration; sodium sulfite;
O2 exchange equipment, boilers,
Oxygen corrosion inhibitors
return lines, etc.
11. Aeration; chlorination;

Cause of "rotten egg" odor;
Hydrogen H2S highly basic anion
corrosion
sulfide exchange
9
---contd-4
12. Cation exchange with
Corrosion of copper and zinc alloys by
NH3 hydrogen zeolite;
Ammonia formation of complex soluble ion
chlorination; deaeration
Refers to total amount of dissolved Lime softening and cation

13. matter, determined by evaporation; exchange by hydrogen
Dissolved None high concentrations are objectionable zeolite; demineralization,
solids because of process interference and reverse osmosis,
as a cause of foaming in boilers electrodialysis, evaporation
14. Refers to the measure of undissolved

Subsidence; filtration,
matter, determined gravimetrically;
Suspended None usually preceded by
deposits in heat exchange equipment,
solids coagulation and settling
boilers, water lines, etc.
15. Refers to the sum of dissolved and

See "dissolved solids" and
None suspended solids, determined
Total solids "suspended solids"
gravimetrically
10
---contd-5
16. H2SO4 , HCl.
etc., Neutralization with
Free mineral expressed as Corrosion alkalies
acid CaCO3
Adds to solids content, but is not

Demineralization,
17. usually significant industrially: high
reverse osmosis,
NO3- concentrations cause
Nitrate electrodialysis,
methemoglobinemia in infants; useful
evaporation
for control of boiler metal embrittlement
Demineralization,
18. Adds to solids content and increases reverse osmosis,
Cl -
Chloride corrosive character of water electrodialysis,
evaporation
11
---contd-6
Lime and lime-soda
Bicarbonate
Foam and carryover of solids with softening; acid treatment;
(HCO3-),
19. steam; embrittlement of boiler hydrogen zeolite
carbonate (CO32-),
steel; bicarbonate and carbonate softening;
Alkalinity and hydroxide
produce co2 in steam, a source of demineralization
(OH-), expressed
corrosion in condensate lines dealkalization by anion
as CaCO3
exchange
Usually present as a result of floc

20. carryover from clarifier; can cause
Improved clarifier and
Al3+ deposits in cooling systems and
Aluminum filter operation
contribute to complex boiler
scales
Hot and warm process

21. Scale in boilers and cooling water removal by magnesium
SiO2 systems; insoluble turbine blade salts; adsorption by
Silica deposits due to silica vaporization highly basic anion
exchange resins.
12
IMPORTANCE OF VARIOUS PARAMETERS
High MW organics such as tannins, tannic acid, humic acid, and
fulvic acid are present in water due to decomposition of vegetable
matter
BOD-- The amount of O2 consumed in the oxidation of organic
matter by biological action under specific test condition. It is also
called BOD”5”.
COD – The amount of matter both organic and inorganic, in a
water which can be oxidized by boiling with a strong oxidizing acid
(Hot chromic acid K2Cr2O7) and expressed as the equivalent
amount of O2
OA – O2 Absorbed by acidified KMnO4 during a 4 hr period. It is a
useful control test and determines the amount of organic matter.
Oxygen absorbed value indicates fouling tendency of water due to
colloidal organic matter.
Conductivity – The power to carry electrical current, in water the
conductivity is related to the concentration of ions capable of
carrying electrical current. Its measurement is used to determine13
the amount of ionized impurities in water
FMA, Total Dissolved Solids
Free mineral acidity : FMA is due to the presence of acids such as
sulfuric, nitric, and hydrochloric. The FMA of the feed water
influences the choice of resin. A measure of the total
concentration of the strong acids in the effluent of the cation
exchanger resins is the Free Mineral Acidity.
Total solids are dissolved solids plus suspended and settleable
solids in water. In stream water, dissolved solids consist of
calcium, chlorides, nitrate, phosphorus, iron, sulfur, and other
ions particles that will pass through a filter with pores of around 2
microns (0.002 cm) in size.
Suspended solids include silt and clay particles, plankton, algae,
fine organic debris, and other particulate matter.
Measuring TDS with the density method
TDS (ppm) = 1.1 106 (ρ - 1)
ρ = relative density of the boiler water at 15.5oC
Measuring TDS with the conductivity method
TDS (ppm) = 0.7 σ Where σ = conductivity (μs/cm)
The palatability of drinking water has been rated according to TDS
con. If TDS is <80 ppm, water is excellent. 14
SILICA
Silica is a glassy insoluble solid. Various oxides of SiO2 are
soluble in water. Silica is generally found in water supplies in
three different forms: Reactive (dissolved) silica, colloidal
and suspended particles (e.g. Sand).
Colloidal silica is insoluble and is something that can be
filtered out with a whatman filter. And is removed in PTP
by filteration and coagulation technique.
Reactive silica - removed in DM plant
Total silica should be the sum of the reactive silica and
colloidal silica.
Colloidal silica is difficult to detect in low (ppb)
concentrations, and not many labs are capable of providing
analyses.
At high temp and pressure it converts in reactive silica
Removal of silica is important as silica tends to volatilize into
steam and gets deposited on the turbine blades.
15
---silica-2
Silica is weakly dissociated and is therefore not counted
as ions. It dissociates under conditions of high pH in
strong base resins.
When not properly controlled, silica forms highly
insulating, difficult to remove deposits in cooling
systems, boilers, and turbines. An understanding of some
of the possible variations in silica testing is valuable.
Silica exists in a wide range of structures, from a simple
silicate to a complicated polymeric material. The
polymeric structure can persist when the material is
dissolved in surface waters.
The size of the silica polymer can be substantial, ranging
up to the colloidal state. Colloidal silica is rarely present
in ground waters. It is most commonly present in surface
waters during periods of high runoff.
16
CARBONATE" OR "TEMPORARY" HARDNESS
Carbonate hardness or Temporary Hardness: is due
to presence of HCO3 & CO3 of Ca++ & Mg++ in water
These compounds result from the action of acidic,
carbon dioxide laden rain water on naturally
occurring minerals in the earth, such as limestone.
For example:
CO2 + H2O = H2CO3
H2CO3 + CaCO3 ¯ = Ca(HCO3)2
The "carbonate" or "temporary" hardness may be
reduced in concentration simply by heating. In
effect, heating reverses the solution reaction:
Ca(HCO3)2+HEAT=CaCO3¯ +H2O+ CO2
17
PERMANENT HARDNESS
Permanent Hardness: is due to presence of SO4- - NO3-, Cl-,
of Ca++ & Mg++
Hardness may also be present as a sulfate or chloride salt.
These salts are caused by mineral acids present in rain
water or the solution of naturally occurring acidic minerals.
Reduction of non carbonate or permanent hardness , by
contrast, requires chemical addition. A combination of
lime and soda ash, along with coagulant and flocculent
chemicals, is added to raw water to promote a
precipitation reaction. This allows softening to take place.
Pseudo Hardness: Sea, brackish waters can contain Na+
ion which interfere with the normal behavior of soap.
Hardness due to high concentration of Na+ is termed as
pseudo-hardness.
18
pH CONTROL
As Water molecule is expressed as H2O=H++OH-
Pure H2O exists as an equilibrium between the acid
species, H+ (more correctly expressed as a
protonated water molecule, the hydronium ion, H30+)
and the hydroxyl radical, OH -.
Good pH control is essential for effective control of
deposition and corrosion in many water systems.
Therefore, it is important to have a good
understanding of the meaning of pH and the factors
that affect it.
In neutral water the acid concentration equals the
hydroxyl concentration and at room temperature
they both are present at 10-7 gram equivalents (or
moles) per liter.
19
ALKALINITY
Alkalinity is the ability of a natural water to
neutralize acids (i.e. to reduce the pH depression
expected from a strong acid ).
Alkalinity is of 3 types.
1.Bicarbonate Alkalinity
2.Carbonate Alkalinity
3.Hydroxide or caustic Alkalinity
Total or M alkalinity = OH- +CO3- +HCO3-(0 at pH
4.2)
Methyl Orange Alkalinity (M. Alkalinity):- During
titration with an acid, the color change takes
place at about pH of 4.3 (Orange to Pink) 20
---contd-2
Phenolphthalein Alkalinity (p Alk.) is determined by
titration with an acid and the colour change (pink to
colorless) takes place at pH of about 8.3.
P alkalinity = OH- +1/2 CO3-(0 at pH 8.3)
EMA is the total concentration of neutral salts in water
expressed in terms of CaCO3= This is the sum of all ions
of SO4- - +NO3- +Cl- in raw water.
FMA is the total concentration of all uncombined strong
acids in water expressed in terms of CaCO3 i.e. acids form
from Neutral salts
M alk + EMA = Total Cation =Total anion
Total cations – hardness = Na + K
pH: 0 – 14 Acidity or alkalinity
Turbidity: Suspended, Colloidal Matter
21
METHOD OF EXPRESSING DISSOLVED IMPURITIES
Dissolved impurities may be expressed in terms of ions themselves
or in terms of their equivalent. The preferred method of
expression in water treatment field is in terms of equivalent of
Calcium Carbonate abbreviated ‘as CaCO3 .’ CaCO3 is a good
common denominator because it has a molecular weight of 100,
which facilitates calculations.
CaCO3 is also taken because it is the major impurity responsible
for scale formation so called hardness in water.
If analysis expressed in terms of ions, it can be converted to the
form of expression in terms of equivalent CaCO3 by dividing figures
by equivalent weight of ions then multiplying by equivalent weight
of CaCO3(i.e. 50).
For example if amount of Calcium in water is 40 ppm as Ca++ then
during expressing it in terms of CaCO3 it becomes 40/20 X 50 = 100
ppm as CaCO3. (Here 20 is equivalent wt. of Ca++) .
22
STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES
INVOLVED IN DM
Ion exchange
Distillation
Freezing
Solvent extraction
Membrane technique
Electro-dialysis
Reverse osmosis
Osmionic process
23
WHY ION EXCHANGE (IX)
Ix is less expensive than RO.
Ix (4%)creates less waste than RO (25%).
Treated water quality is much better.
RO requires 4-10 times more energy to operate than ix.
Ix used only cheap chemicals: H2SO4 & NaOH while RO
requires expensive antiscalants & membrane cleaning
chemicals.
With RO a clogged or ruptured membrane requires
immediate plant shutdown while no sudden failure
with ix (leaves you time to take action)
24
ION EXCHANGE
Dictionary definition of ion exchange resin is a polymer
made up of monomer having at least one benzene ring
insoluble solid material which carries exchangeable ions.
A reversible stoichiometric process.
Every ion which is removed from the solution is replaced
by equivalent amount of another ion of same charge.
After the ion exchange, the exchanger material can be
brought back to original form by process called
regeneration
In an ion exchange process, cations or anions in a liquid
solution (usually aqueous) replace dissimilar and
displaceable ions of the same charge contained in the ion
exchange resin.
25
ION EXCHANGE
What is ion: -atom or group of atoms with one or
more positive or negative electric charges.
Ion exchange operations are metathetical chemical
adsorption reactions between an electrolyte(ion) in
the solution and an insoluble electrolyte(Resin) with
which the solution is contacted.
Electrolytes are substances that become ions in
solution and acquire the capacity to conduct
electricity. Common electrolytes include sodium,
potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate
The mechanism of these reactions and the
technique used to bring them about resemble those
of adsorption so closely that for most engineering
purposes ion exchange is simply considered as
special case of adsorption. 26
THE RATE OF ION EXCHANGE
The rate of ion exchange depends on :-
1. Diffusion of ions from the bulk of the liquid to
the external surface of resin.
2. Inward diffusion of ions through the solid to
the site of resins .
3. Exchange of ions. Surface area of resin is 50-60
m2/gm.
4. Outward diffusion of the released ions to the
surface of the solid of the bulk to the liquid
5. Diffusion of the released ions from the surface
of the solid to the bulk to the liquid.
27
CLASSIFICATION ION EXCHANGE RESINS
Ion exchange resins are classified as cation exchangers, which
have positively charged mobile ions available for exchange, and
anion exchangers, whose exchangeable ions are negatively
charged.
Both anion and cation resins are produced from the same basic
organic polymers. They differ in the ionizable group attached to
the hydrocarbon network.
It is the functional group that determines the chemical behavior
of the resin Ion Exchange Resins
Cation Exchange Anion Exchange
WAC SAC WBA SBA
Type I Type II
28
RESINS
Preparation of resin matrix.
Polymerization of styrene & DVB.
CH = CH2 CH = CH2 CH - CH2 - CH - CH2
CH = CH2 CH - CH2-
STYRENE - DVB
COPOLYMER 29
STRUCTURE OF ION EXCHANGE RESINS-2
The polymer is any of a class of natural or synthetic substances composed
of macromolecules that are multiples of monomers. Polymers may consist
of long chains of unbranched or branched monomers or may be cross-
linked networks of monomers in two or three dimensions.
Most frequently used compounds are:-
1.Styrene
2.Die vinyl – Benzene
The long chained co-polymer formed from these compounds contains a
major proportion of styrene (84-98%) and a minor portion of divinely
Benzene (2-16%). Divinyl Benzene acts as a cross link to hold the polymer
chains together.
Cross-linking provides toughness and insolubility of the resin. The amount
of the cross-linking agent (divinylbenzene) may vary within the range 2%-
16%.
Ion exchange resins may differ in their porous structure: microporous (gel)
resins and macroporous resins.
30
FIGURE- Organic cation-exchanger bead comprising polystyrene polymer cross-
linked with divinylbenzene with fixed coions (minus charges) of negative charge
balanced by mobile positively charged counterions (plus charges). ----contd-3
31
----contd-4.
To make strong acid cation exchanger polymer is treated with
concentrated sulphuric acid, which attaches – SO3H to the hydro carbon
network.
The resin when dry shrinks so that chains come very close together and
the bead cannot be readily penetrated by the ions, but when placed in
water, it takes on water and swells, so that the chains spread apart and
permits the diffusion of the ions.
The degree of swelling depends on the degree of cross linking, i.e. the
number of cross links. The greater the no. of cross links, less the
moisture holding capacity and the swelling.
From the kinetic point of view, for a steady exchange reaction it will be
desirable to have as low as a degree of cross linkage as possible, but this
would result in a high degree of swelling and an accompanying
gelatinous structure having poor hydraulics properties.
The design of commercial ion exchange resin is therefore involves a
choice of cross linking that represents a compromise between kinetic
and hydraulic performance.
32
MICROPOROUS (GEL) RESINS-5
Microporous(gel) is the term used to describe very lightly cross-
linked polystyrene beads.
Gel resins are most widely used and have higher ion capacity.
When dry, the beads are hard and spherical, however most of
the functionality is contained within the interior of the particles.
In effect the polymer chains try to dissolve, but the light cross-
linking ensures that the material remains in gel form.
Once swollen, reagents can readily diffuse into the interior of the
beads, and excess reagents or by-products can be washed away.
1% DVB(divinylbenzene) is sufficient to lightly crosslink
polystyrene particles.
When swollen in solvent, the particles will almost double in
diameter (resulting in a six to eight fold increase in volume).
If the beads are to be dried, they should be washed in a solvent
which causes them to reduce in size. 33
MACROPOROUS RESINS-6
Macro-porous resins are used for treating severely contaminated
solutions due to their ability to elute foulants.
Macro-porous particles are fundamentally very different to
micro-porous.
They contain a high proportion, more than 12%, of
divinylbenzene cross linker, which makes them extremely rigid.
They offer a higher resistance to oxidation and organic fouling.
In order to provide access to the interior of the particles, the
method of manufacture introduces network of inter penetrating
pores.
This gives a very high surface area and provides the basis for a
high loading material.
As the material is rigid, it does not rely on a solvent to swell the
particles.
34
ISOPOROUS RESIN CROSSLINKAGE-7
Isoporous resin:-A type of anion exchange resin in
which the cross-linking is uniformly distributed
within the resin so that there are no tightly knotted
regions. It is used where organic fouling take place.
The amount of cross-linking depends on the
proportions of different monomers used in the
polymerization step.
Practical ranges are 4 % to 16 %.
Resins with very low cross-linking tend to be watery
and change dimensions markedly depending on
which ions are bound.
Properties that are interrelated with cross-linking
are:
35
MOISTURE CONTENT-8
A physical property of the ion exchange resins that changes with
changes in cross-linkage is the moisture content of the resin.
For example sulfonic acid groups attract water, and this water is
tenaciously held inside each resin particle.
The quaternary ammonium groups of the anion resins behave in
a similar manner.
The figure shows a plot of moisture content change with changes
in cross-linkage.
36
CAPACITY-9
Functionality is the term used to identify the chemical
composition of the fixed-charge site, for example sulfonate
(_ SO3−) or carboxylate (_COO−).
The total capacity of an ion exchange resin is defined as the
total number of chemical equivalents available for
exchange per some unit weight or unit volume of resin.
The capacity may be expressed in terms of milliequivalents
per dry gram of resin or milliequivalents per milliliter of
wet resin.
NaCl value or salt splitting capacity of a cation ex. gives no.
of meq. of exchangeable H+ ions present in the resin that
are sufficiently acidic to split neutral salts.
NaCl value is generally a measure sulphonic acid groups in
the resin.
Capacity of anion Exchange Regions:- Total Capacity of
anion exchanger is generally determined on Cl- form of the
resin, it is also termed as Total Chloride Capacity. 37
---contd-10
This situation is reversed when a wet volume basis is used to
measure the capacity on a resin.
Although fewer functional groups are introduced into a highly
cross-linked resin, these groups are spaced closer together on a
volume basis because the volume of water is reduced by the
additional crosslinking.
Thus the capacity on a wet volume basis increases as cross-linking
increases. The next figure describes the changes in capacity as
cross-linking is changed.
38
PROPERTIES OF ION EXCHANGE RESINS
Particle size :
Purely hydraulic and kinetic influence on the ion exchange
process. 0.3 - 1.2 mm size is satisfactory for industrial
applications
Effective size = sieve (mm) on which 90% of beads are retained.
Density :
Ion exchange resins are sold on volume basis, hence density
measurement is necessary. Density difference of cation and
anion exchange resins is used for MB operations (cation 1.2-
1.45 g/ml while anion 1.05-1.15).
Surface area
Gel type or iso-porous ( < 0.1 m2/g)
Macro porous ( at least 5 m2/g and even 50-60 m2/g)
Porosity : Related to degree of cross linking, influences capacity &
selectivity. Functional groups are present throughout the resin
body. Pores provide path for exchanging & exchanged ions. Pores
can be micro or macro (large surface area) in size. 39
---contd-2
Moisture content : It is bound water related to cross linking.
About 45 - 55 ° depending on type of resin. Gives valuable
information on resin under use.
Swelling :
It is volume change due to change in surrounding medium.
Depends upon medium, resin matrix.
Ionic group present and type of counter ions
Physical strength :
During service and regeneration resin is subjected to expansion
and contraction. Oxidizing agents attack the resin. There is
mechanical attrition. All these influence resin life and
economics of operation
Thermal stability: Temp. more in certain cases( i.e. Condensate
treatment at high temp. regeneration of anion with hot caustic
injection. Temp. limit:- For salt form Cation resins it is 140 °C and
for anion resins it is 60 °C
40
Report of 15/08/2011 RW Design RW 15/08/11 FW Design FW 15/08/11
Ca as CaCO3 144 70 166.5 (due to lime) 71
Mg as CaCO3 96 28 96 28
Na & K as CaCO3 94 19.64/2.20 94 19.65/2.20
Total Hardness 240 98 262.5 99
Total Cation ( TH+Na+K) 334 120 356.5 120.85
Bicarbonate Alk .as CaCO3 250 102 250 86
EMA 15 32
Cl as CaCO3 70 11 70 16
SO4 as CaCO3 7 4 7 16
NO3 as CaCO3 6.5 6.5
Total Anion (M.Al.+EMA) 334 117.2 356.5 118
Total iron as Fe 12 0.79 <0.01 (Coagulation) 0.095
Dissolved iron as Fe 0.2 0.10 0.01 (Aeration) 0.067
Zinc as Zn 0.5 0.5
Copper as Cu 0.3 0.3
Permagnate value 5.0 4.1 2.0(Chlorination) 1.6
Total Silica as SiO2 40 30
Dissolved Silica as SiO2 30 12.26 30 11.88
Colloidal silica as SiO2 10 <0.01(Coagulation)
Turbidity 2000 70 1.0 (reduce TSS) 1.0 41
pH 7.0-7.8 7.9 7.0-7.8 7.57
DIFFERENT DEMINERALISATION SYSTEM
Various system combinations are available. Selection of particular system depends
on quality of raw water available and the requirement of end product.
1. SA-SB where Low alkalinity in raw water. SiO2removal required. Conductivity 5-
15micro mhos/cm. SiO2= 0.02-0.1, Low equipment cost high chemical cost.
2. SA-D-SB where High alkalinity of raw water. SiO2 removal required. Conductivity
5-15micro mhos/cm. SiO2= 0.02 – 0.1, Low chemical cost.
3. SA-WB-D-SB where Higher alkalinity, SO4 and Cl in raw water. SiO2 removal
required. Conductivity 5 15micro mhos/cm. SiO2= 0.02-0.1, Low chemical with high
equipment cost.
4. SA-D-SB-MB-MB High alkalinity and dissolved solid raw water. High purity
treated water. Conductivity 1.0micro mhos/cm SiO2= 0.01 – 0.05 Lower chemical
cost, higher equipment cost.
5. WA-SA-D-WB-SB-MB where High hardness, alkalinity, sulphate and chloride.
SiO2 removal required. Conductivity =< 5micro mhos/cm. SiO2= <0.015 , Lowest
chemical cost, high equipment cost. This is the ideal combination for high hardness,
high alkalinity & high FMA water, as well as large size plants. The use of a WAC in
front of a strong anion is preferred with feed waters containing a high proportion
of temporary hardness (>60%) and low FMA. The normal end-point for a WAC
resin is 10% alkalinity leak. In this condition, the down-stream SAC resin should
remove the permanent hardness and the monovalent cations. 42
DEMINERALISATION PLANT AT VIJAIPUR
DM water requirement for complex : around 15000 m3 /day
DM water production from filter water : around 4500 m3 /day
DM water prod. from return condensate: around 10500 m3/ day
Filter water streams to produce DM water
03 streams 150 m3/hr capacity each
Turbine & process steam cond. Streams of urea line-i
02 streams 80-100 m3/hr capacity each
Process cond. Streams of ammonia line-ii
02 streams 100 m3/hr capacity each
Mixed cond. Streams ( NH3-ii turbine cond.+ Urea-ii turbine
cond.+ Urea-ii steam cond.+ Urea-ii process cond. + urea-i
process ) 03 streams 150 m3/hr capacity each
Filter water streams to produce DM water
01 stream 200 m3/hr capacity each
43
FW PUMP
FWT CAP:-280M3/HR .
A&B
OUTPUT- OUTPUT-6000 M3 OUTPUT-6000 M 3
CAPACITY= FLOW-150
FLOW-150
5500M3EACH 2880 M3 M3/HR M3/HR
DGW PUMP
Cap. 240M3/Hr. DEGASSER AIR BLOWER
DGWT TOWER
Output-6000 M 3 CAP.
Output-6000 M3 A,B,C
B-1
Flow-150 M3/Hr
Flow-150 M 3/Hr 301.7 M3 A&B
B-1
A,B,C
.
DM WATER PUMP AMM.-I &II,
CAP-230M3/HR UREA-I&II & CPP .
OUTPUT-21600M3
FLOW-150/215
M3/HR.
BOOSTER PUMP
CAP.300M3/HR.
BOOST-UP THE
PC & TC BFW PR.
OUTPUT-1680M3. OUTPUT-10080M3. OUTPUT-15000M3. FOR CPP
FROM FLOW-70/80 FLOW-70/80 M3/HR. NOR.FLOW- THROUGH AMM.
UREA-1 M3/HR. 70/80M3/HR.
. .
44
ACTIVATED CARBON FILTER
Purpose: Remove excess Cl2 , Iron, Turbidity,
KMnO4 value, Oil & Oily products
Regeneration steps
Backwash for 5 minutes
Rinse for 5 minutes
Reaction takes place C+2Cl2+ H2O = 4HCl + CO2
Results Free Cl2 Nil
1 NTU = 1 mg SiO2/L Iron as Fe < 0.01 ppm
Turbidity < 1 NTU
Organic matter Traces
Oil & oily Traces
Products 45
WHAT IS ACTIVATED CARBON?
Activated carbon is a natural material derived from bituminous
coal, lignite, wood, coconut shell etc., Activated by steam and
other means, and each one have different adsorption properties
(e.g. Bituminous carbon for high chlorine reduction capacity).
Activated carbon surface properties are both hydrophobic and
oleophilic; that is, they hate water but love oil. When flow
conditions are suitable, dissolved chemicals in water flowing
over the carbon surface stick to the carbon in a thin film while
the water passes on. This process is called adsorption.
There are two principal mechanisms by which activated carbon
removes contaminants from water; adsorption, and catalytic
reduction, a process involving the attraction of negatively-
charged contaminant ions to the positively-charged activated
carbon.
Organic compounds are removed by adsorption and residual
disinfectants such as chlorine and chloramines are removed by
catalytic reduction
46
---contd-2
Iodine number-- measure of the iodine absorbed in a
given time by a chemically unsaturated material, such as
a vegetable oil or a rubber; used to measure the
unsaturation of a compound or mixture. Also known as
iodine value.
Potassium permanganate, KMnO4 , is a chemical
oxidizing agent that will react with any organic matter in
a pond including algae, bacteria, particulate and
dissolved organic, and organic bottom sediments.
Potassium permanganate does not add significant
amounts of oxygen to water and can actually decrease
dissolved oxygen concentrations by killing algae that
produce much of the oxygen in ponds.
47
DETAILED SPECIFICATION FOR ACTIVATED CARBON
1. Grade : Dechlorination
2. Appearance : black granular
3. Iodine absorption: : 850 mg/gm, min.
4. Bulk density : 500 kg/m3 +/- 50 kg/m3 .
5. Ash content : 7% by weight. Maximum.
6. Moisture content : 5% by weight. Max.
7. Particle size : 95% between 1.5 - 3.0 mm (6/12
mesh )
8. Operating pressure : 8.0-9.0 kg/cm2g
9. Flow normal/max. : 150/180 m3/hr.
10. Total Surface Area:- 850 m2/gm
11. Packaging 50 kg. HDPE bags
48
An Overview OF WAC Exchanger
Concrete Backwash outlet

Rinse outlet
49
DESCRIPTION OF WAC
The water enters from the top of the column. So as not to disturb the
surface of the resin bed, the incoming water stream is uniformly
distributed by three arms.
The column has a large freeboard, usually about the same height as the
resin bed, so that the resin can be backwashed inside the column to
remove suspended solids accumulated on the bed surface.
A manhole is necessary to inspect and possibly repair the column inside.
Two sight glasses are also shown, one at the top, one at the level of the
resin bed surface. These are very important to see the fines in the resins.
An air vent is also necessary at the top, to empty the column by draining
the water out for inspection or a resin change.
One of the most important features of the vessel is the collector at the
bottom. Bottom is filled with reinforced concrete.
It is supported by poles or L-shaped beams (here three poles are visible)
A regenerant distributor is mounted above the middle of the vessel to
ensure a uniform distribution of the regenerant.
50
Maple Universal Holiday Detector
This instrument is used to check integrity/porosity of
non-ferrous linings such as rubber, epoxy etc.
In DM plant vessels are rubber lined and thickness of
the rubber is 5mm.
In above method earthing is connected to the base
metal and high voltage 15.3 KV is applied across the
rubber lining to the base metal through its inspection
brush which produces sparks.
When a pinhole is there in the rubber lining then spark
jump will occur across between the base and electrode .
These defective points is marked with chalk for further
repair.
51
Préparation of WAC Resin
Preparation:- Acrylic acid + DVB = R –COOH
52
WAC RESINS
WAC resins are used for demineralization and dealkalization of
water.
WAC resins have high affinity for hydrogen ions therefore they are
easily regenerated by stoichiometric amount of acid.
In a WAC the ionizable group is a carboxylic acid (COOH). These
resins behave similarly to weak organic acids that are weakly
dissociated.
The ion exchange capacity of WAC resins increases with an
increase of the solution pH.
The degree of dissociation of a weak acid resin is strongly
influenced by the solution pH. Consequently, resin capacity
depends in part on solution pH.
A typical WAC resin has limited capacity below a pH of 5.0,
making it unsuitable for deionizing acidic metal finishing waste
water
53
WAC
Physical
1 Type Gel
2 Physical form Moist beads
3 Particle size 0.3-1.2 mm
4 Effective size is the value of the sieve opening through which 0.5-0.6 mm
exactly 10 % of the resin sample passes.
5 Osmotic strength Good
6 Mechanical strength Good
7 Moisture content 47-54 %
8 Volume change H+ TO Na+, approx
+100%
9 Voids Approx. 40%
Chemical
1 Ionic form H+
2 Max. Operating temperature 100 o c
3 Effective operative pH 5-10
4 Resistance to oxidizing & reducing agents Generally good
5 Exchange capacity 4.0 meq./Ml.

WAC 7120 Gel 150 6000 Auchtel May-06
54
WAC
WAC resins derive their exchange activity from a carboxylic group (-
COOH). When operated in the hydrogen form, WAC resins remove
cations that are associated with alkalinity, producing carbonic acid as
shown:
These reactions are also reversible and permit the return of the
exhausted WAC resin to the regenerated form.
WAC resins are not able to remove all of the cations in most water
supplies. Their primary asset is their high regeneration efficiency in
comparison with SAC resins.
This high efficiency reduces the amount of acid required to regenerate
the resin, thereby reducing the waste acid and minimizing disposal
problems.
In full demineralization systems, the use of WAC and SAC resins in
combination provides the economy of the more efficient WAC resin
along with the full exchange capabilities OF THE SAC RESIN. 55
Reaction: 2RCOOH+MCO3 RCOOM+H2CO3
Regeneration RCOOM+H2SO4 RCOOH +MSO4
Ca CaS04
Mg MgS04
2R 2Na H2S04 2RH Na2S04
2K K2S04
EFFICIENCY:-Weak functionality resins have a much higher regeneration

efficiency than their strong functionality counterparts. WAC resins
remove only cations associated with alkalinity. While WAC resins can
remove monovalent ions such as sodium associated with hydroxide
alkalinity, in most water treatment applications they are used to remove
divalent ions such as calcium associated with carbonate alkalinity
The regeneration efficiency of weak resins is virtually stoichiometric, the
removal of 1 kg of ions (as CaCO3) requires only slightly more than 1 kg
of the regenerant ion (as CaCO3).
Strong resins require three to four times the regenerant for the same
56
contaminant removal.
ADVANTAGES OF WAC RESIN
WAC resins have some distinct advantages for softening, namely
TDS reduction, no increase in sodium, and very efficient
regeneration resulting from the carboxylate’s high affinity for
the regenerant H+ ion.
There are certain advantages of WAC resin on account of its
relatively low acidity: WAC resin can be regenerated to its total
capacity by using a slight excess of acid over the theoretical
requirement. Therefore, the waste water generated at the time
of regeneration is almost neutral.
Even a weak acid such as carbonic acid may be used to
regenerate a WAC resin.
WAC resin has little utility in acid media. It exhibits high
capacities for treating electrolytes of alkaline nature such as
NaOH, Ca(HCO3)2, Na2CO3 etc. WAC resin has unusual selectivity
for bivalent cation (Ca++ & Mg++) and trivalent cations (Cr+++ and
Fe+++) when operated in neutral or slightly basic media.
These cations can be easily eluted by using any acid for
regeneration which may not be possible for SAC resins.
57
MANUFACTURING OF SAC
SAC Resin : These are sulphonated cross linked styrene di-vinyl
benzene polymer. The bead size range between 0.3 to 1.2 mm &
exchange capacity 2.0 to 2.2 meg/ml. . These are quite stable at all
pH range. These can be regenerated by strong acid like H2SO4 , HCl
& HN03. These resin has active sulphonic acid functional group.
Sulphonation - H2SO4 / OLEUM- H2S2O7
- CH - CH2 - CH – CH2-
SO3 H+ SO3 H+
CH- CH2
STRONG ACID CATION RESIN. 58

STRONG ACID CATION RESINS
PHYSICAL
1 TYPE GEL
2 PHYSICAL FORM MOIST BEADS
3 PARTICLE SIZE 0.3-1.2 MM
4 EFFECTIVE SIZE 0.4-0.6 MM
5 OSMOTIC STRENGTH GOOD
6 MECHANICAL STRENGTH GOOD
7 MOISTURE CONTENT 47-54 %
8 VOLUME CHANGE H+ TO Na+,
APPROX. ~6%
9 VOIDS APPROX. 40%
CHEMICAL
1 IONIC FORM H+
2 MAX. OPERATING TEMPERATURE 120 O C
3 EFFECTIVE OPERATIVE PH 0-14
4 RESISTANCE TO OXIDIZING & REDUCING AGENTS GOOD
5 EXCHANGE CAPACITY 2.0 MEQ./ML.
SAC 10420 Litrs (SAC)GEL 150 6000 m3 ION EXCHANGE

59
SAC resins are so named because their chemical behavior is
similar to that of a strong acid. The resins are highly ionized
in both the acid (R-SO3 H) and salt (R-SO3 Na) form of the
sulfonic acid group. They can convert a metal salt to the
corresponding acid by the reaction:
When used in demineralization, SAC resins remove nearly
all raw water cations, replacing them with hydrogen ions,
as shown below:
The exchange reaction is reversible. When its capacity is

exhausted, the resin can be regenerated with an excess of
mineral acid.
60
The hydrogen and sodium forms of strong acid resins
are highly dissociated and the exchangeable Na+ and
H+ are readily available for exchange over the entire
pH range.
These resins would be used in the hydrogen form for
complete deionization.
After exhaustion, the resin is converted back to the
hydrogen form (regenerated) by contact with a strong
acid solution
Regeneration efficiency varies between 0.3 to 0.45
under normal cocurrent regeneration.
For the above reaction, hydrochloric acid (HCl)
regeneration would result in a concentrated nickel
chloride (NiCl) solution. Selectivity for cation
exchange Ca++ > Mg++ > Na+
61
RH+M(Cl, SO4, NO3, CO3, HCO3, SiO2)
RM + (HCl, H2SO4, HNO3, H2CO3, H2SiO3)
SO4 Ca
Ca 2Cl H2SO4
Mg
Mg 2 HCO3 2R 2HCl
2R-H 2Na
2Na 2NO3 2 H2CO3
2K
2K CO3 2 H2CO3
REGENERATION
RM + (HCl, H2SO4, HNO3)
RH+M(Cl, SO4, NO3)
62
ION LEAKAGE AND END POINTS OF EXHAUSTION PHASE
SAC resins split basic and neutral salts (remove carbonate and
noncarbonate hardness), whereas WAC resins split only basic salts
(remove only carbonate hardness).
The cations in the water are converted to their corresponding acids.
But the conversion is not complete
The difference between the theoritical mineral acidity(TMA) and the
free mineral acidity in the effluent is equal to the cation leakage. The
FMA is usually slightly lower than the TMA because a small amount
of sodium leaks through the cation exchanger.
At the end of the exhaustion run, at the break through, the FMA
drops sharply, and when the resulting increased cation leakage
reaches the allowable limit, the unit is regenerated.
The amount of sodium leakage depends on the regenerant level, the
flow rate, and the proportion of sodium to the other cations in the
raw water.
63
---contd2
In general, sodium leakage increases as the ratio of
sodium to total cations increases.
However, improper use of sulfuric acid can cause
irreversible fouling of the resin with calcium sulfate.
To prevent this occurrence, the sulfuric acid is usually
applied at a high flow rate and an initial concentration of
2% or less.
Normally conductivity is compared during the run. The
conductivity ratio is normally constant during the run. At
the exhaustion the conductivity ratio changes indicating
the exhaustion.
A strong base anion exchanger can remove only the
acidity, not the sodium. It coverts the sodium salts to
sodium hydroxide, which creates a high conductivity and
pH value in the effluent. Therefore for a low conductivity
of demineralized water, cation leakage (Na) must be
reduced. To avoid this we use Counter flow re-generation 64
SELECTIVITY OF RESINS-3
A selectivity sequence describes the order in which ions are
preferred by a particular resin.
In general, an ion with greater selectivity will be removed
preferentially to an ion with lower selectivity.
Ion exchange resins do not prefer all ions equally.
The selectivity, in turn, determines the run length to
breakthrough for the contaminant ion; the higher the
selectivity, the longer the run length.
Selectivity is affected by the nature of the ion. Hydrophilic
ions (e.g., bicarbonate ) prefer moderately cross-linked
(gel) resins with polar matrices and/or functional groups.
Divalent ions, (e.g., sulfate and calcium) prefer resins with
closely spaced exchange sites, where their need for two
charges can be satisfied
65
Relative Affinities of Ions for Resins---contd. 4
Strong acid cation resins SBA resins
Cation α /Na+ Anion α/Cl−

Ca2+ 1.9 SO4- - 9.1
Mg2+ 1.67 HSO4− 4.1
K+ 1.67 NO3− 3.2
Mn2+ 1.6 HSO3− 1.2
NH4+ 1.3 NO2− 1.1
Na+ 1.0 Cl− 1.0
H+ 0.67 HCO3− 0.27
66
---contd. 5
The most-preferred ions (i.e., those with the highest
separation factors) are listed at the top of the table and the
least-preferred ions are at the bottom. For example, the áCa/Na
value of 1.9 means that at equal concentration in the aqueous
phase, calcium is preferred by the resin 1.9/1.0 over sodium
(on the basis of equivalents, not moles).
Weak acid cation resins with carboxylic functional groups
exhibit the same selectivity sequence as SAC resins except
that hydrogen is the most preferred cation,
Similarly, WBA resins and SBA resins exhibit the same
selectivity sequence, except that hydroxide is most preferred
by WBA resins, and the WBA separation factors differ in
magnitude but have the same trend as those in Table .
Some general rules govern selectivity sequences. In dilute
solution (e.g., in the TDS range of natural waters) the resin
prefers the ion with the highest charge and lowest degree of
hydration.
67
Ideal resin concentration profile---contd.6
68
---contd. 7
1. Ions higher in the selectivity sequence than the presaturant ion
tend to have long runs and sharp breakthroughs; those less
preferred than the presaturant ion will always have early, gradual
break-throughs.
2. The most-preferred species are last to exit the column, and their
effluent concentrations never exceed their influent concentrations.
3. The species exit the column in reverse preferential order, with
the less preferred ions (smaller separation factors with respect to
the most-preferred species) leaving first.
4. The less-preferred species will be concentrated in the column
and will at some time exit the column in concentrations exceeding
their influent concentrations
5. When all the breakthrough fronts have exited the column, the
entire resin bed is in equilibrium with the feed water. When this
happens, the column is exhausted, and the effluent and influent ion
concentrations are equal.
6. The effluent concentration of the presaturant ion decreases in
steps as each new ion breaks through, because the total ionic
concentration of the water (meq/L) must remain constant during
simple ion exchange.
69
REGENERATION PROCESS
The process to bring back the exhausted resin to original or
usable form is called Regeneration. The reaction is opposite to
service reaction.
There are two methods for regeneration co-current and counter
current method.
BACK WASHING IS DONE FOR :
Loosening the bed
Re-classifying the bed
To remove dirt and filtered matter
To separate resin in MB
By back washing, more uniform distribution of fluid is
obtained in subsequent down-flow operation. Pressing water
in upward direction to expand the bed to about 50%.
ACF outlet water is used for backwash of WAC & SAC.
Decationised water is used for backwash of WBA & SBA
SBA outlet or DM Tank outlet is used for backwash of MB
70
REGENERATION---2
INJECTION :-According to the resin, regeneration is done by H2SO4
or NaOH, the major factors affecting the degree of regeneration
are :
composition of the exhausted bed
Flow rate
Contact time
Temperature
Purity of regenerant
Conc. Of regenerant (formation of CaSO4)
Amount of regenerant applied (reg. Level)
RINSE: -To remove traces of regenerant.
Done at service flow rate.
A higher rinse rate will reduce the efficiency of bed.
Low rinse rate will take long time to remove the excess
regenerant.
Prolonged rinsing indicates resin is fouling.
71
COCURRENT REGENERATION--3
During the regeneration of a co-current unit, the contaminants are

displaced through the resin bed.
At the end of the regeneration, some ions, predominately sodium ions,
remain in the bottom of the resin bed because the upper portion of the
bed has been exposed to fresh regenerant, it is highly regenerated.
As the water flows through the resin during service, cations are
exchanged in the upper portion of the bed first, and then move down
through the resin as the bed becomes exhausted.
Sodium ions that remained in the bed during regeneration diffuse into
the decationized water before it leaves the vessel. 72
COUNTERFLOW REGENERATION--4
In a counterflow regenerated cation exchanger, the regenerant flows in the opposite

direction of the service flow.
As a result, the most highly regenerated resin is located where the service water leaves
the vessel. Counter current regeneration have following advantages.
Reduced chemical consumption, Improved water quality and Less waste volumes
Cation / Anion exchangers which are regenerated by counter-current regeneration
system give more output.
The highly regenerated resin removes the low level of contaminants that have escaped
removal in the top of the bed.
Efficiency can be increased to 0.7 - 0.8 in comparison of 0.4 of cocurrent regeneration.
To maximize contact between the acid and resin and to keep the most highly
regenerated resin from mixing with the rest of the bed, the resin bed must stay 73
compressed during the regenerant introduction.
STEPS FOR WAC/ SAC REGENERATION--5
WHEN REQUIRED
Either Na+ slippages more or delivered output beyond capacity.
REGENERATION
Backwash of WAC/subsurface wash of SAC
Settle
Acid pre-injection
Acid injection
Acid transfer
Rinse of WAC
Backwash of WAC
Service of WAC/ down rinse of SAC
RESULTS AFTER SAC pH 3.0- 5.0
Total Hardness Nil
Na & K < 0.1 ppm
NH3 < 0.1 ppm
Conductivity < 10 µS/cm 74
PROBLEMS IN WAC-SAC UNITS
Hardness precipitates:- Hardness precipitates carry through
a filter from a precipitation softener or form after filtration
by post-precipitation. They are removed with acid.
Sulfate precipitation:- Calcium sulfate precipitation can
occur in a strong acid cation unit operated in the hydrogen
cycle. At the end of a service cycle, the top of the resin bed is
rich in calcium. If sulfuric acid is used as the regenerant, and
it is introduced at too high a concentration or too low a flow
rate, precipitation of calcium sulfate occurs, fouling the
resin. After calcium sulfate has formed, it is very difficult to
redissolve; therefore, resin fouled by calcium sulfate is
usually discarded. Mild cases of calcium sulfate fouling may
be reversed with a prolonged soak in hydrochloric acid
which is called “HCl wash”.
Oil fouling:- Oil coats resin, blocking the passage of ions to
and from exchange sites. A surfactant can be used to remove
oil. Care must be exercised to select a surfactant that does
not foul resin. Oil-fouled anion resins should be cleaned with
nonionic surfactants only. 75
Problems in WAC-SAC Units-2
Microbiological fouling:- Microbiological fouling can occur
in resin beds, especially beds that are allowed to sit
without service flow. Microbiological fouling can lead to
severe plugging of the resin bed, and even mechanical
damage due to an excessive pressure drop across the
fouled resin.
Causes of resin fouling:- Operational problems changes in
raw water quality have a significant impact on both the run
length and the effluent quality produced by an ion
exchange unit. A 10% increase in the hardness of the
water causes a 10% decrease in the service run length.
An increase in the ratio of sodium to total cations causes
increased sodium leakage from a demineralizer system.
Iron and manganese:- Iron may exist in water as a ferrous
or ferric inorganic salt or as a organic complex. Ferrous
iron exchanges in resin, but ferric iron is insoluble and
does not. Ferric iron coats cation resin, preventing
exchange. An acid must be used to remove this iron. 76
Problems in WAC-SAC Units-3
Aluminum:- Aluminum is usually present as aluminum
hydroxide, resulting from alum or sodium aluminate use in
clarification or precipitation softening. Aluminum floc, if
carried through filters, coats the resin . it is removed by
cleaning with either acid or caustic. Usually, aluminum is not
a foulant in a demineralizer system, because it is removed
from the resin during a normal regeneration.
Organic fouling:- is the most common and expensive form
of resin fouling and degradation. Surface waters can contain
hundreds of parts per million of natural and man-made
organic matter. Natural organics are derived from decaying
vegetation. They are aromatic and acidic in nature, and can
complex heavy metals, such as iron. These contaminants
include tannins, tannic acid, humic acid, and fulvic acid.
Initially, organics block the strong base sites on a resin. This
blockage causes long final rinses and reduces salt splitting
capacity.
77
DECARBONATORS AND DEGASSERS
In de-mineralization process carbon dioxide generated by dissociation of
carbonic acid at cation outlet water. Decarbonators and degassers are
economically beneficial to many demineralization systems, because they
reduce the amount of caustic required for regeneration.
Water from a cation exchanger is broken into small droplets by sprays
on trays or packing in a decarbonator.
The water then flows through a stream of air flowing in the opposite
direction, carbonic acid present in the cation effluent dissociates into
carbon dioxide and water i.e. H2CO3 = H2O + CO2
The carbon dioxide is stripped from the water by the air, reducing the
load to the anion exchangers.
Typical forced draft decarbonators are capable of removing carbon
dioxide down to 5 ppm.
The CO2 generated if not removed increases load on SBA resin. So
degassers or Decarborators are placed in cation & anion. Degassers
usually made of acid proof materials (wood or rubber lined steel) as it
have to handle acidic water of cation exchangers. 78
WBA Resin Specifications
PHYSICAL
1 TYPE MACRO POROUS
5 OSMOTIC STRENGTH EXCELLENT
6 MECHANICAL STRENGTH EXCELLENT
7 MOISTURE CONTENT 47-55 % (CL-)
8 VOLUME CHANGE FREE BASE TO CL -, APPROX.
+20%
9 VOIDS . 40%
CHEMICAL
1 IONIC FORM FREE BASE

WBA 6480 Ltrs MACROP. 150 5000 m3 ION EXCHANGE 79
WEAK BASE ANION RESINS
AMINATION BY DI-METHYL AMINE
-CH – CH2 -
CH3
CH2 - N : H Cl
WEAK BASE ANION

CH3
80
WBA resin functionality originates in primary (R-NH2), secondary
(R-NHR'), or tertiary (R-NR'2) amine groups. In these resins the
fixed active groups are tertiary (R-NR'2) amine.
WBA resins readily re-move sulfuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids
as represented by the following reaction:
Exchange capacity of WB resin is upto 1.6 meq/ml. Regeneration

efficiency of WB resin is very high as compared to SBA resin less
quantity of alkali is required.
81
WBA resins behave similar to weak bases. Weak base
resins are like weak acid resins in that the degree of
ionization is strongly influenced by pH.
WBA resins exhibit minimum exchange capacity above a
pH of 7.0. The ion exchange capacity of WBA resins
increases with a decrease of the solution pH.
The WBA resin does not have a hydroxide ion form as
does the strong base resin.
These resins merely sorb anions of strong acids
(chlorides, nitrates, sulfates).They cannot split salts, nor
will it absorb the weak carbonic acid or silicic acid
Regeneration needs only to neutralize the absorbed
acid, it need not provide hydroxide ions. Less expensive
weakly basic reagents such as ammonia (NH3) or sodium
carbonate can be employed.
82
EFFICIENCY WEAK BASE RESINS
The advantage of using the WBA resin is its efficiency. It is fully
regenerated using only about 120 percent of stoichiometry
WBA resins actually are acid absorbers . They remove only the
anions of the strong mineral acids (sulfate, chloride and nitrate).
They allow the carbonate/bicarbonate and silica ions to pass
through.
Weak base resins are so efficient that it is common practice to
regenerate a weak base exchanger with a portion of the "spent"
caustic from regeneration of the strong base anion resin.
The first fraction of the caustic from the strong base unit is sent
to waste to prevent silica fouling of the weak base resin.
An additional feature of WBA resins is their ability to hold natural
organic materials that foul SBA resins and release them during the
regeneration cycle. Due to this ability, WBA resins are commonly
used to protect SBA resins from harmful organic fouling.
83
STRONG BASE ANION RESINS
SBA resins derive their functionality from
quaternary ammonium functional groups. It is a
copolymer . These are prepared by--
Chloro-methylation.
Amination
Type of anion resin
SBA
Type - i and type – ii
TMA DMEA
84
MANUFACTURING OF SBA
• COPOLYMER BEADS SUBJECTED TO CHLORO-METHYLATION
-CH- CH2 - CH - CH2 -
---- AMINATION CH2Cl

CH2Cl
CONVERSION IN CHLORIDE CH- CH2
FORM.
85
SBA-TYPE-I RESIN
• Animation by try-methyl amine. Type i sites have three
methyl groups: the type i resin has a greater stability
than the type ii resin and is able to remove more of the
weakly ionized acids.
-CH – CH2 -
CH3
CH2 - N – CH2 Cl
CH3
STRONG BASE ANION TYPE - I
86
SBA TYPE-II RESIN
• In a type ii resin one of the methyl groups is
replaced with an ethanol group. Amination by
di-methyl ethanol amine
-CH – CH2 -
CH2
CH3 - N – CH2 Cl
STRONG BASE ANION TYPE - I I
C2H5 OH
87
RESIN STRONG BASE ANION
PHYSICAL
1 TYPE GEL (ISO POROUS)
5 OSMOTIC STRENGTH GOOD
6 MECHANICAL STRENGTH GOOD
7 MOISTURE CONTENT 47-55 %
8 VOLUME CHANGE OH - TO Cl -, APPROX. 7 TO 17%
9 VOIDS 40%
CHEMICAL
1 IONIC FORM Cl-

SBA 4770 Ltrs GEL (ISO P) 150 5000 m3 DOSHION 88
STRONG BASE ANION RESINS
Type ii resins provide a greater regeneration efficiency and a
greater capacity for the same amount of regenerant chemical
used. When in the hydroxide form, SBA resins remove all
commonly encountered anions as shown below:
Like SAC resins, SBA resins are highly ionized and can be used over
the entire pH range. These resins are used in the hydroxide (OH)
form for water deionization. They will react with anions in solution
and can convert an acid solution to pure water.
SBA resins, these reactions are reversible, allowing for the
regeneration of the resin with a strong alkali, such as caustic soda,
to return the resin to the hydroxide form.
89
STEPS FOR WBA/ SBA REGENERATION
When required
Either silica slippages more or delivered output beyond capacity
Regeneration
Backwash
Settle
Alkali pre-injection
Alkali injection at 45 0c (for better exchange of silica)
Alkali transfer
Rinse
Service of WBA/ rinse of SBA
WATER QUALITY AFTER SBA pH 7.5-9.5
Total silica < 0.2 ppm
CO2 < 0.5 ppm
Conductivity < 5 µS/cm
90
Problems in WBA-SBA Units
Macroporous and WBA resin ahead of SBA resin:- The weak
base or macroporous resin absorbs the organic material and is
eluted during regeneration.
Microbiological fouling:- Microbiological fouling can occur in
resin beds, especially beds that are allowed to sit without
service flow. Microbiological fouling can lead to severe plugging
of the resin bed, and even mechanical damage due to an
excessive pressure drop across the fouled resin.
Silica fouling:- Silica fouling can occur in SBA resins if the
regenerant temperature is too low, or in WBA resins if the
effluent caustic from the SBA unit used to regenerate the weak
base unit contains too much silica.
At low pH levels, polymerization of the silica can occur in a WBA
resin. It can also be a problem in an exhausted SBA resin. Silica
fouling is removed by a prolonged soak in warm (49°C) caustic
soda.
HSiO3- + H2O =H2SiO3 + OH-
91
Problems in WBA-SBA Units
Thermal degradation:- Thermal degradation
occurs if the anion resin becomes overheated
during the service or regeneration cycle. This is
especially true for acrylic resins, which have
temperature limitations as low as 37°C, and type
ii strong base anion resins, which have a
temperature limit of 41°C when in the hydroxide
form.
Warm (50°C) brine and caustic:- Ten percent of
sodium chloride and one percent of caustic soda
solution can be added to improve the cleaning
and warm up to 50°C and soak the resin in this
solution for a period of 24 hours .
92
CALCLATION OF STEAM IN HE-1
Stream 1, m1= ? T/hr, T1=150°C, Stream2, m2=27.5 T/hr, T2= 27°C,
1 Stream 3, mix,m3, T3= 45°C , If steam is mixed with water for heating.
2 Heat Of Vaporization at 135 °C 2157 kJ/kg
3 Cp for water 4.186 kJ/kg
4 Cp water vapor(Steam) 1.87 kJ/kg
5 Stream 1(steam) is cooled from 150°C to 135°C
6 ∆1H=m1*Cp*dt =m1*1.87*(135-150) -28.05 *m1 kJ/kg
7 Steam is condensing from 150°C TO 135°C , ∆2H= m1*(-∆VAP.H) -2157 *m1 kJ/kg
8 (-) indicates condensation is opposite of evap.
9 Stream 1,which is now liquid, is cooled from 135°C to final 45°C
10 ∆3H=m1*Cp*dt =m1*4.18 (liquid)*(45-135) -376.2 *m1 kJ/kg
11 Stream 2 is heated from 27°C to 45°C
12 ∆4H=m2*Cp*dt =27.5*1000*4.18*(45-27) 2069100 kJ/hr
13 ∆5H=0 as outgoing stream is at the same temp. i.e. 45°C
14 By enthalpy balance ∆1H+∆2H+∆3H+∆4H+∆5H3, But ∆5H =0
15 from above m1 = 807.84 kg/hr
Total Steam consumption in SBA/WBA Regeneration (20+30+20=
16 1.1 hrs) 943 kgs 93
CALCLATION OF STEAM IN HE-1 BY ANOTHER METHOD
We have measured the condensate coming out from HE1 which was 321.0 ml per sec. Which
is equivalent to 1155 Ltrs per hr. Temperature of outcomming condensate also measured
as 60°C
Stream 1, m1= ? T/hr, T1=150 °C, Stream2, m2=27.5 T/hr, T2= 27 °C,
1 Stream 3, mix,m3, T3= 45 °C
2 Heat Of Vaporization at 100 °C 2157 kJ/kg
3 Cp for water 4.186 kJ/kg
4 Cp water vapor(Steam) 1.87 kJ/kg
5 Heat supplied= m1*(∆VAP.H) +m1*4.18*(150- 60)
6 Heat supplied= m1*(∆VAP.H) 2157 *m1 kJ/kg
7 Cond. Coming out at 60°C then Q=m1*4.18*(150- 60) 376.2 *m1 kJ
8 Total heat consumed 1780.8 *m1 kJ
Cold water heated from 27 to 45 c= m2*Cp*dt
9 =27.5*1000*4.18*(45-27) 2069100 *m1 kJ
10 Heat supplied =Heat gain, Then steam consumed= 1161.89 kg/hr
Total Steam consumption in SBA/WBA Regeneration (20+30+20=
1.1 hrs) 1355.54 kgs 94
MIXED BED EXCHANGERS
A mixed bed exchanger has both cation and anion resin mixed
together in a single vessel.
As water flows through the resin bed, the ion exchange process is
repeated many times, "polishing" the water to a very high purity.
During regeneration, the resin is separated into distinct cation
and anion fractions . it is done by backwashing, with the lighter
anion resin settling on top of the cation resin.
Regenerant acid is introduced through the bottom distributor,
and caustic is introduced through distributors above the resin
bed.
The regenerant streams meet at the boundary between the
cation and anion resin and discharge through a collector located
at the resin interface.
Following regenerant introduction and displacement rinse, air
and water are used to mix the resins. Then the resins are rinsed,
and the unit is ready for service.
95
STEPS FOR MB REGENERATION
When required
Either Na+ , silica slippages and conductivity more or delivered output
beyond capacity
Regeneration
Backwash
MC flush Water Quality after MB
Settle
pH 6.8-7.2
Acid /alkali pre-injection
Acid / alkali injection R-silica < 0.015 ppm
Acid / alkali rinse
Drain down
Chloride as CaCO3 < 0.05 ppm
Air mix
Na as CaCO3 < 0.02 ppm
Force settle
Refill-i Cu as Cu < 0.003 ppm
Rifill-ii
Rinse to drain
Iron as Fe < 0.02 ppm
Rinse to recycle Conductivity < 0.2 µS/cm
96
FLOW DIAGRAM OF CPU
• CONDENSATE UNIT
CW
ACF SAC SBA MB
*
PW
* IF ANIONIC LOAD IS LESS THEN SBA ALSO NOT REQUIRED
97
CONDENSATE QUALITY
• RESULTS
pH 8.0-9.5
R-silica < 0.5 ppm
CH3OH as CaCO3 < 20 ppm
Ca as CaCO3 < 1.15 ppm
CO2 < 15 ppm
NH3 < 10 ppm
Oil < 5 ppm
Iron as Fe < 0.5 ppm
98
CONDENSATE POLISHING
Ion exchange is also used to purify, or polish, returned
condensate, removing corrosion products that could cause
harmful deposits in boilers.
Typically, the contaminants in the condensate system are
particulate iron and copper. Low levels of other contaminants
may enter the system through condenser and pump seal leaks .
Particulate iron and copper are removed by filtration, while
dissolved contaminants are reduced by exchange for the
sodium or amine in the resin.
Because many systems operate at high temperatures,
considerable stress is imposed on the structure of the resin.
A premium-grade gelular or macroreticular resin are used in
deep bed condensate polishing applications.
In systems requiring total dissolved solids and particulate
removal, a mixed bed condensate polisher may be used. The
temperature of the condensate should be below 60°C, which is
the maximum continuous operating temperature for the anion
resin 99
CORROSION OF IRON
Iron corrodes in water even in the absence of oxygen. An
iron oxide surface acts like a car battery, with the surface
divided into microscopic anodes (+) and cathodes (-).
In condensate systems, iron acts as an anode so that it is
oxidized (i.e., Gives its electrons to the cathode). The
cathode in pure water is a proton or hydrogen ion (H+).
When iron metal is oxidized, electrons are passed from the
iron surface to hydrogen ions as shown in the reactions
below.
Oxidation: Fe = Fe2++ 2e
Reduction: 2H++ 2e = H2
Overall: Fe+ 2H+ = Fe2++H2
The fate of the ferrous ion (Fe2 ) depends on condensate
temperature, pH, and flow conditions.
100
CORROSION OF IRON-2
At low temperatures, Fe2+ reacts with water to form insoluble
ferrous hydroxide, Fe(OH)2. If the condensate stream velocity is
high enough, colloidal Fe(OH)2 is swept into the water and
carried downstream to deposit elsewhere.
In low-flow areas of the condensate system, Fe(OH)2 deposits
near the oxidation site, forming a porous oxide layer.
At temperatures above 49°C the deposited ferrous hydroxide
reacts further to form surface-bound magnetite (Fe3O4) crystals.
3 Fe(OH)2 =Fe3O4 +2H2O + H2
At even higher temperatures (above 149°C), Fe2+ spontaneously
forms magnetite without first forming Fe(OH)2 . This magnetite
forms a nonporous, tightly adherent layer on the metal surface.
3Fe2++ 4H2O=Fe3O4 + 4H2
In most condensate systems, two or three forms of iron oxide
are present. In pure water, a tightly adherent magnetite layer is
formed, which is indicative of a well passivated iron surface. In
the absence of contaminants, this oxide layer greatly retards any
further oxidation reactions. 101
OXYGEN CORROSION OF IRON
In the presence of oxygen, the corrosion process described
above is modified. Dissolved oxygen replaces hydrogen ions in
the reduction reaction. The reactions are as follows:
OXIDATION: Fe=Fe2++ 2e
REDUCTION: O2+2e=O2
OVERALL: Fe+O2+2H+=Fe2+ + H2O
This reaction occurs more readily than the direct reaction
between iron and protons. Therefore, corrosion rates are
accelerated in the presence of oxygen.
Two types of corrosion can occur with oxygen present. The first,
generalized corrosion on the metal surface, causes a loss of
metal from the entire surface.
The second, oxygen pitting , causes a highly localized loss of
metal that results in catastrophic failure in a short time. Oxygen
pitting begins at weak points in the iron oxide film or at sites
where the oxide film is damaged. Instead of growing along the
metal surface, the corrosion penetrates into the surface,
effectively drilling a hole into (or through) the metal. 102
CORROSION OF COPPER
Although copper is similar to iron in chemistry, the form of the
resulting oxide layer is very different. Both copper and iron are
oxidized in the presence of hydrogen ions and oxygen and can
undergo oxygen pitting.
2Cu+ 2H+= 2Cu++H2
in alkaline solution:
2Cu+ H2O = Cu2O(cuprous oxide )+H2
The oxide layers formed by copper and its alloys are porous and
"leaky," allowing water, oxygen, and copper ions to move to
and from the metal surface .
The rate of movement is controlled by the copper oxide film
thickness. As the oxide layer grows in thickness, the copper
oxidation rate is slowed. As the oxide layer becomes thicker, the
outer layers begin to slough off as particles of copper oxide. The
resulting oxide layer is a much more dynamic system than that
of iron. Soluble copper ions and particulate copper oxides are
also formed by the normal oxidation processes.
103
EFFECT OF pH ON CORROSION OF IRON AND COPPER
The stability of the passivating iron or copper oxide layer is
critically dependent on condensate pH.
Any contaminants in the condensate system that cause the
pH to decrease cause dissolution of the oxide layer and
increased corrosion.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the primary cause of decreased
condensate pH. Carbon dioxide enters the system with air
leaking into the condenser or from decomposition of
feedwater alkalinity. Although part of the feedwater alkalinity
is removed by a properly operated deaerating heater, most is
converted to CO2 in the boiler and released into the steam.
In boilers, carbon dioxide is liberated as shown by the
following reactions:
2NaHCO3+heat=Na2CO3 + CO2+ H2O
Na2CO3 +H2O+heat = 2NaOH + CO2
104
---contd-2
The first reaction proceeds to completion while the second is only
(approximately) 80% completed. The net results are release of
0.79 ppm of carbon dioxide for each part per million of sodium
bicarbonate as CaCO3 and 0.35 ppm of carbon dioxide for each
part per million of sodium carbonate as CaCO3.
As the steam is condensed, carbon dioxide dissolves in water and
depresses the pH by increasing the hydrogen ion concentration as
shown in the following reaction sequence:
CO2 +H2O=H2CO3
H2CO3 = H+ + HCO3
HCO3=H++CO32
Carbonic acid promotes the iron corrosion reaction by supplying a
reactant, H+. The overall reaction is:
2H+ +2HCO3+Fe =Fe(HCO3)2+H2
Low pH causes a generalized loss of metal rather than the
localized pitting caused by oxygen corrosion. Pipe walls are
thinned, particularly in the bottom of the pipe. This thinning often
leads to failures, especially at threaded sections
105
EFFECT OF OTHER CONTAMINANTS
Methanol remains in condensate in very less ppm. If it
comes more it can damage rubber and resin both.
Other contaminants in the condensate system can affect
corrosion rates of iron and copper even when the pH is
correctly maintained.
By complexing and dissolving iron and copper oxides,
contaminants such as chloride, sulfide, acetate, and
ammonia (for copper) can dissolve part or all of the oxide
layer.
Ammonia is the most common contaminant and is usually
present in low concentrations. Ammonia contamination is
usually caused by the breakdown of nitrogenous organic
contaminants, hydrazine, or amine treatment chemicals.
Sometimes, ammonia is fed to control condensate pH. In
these systems, ammonia feed rates must be carefully
controlled to minimize the attack of any copper-bearing
alloys . 106
BASICITY
An amine's ability to boost pH after neutralizing all of
the acid species is termed “Basicity." In chemical
terms, it is a measure of an amine's ability to
hydrolyze in pure water. The dissociation constant
Kb is a common measure of basicity.
Kb = [R-NH3+] [OH][R-NH2]
As the value of Kb increases, more OH is formed
(after all of the acid has been neutralized) and pH
increases.
In condensate systems, the distribution of amines
between steam and liquid phases is as significant as
basicity or neutralizing capacity.
107
COMMON ION EXCHANGE SYSTEM PROBLEMS
Operational problems:- changes in raw water quality have a significant
impact on both the run length and the effluent quality produced by an
ion exchange unit. A 10% increase in the hardness of the water causes
a 10% decrease in the service run length. An increase in the ratio of
sodium to total cations causes increased sodium leakage from a
demineralizer system. Regular chemical analysis of the influent water to
ion exchangers should be performed to reveal such variations.
Improper regenerations:- caused by incorrect regenerant flows, times,
or concentrations.
Channeling:- resulting from either high or low flow rates, increased
suspended solids loading or poor backwashing. This causes premature
exhaustion even when much of the bed is in a regenerated state.
Resin fouling or degradation:- caused by poor-quality regenerant.
Failure to remove silica from the resin, which can result from low
regenerant caustic temperature. This can lead to increased silica leakage
and short service runs.
Excess contaminants in the resin:- due to previous operation past
exhaustion loads. Because the resin becomes loaded with more
contaminants than a normal regeneration is designed to remove, a
double regeneration is required following an extended service run.
108
MECH. & INST. PROBLEMS IN DM PLANT
Leaking valves, which cause poor quality effluent and
prolonged rinses.
Broken or clogged distributor, which leads to
channeling.
Resin loss, due to excessive backwashing or failure in
the under drain screening or support media.
Instrumentation problems, such as faulty totalizers
or conductivity meters, valve diaphram rupture,
faulty level indicators which may indicate a problem
when none exists, or may introduce poor quality
water to service.
Instrumentation in the demineralizer area should be
checked regularly.
109
RESIN TESTING AND ANALYSIS
To track the condition of ion exchange resin and determine
the best time for cleaning it, the resin should be periodically
sampled and analyzed for physical stability, foulant levels,
and the ability to perform the required ion exchange.
Samples should be representative of the entire resin bed.
Therefore, samples should be collected at different levels
within the bed, or a grain thief or hollow pipe should be used
to obtain a "core" sample.
The resin sample should be examined microscopically for
signs of fouling and cracked or broken beads. It should also
be tested for physical properties, such as density and
moisture content . the level of organic and inorganic foulants
in the resin should be determined and compared to known
standards and the previous condition of the resin.
Finally, the salt splitting and total capacity should be
measured on anion resin samples to evaluate the rate of
degradation or organic fouling. 110
LOSSES IN DM PLANTS
ITEMS COST IN Rs UNIT DENSITY
H2SO4 (98% w/w) 4784 T 1.8361 kg/m3
NaOH (45%w/w) 21685 T 1.4710 kg/m3
Raw water 4.5 m3
FW Water 7.0 m3
DM Water 22.0 m3
WAC Resin 98 Ltrs 0.7 kg/m3
SAC Resin 33.0 Ltrs 0.78 kg/m3
WBA Resin 105 Ltrs 0.66 kg/m3
SBA Resin 80 Ltrs 0.7 kg/m3
By above figures , we can easily understand if we waste one kg of above
items, what cost we are going to loose.
111
How can We minimize losses in DM plants?
While preparing acid/caustic solution, Sr.Opr/Eng. Should remain
present in the field. He should be aware of low levels, high levels
alarm positions.
Excess rinse can not remove Na+, so it should be avoided.
Excess air for mixing can not remove SiO2 so it should be avoided.
If Na+ is reported beyond the limit by Lab., Unit should not run.
If SiO2 is reported beyond the limit by Lab., Unit should not run.
If Lab. Person is not available to take sample, stop the unit after
regeneration is completed . When He come back, take the unit on
manual rinse and give sample.
Take care of all valves during service and regenerations.
There should be periodic maintenance of valves to improve the
efficiency of the plant
Keep on giving the suggestions, whether they are passed or “not”
112
importance of silica gel in dm plant
Silica gel is silicon dioxide (SiO2). Silica gel is a granular,
porous form of silica made synthetically from sodium
silicate.
Its a dessicant, which means it absorbs water.
It absorbs humidity and prevents caking or corrosion.
It is used to absorb excess moisture in the air.
Silica gel breathers are used for absorption of moisture
vented from storage tanks
Silica gel is used in DM/PW tanks to restrict the entry of
moisture particle in side the tank. When the temp. rises
inside then the warm air goes out from ventilation plug at
the same time fresh air has to enter inside to fulfill the
vacuum. This fresh air goes to silica gel breather where
moisture particle is been adopted by silica gel.
113
Batch Preparation in BADT-2 for MB-1
Acid required for MB-1 regeneration, 183 kgs (100%)
But we have 98% pure acid, then acid required is 183/.98=186.73
kgs
Density of acid is 1.8361 kg/m3, then acid required is
186.73/1.8361 = 101.7 litres 98%
Dia of AMT-2 is 0.8 m, V=π* r2*h= π* d2/4*h,
In AMT-2, h= 101.7/(0.8^2*3.14/4)= 202.42 mm
Acid preparation, mm measurement for MB-1 in BADT-2 ( 10%
H2SO4) . Acid required for MB-1 regeneration, 183 kgs (100%)
then 183/0.1= 1830 kgs of 10% H2SO4
Density of 10% H2SO4 is 1.06599 kg/m3 , acid required
=1830/1.06599= 1716.7 litres
Water required in BADT-2 is 1716.7-101.7 =1615 ltrs of water
Dia of BADT-2 is 1.6 m, V=π* r2*h= π* d2/4*h,
In BADT-2 ,h= 1615/(1.6^2*3.14/4)= 803 mm of water.
114
SAFETY AND HAZARDS
Personnel should be aware of the character of
the acid & caustic and their hazards and should
take the precautionary measures.
Drainage Cover should be taken care off.
Oil Spillage should also be taken care off.
Broken acid line supports should be changed.
There may be pin hole leakage in acid lines.
Which is to be taken care off.
115
SUGGESTION
There are four pumps P-21 A/B/C/D to supply condensate to three
streams SAC-4A/B/C from CST-2. Normally two pumps run at a time
to supply condensate and discharge pressure remains around 8
kgf/cm2.
At this time, SAC-4 A/B/C middle collectors are badly damaged/
broken.
When one out of three SAC-4, was in shutdown and other second
was in regeneration specially in settle stage which is as good as
shutdown and two pumps are running to supply condensate. In this
condition excess pressure (more than 10.5 kgf/cm2) was supplied to
SAC-4 which was in service
This excess pressure may be the reason for damage/ broken of
middle collectors.
To avoid this in the future, my suggestion is this that a recirculation
line to CST-2 from pump, P-21 A/B/C/D discharge is to be provided
with control valve on it. As pressure exceeds from normal operating 116
pr., control valve will open and excess pr. will be released in CST-2.
Monitoring of DM plant,
Various problems faced,
Remedial measures
taken in DM plant.
117
DEFECTS CAUSES REMEDIES
1. DECREASE INCAPACITY BETWEEN TWO REGENERATIONS
a. Increase in ionic load Check by analysis
b. Flow integrator/indicator defective Check
c. Less amount of regenerant chemical Check, Use proper concentration
used for regeneration
d. Resin fouled Give treatment for de-fouling
If cation give HCl wash
If anion give brine treatment
e. Plant being used intermittently Regular running
f. Channeling in resin bed Check and ensure uniform
distribution of bed
g. Resin dirty Give prolonged backwash
h. Resin deteriorated Check /replace the resin
i. Resin quantity become less Check and makeup the level 118
---contd-2
2. TREATED WATER QUALITY NOT AS SPECIFIED
a. Cation exhausted Check and regenerate
b. Anion exhausted Check and regenerate
c. Mixed bed exhausted Check and regenerate
d. Resin in mixed bed not in Again remix the resin by air and rinse.
mixed state
e. Some valves particularly back Check and rectify
wash inlet valves passing.
f. Sodium slip from cation high Check feed water analysis. Note changes in Na
Silica slip from anion high / TC and Silica /TA ratios. Use more chemicals
accordingly.
g. Unit is not sufficiently rinsed Rinse it to satisfactory quantity.
h. Excessive low flow rate Adjust the unit flow between minimum and
maximum flow
i. Channeling of resin bed Check and ensure uniform distribution in bed.
j. Resin deteriorated Check the resin and replace.
119
---contd-3
3. MIXED BED QUALITY NOT GOOD
a. Resin not separated during back Give extended backwash after

wash exhaustion of bed.
b. Air mixing not proper Give extended air mixing.
c. Final rinse not proper Give extended final rinse.
d. Some valves may be leaking and Check and rectify.

contaminating the treated water
4. HIGH RESIDUAL CO2 FROM DEGASSER
a. Due to choked suction Check and clean filter.

filter of degassed air
blower
b. Improper air flow to Check blower discharge valve /damper / speed
Degasser of blower and it's discharge pressure.
c. Degasser blower not in Check and take blower in line.
operation 120
---contd-4
5. FLOODING IN DEGASSER
a. Very high air flow rate Reduce air flow rate by adjusting
damper
b. Packed tower choked due to Open, check, clean or replace
dust or broken packing material packing.
6. UNIT RINSE TAKES LONGTIME
a. Flow rate too low Check and increase flow rate.
b. Backwash inlet valves not Check and rectify.
holding
c. Anion resin organically fouled Give alkaline brine treatment.
d. Mixed Bed air mix not Carryout air mixing again.
satisfactory
e. Acid or alkali pockets formed in Temporarily give longer backwash
unit and rinse again.
121
---contd-5
7. FLOW RATE TOO LOW
a. Choked valves or suction strainer of Check and rectify
pump
b. Cavitations in pump Check water level in respective
tanks.
c. Low inlet pressure Check water pressure.
d. Distribution or collector system choked Check and clean
e. Resin trap at outlet unit choked Check and clean
d. Control valves shut due to low off take. Increase off take
8. PRESSURE DROP ACROSS BED INCREASING
a. Defective valves Check and rectify / replace.
b. Packing of resin bed due to Give extended backwash with open
fines of resin manhole, scrap fines from top of bed
c. Collecting system choked Check and repeat backwash.
d. Pressure gauge defective Check and rectify / replace.
122
---contd-6
9. RESIN BED BEING LOST
a. Due to excessive backwash pressure Check inlet pressure and flow rate
or flow. and reduce it if necessary.
b. Faulty collection system Examine the system for any breakage
c. Inlet strainer damaged Check and replace.
10. EJECTOR NOT WORKING
a. Low power water pressure Check and adjust.
b. Air lock in the unit Backwash and release air entrapped in unit.
c. Choked or defective valves Examine and rectify
d. Ejector nozzle may be choked Check and clean.
e. Too much back Pressure from Check for choking of regenerant distribution
unit / collecting system. Passing of inlet and
outlet valves.
f. Bulge in rubber linking of Check and rectify.
pipeline
123
---contd-7
11. INCORRECT READING FROM ROTA-METERS.
a. Choked orifice or impulse line Check and clean
b. Dirty glass or float Check and clean

12. IMPROPER READING FROM FLOW RECORDER INTEGRATOR
a. Choked impulse line or orifice Check and clean
b. DP transmitter requires recalibration Re calibrate

c. Leakage in signal tube between Check and repair
transmitter and panel
13. SOLUTION CONCENTRATION IN TANKS NOT PROPER
a. Water level not up to mark/required Check all related valves
b. Acid level not up to mark/required Check all related valves
c. Level shown are not proper Check level transmitters

124
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Shri C.K.Gaur, Sr. Mgr. CP&O, and Shri Neeraj
Kumar, Mgr, who have given me this opportunity
to prepare this lecture and given their valuable
suggestions.
Shri N.S.Hada, Dy. Mgr. Lab. For his valuable
discussion.
My colleagues who are working with me in shifts
My friends, who have asked me to include the
answers of their unanswered questions.
125
126

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Welcome: Water Chemistry and Operation of DM Plant

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WELCOME

WATER CHEMISTRY AND

Organic Oil And Corrosion

calcium and Softening;

Adds to solids content of water, but

Adds to solids content of water:

10. Corrosion of water lines, heat

11. Aeration; chlorination;

Refers to total amount of dissolved Lime softening and cation

14. Refers to the measure of undissolved

15. Refers to the sum of dissolved and

Adds to solids content, but is not

Usually present as a result of floc

Hot and warm process

Cation Exchange Anion Exchange

WAC SAC WBA SBA

CH = CH2 CH = CH2 CH - CH2 - CH - CH2

Concrete Backwash outlet

5 Exchange capacity 4.0 meq./Ml.

EFFICIENCY:-Weak functionality resins have a much higher regeneration

STRONG ACID CATION RESIN. 58

5 EXCHANGE CAPACITY 2.0 MEQ./ML.

SAC 10420 Litrs (SAC)GEL 150 6000 m3 ION EXCHANGE

The exchange reaction is reversible. When its capacity is

Cation α /Na+ Anion α/Cl−

During the regeneration of a co-current unit, the contaminants are

In a counterflow regenerated cation exchanger, the regenerant flows in the opposite

5 EXCHANGE CAPACITY 1.5 MEQ./ML.

WEAK BASE ANION

Exchange capacity of WB resin is upto 1.6 meq/ml. Regeneration

• COPOLYMER BEADS SUBJECTED TO CHLORO-METHYLATION

-CH- CH2 - CH - CH2 -

---- AMINATION CH2Cl

5 EXCHANGE CAPACITY 1.2 MEQ./ML.

ACF SAC SBA MB

a. Resin not separated during back Give extended backwash after

c. Final rinse not proper Give extended final rinse.

d. Some valves may be leaking and Check and rectify.

a. Due to choked suction Check and clean filter.

b. Dirty glass or float Check and clean

b. DP transmitter requires recalibration Re calibrate

c. Level shown are not proper Check level transmitters

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