Research can be considered unethical when it violates certain ethical principles or standards,

such as the principles of autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice.

Now, when we say Autonomy it refers to the right of individuals to make their own decisions
about participating in research. If the participants are coerced or manipulated into participating,
or if they are not fully informed about the risks and benefits of the study, the research could be
considered unethical.

Beneficence refers to researchers' obligation to maximize the study's potential benefits while
minimizing any potential harm. If the risks of participating in the study outweigh the potential
benefits, or if the study is unlikely to produce any benefits at all, the research could be
considered unethical.

Non-maleficence refers to the obligation of researchers to avoid causing harm to participants. If

the study involves physical, emotional, or psychological harm to participants, or if the risks of
the study are not adequately addressed, the research could be considered unethical.

Justice refers to the obligation of researchers to ensure that the benefits and burdens of the study
are distributed fairly among participants. The study could be considered unethical if certain
groups are systematically excluded or exploited in the research.

There have been several examples of research studies I’ve read that have crossed ethical
boundaries. One such example is the Tuskegee Syphilis study, which began in the United States
in 1932 and lasted until 1972. The study involved African American men who were infected with
syphilis but were not informed that they had the disease. The men were not treated for the
disease, even when a cure became available, and were instead left to suffer the consequences of
the untreated infection.

Another example that I have read is the Stanford Prison Experiment, conducted in 1971, which
involved university students assigned prisoners and guards in a simulated prison environment.
The experiment quickly turned abusive, with the guards subjecting the prisoners to psychological
and physical abuse. The experiment was terminated after only six days, due to the extreme
cruelty that was exhibited.

A more recent example is the Facebook emotional contagion study, which was conducted in
2012. The study involved manipulating the news feeds of over 600,000 Facebook users, without
their consent, in order to assess the impact on their emotional state. The study has been criticized
for its lack of informed consent and for the potential harm caused to participants.

These examples demonstrate the importance of ethical practices in research and highlight the
need for researchers to carefully consider the potential impact of their studies on participants. It
is critical that researchers prioritize the well-being of their participants, and ensure that their
studies are conducted in an ethical and responsible manner.
To ensure that our participants are protected from malpractices in conducting research, we
should follow ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants. Ethical
guidelines include principles such as minimizing harm to participants, ensuring confidentiality,
and obtaining voluntary participation. Informed consent involves informing participants about
the study's purpose, risks and benefits, and their right to withdraw at any time.

We should ensure that they have received approval from an institutional review board (IRB) or
ethics committee before conducting the study. The IRB or ethics committee is responsible for
reviewing research proposals to ensure that they meet ethical standards and do not pose
unnecessary risks to participants.

As researchers, we should also monitor the study regularly to ensure that participants are not
experiencing any harm and that the study is being conducted according to ethical standards. If
any issues arise, researchers should take appropriate action to address them, including stopping
the study if necessary.

In conclusion, protecting research participants from malpractices requires following ethical

guidelines, obtaining informed consent, obtaining IRB or ethics committee approval, monitoring
the study, and taking appropriate action when necessary.

_________________________________________________________

Every time we conduct research we need to remember that Accessing resources for a literature
review is an essential step. The review of related literature provides the foundation for your
research and supports your research questions or hypothesis. To access resources, you might
utilize online databases, such as Google Scholar, databases in your field of study, or university
libraries. By searching for studies, papers, books, and other relevant sources, you can begin
building a comprehensive understanding of the subject area.

When conceptualizing a literature review, we might begin by creating an outline or mind map of
the key concepts, theories, and themes that emerge from your reading. This can help us identify
gaps in knowledge, inconsistencies, and areas where we can advance the field of study. As we
read our sources, take notes and highlight key arguments, methods, and evidence that support or
challenge our research questions.

When writing your literature review, it is important to be organized and systematic. You might
divide your review into sections based on themes or topics, or you might organize it
chronologically to demonstrate how research in the field has evolved over time. Be sure to
provide a clear introduction that sets the context for your review and outlines your research
questions. In the body of your review, summarize and synthesize the key findings from your
sources, and critically evaluate the quality and relevance of each study. Finally, in your
conclusion, summarize the main findings of your review and identify areas where further
research is needed.

We need to remember that writing a literature review requires careful planning, organization, and
critical thinking. By accessing resources, conceptualizing your review, and writing
systematically, you can produce a high-quality review that supports your research aims and
contributes to the wider body of knowledge in your field.

An experimental research methodology is a scientific approach used to investigate cause-and-

effect relationships between variables. It aims to establish a causal relationship between an
independent variable and a dependent variable.

(a) The nature of problems addressed in experimental research can vary widely but typically
involve exploring hypotheses or testing theories about the relationship between variables. These
problems may be related to natural phenomena, human behavior, or technological innovations.

(b) Specific designs used in experimental research include pretest-posttest designs, randomized
controlled trials, and factorial designs. These designs allow researchers to manipulate the
independent variable(s) and measure the effect on the dependent variable(s).

(c) Procedures and sampling methods used in experimental research typically involve randomly
assigning participants to different groups or conditions. This ensures that any observed effects
are due to the independent variable(s) and not due to pre-existing differences between
participants.

(d) Threats to internal validity in experimental research include factors that can affect the
relationship between the independent variable and dependent variables, such as selection bias,
maturation, history, and testing effects. Researchers use various strategies to minimize these
threats, such as randomization, counterbalancing, and control groups.

4. Causal-comparative research methodology is used to investigate the relationship between two

or more variables. It is typically used when the researcher cannot manipulate the independent
variable but is interested in determining whether there is a cause-and-effect relationship between
the independent variable and the dependent variable.

(a) This methodology is typically used to address problems related to cause-and-effect

relationships between variables. For example, it can be used to investigate whether there is a
relationship between a student's socioeconomic status and academic performance.

(b) Specific designs used in causal-comparative research include the post-hoc, ex-post facto
design, and retrospective design. These designs involve comparing groups that differ in some
way, such as groups with different socioeconomic statuses, and examining the effect of that
difference on the dependent variable.

(c) Procedures and sampling methods used in causal-comparative research include selecting a
sample of participants that represent the population of interest and gathering data through
surveys or other means. The sample is often selected based on a predetermined criterion, such as
socioeconomic status.
(d) Threats to the internal validity of the study include selection bias, which occurs when the
groups being compared are not equivalent in all relevant ways, and history effects, which occur
when external events affect the dependent variable during the course of the study.

5. Correlational research methodology is used to examine the relationship between two or more
variables. It is commonly used when conducting exploratory research or when it is not possible
or ethical to manipulate variables. Correlational designs include Pearson's r, Spearman's rho, and
point-biserial correlation. Procedures typically involve collecting data using surveys,
observations, or existing data sets. Sampling method(s) can vary depending on the research
question but may include random sampling, convenience sampling, or purposive sampling.
Threats to internal validity can include third variables, directionality problems, and issues with
measurement reliability and validity.

6. Survey research methodology is used to address a variety of problems, including measuring

attitudes, opinions, and behaviors of individuals or groups, evaluating programs or interventions,
and identifying trends or patterns in a population. Specific designs used include cross-sectional
studies, longitudinal studies, panel studies, and retrospective studies. Procedures and sampling
methods used in survey research include random sampling, stratified sampling, convenience
sampling, and quota sampling. Data collection methods may include online surveys, telephone
interviews, mail surveys, and in-person interviews. Threats to the internal validity of survey
research include response bias, social desirability bias, selection bias, and nonresponse bias. It is
important for researchers to consider and address these potential threats to ensure the accuracy
and validity of their findings.

A.1 Classical management theorists, such as Henri Fayol and Frederick Taylor, shaped the
evolution of management theories and practices. They believed that management should be
approached in a scientific and systematic way, with a focus on improving efficiency and
productivity. They stressed the importance of clear roles and responsibilities, standardized
procedures, and hierarchical structures. These ideas led to the development of management
principles such as division of labor, unity of command, and span of control, which are still used
today in various forms. The classical approach emphasized the need for management to be
separate from the work being done, leading to the emergence of professional managers. Finally,
the classical viewpoint had a significant impact on shaping modern management practices.

A.2 Behavioral viewpoints played a significant role in shaping the evolution of management
theories and practices. These viewpoints emphasized the importance of understanding human
behavior in the workplace, and how it affects productivity and performance.

One key perspective was Hawthorne Studies, which focused on the relationship between
productivity and the physical work environment, as well as social and psychological factors. This
study found that workers were more productive when they felt valued and supported, and when
they had positive social interactions with their colleagues.
Another important perspective was the theory of human needs, which proposed that people have
innate needs to be motivated and productive. This theory led to the development of strategies to
motivate employees and increase job satisfaction, such as job enrichment and empowerment.

Overall, the behavioral viewpoints emphasized the importance of understanding and addressing
the needs and motivations of individual workers, and recognizing the impact of social and
psychological factors on performance. These perspectives have had a lasting impact on
management theories and practices, and continue to inform modern approaches to management.

1.3 Quantitative has significantly influenced the evolution of management theories and practices.
This focus is on using mathematical and statistical methods to improve managerial decision-
making and increase efficiency in organizations. Some key contributions of quantitative
viewpoints include the development of operations research, decision theory, and management
science. These methodologies have helped managers to better analyze complex problems, make
more informed decisions, and optimize organizational processes. The quantitative viewpoints
have led to the development of computer-based information systems, which have revolutionized
the way that organizations collect, store, and use data. Overall, the quantitative viewpoint has
played a critical role in shaping modern management practices and continues to be a valuable
tool for managers and organizations.

1.4 The systems approach is a way of thinking about organizations that views them as complex
systems made up of interdependent parts. This approach has had a significant impact on the
evolution of management theories and practices.

One key viewpoint of the systems approach is that organizations are not isolated entities, but
rather are part of larger social, economic, and political systems. This perspective has led to a
greater emphasis on understanding the external environment in which organizations operate, and
has led to the development of tools such as SWOT analysis and PEST analysis to help managers
better understand their organizations' place in the larger context.

Another important aspect of the systems approach is that organizations are made up of
interdependent parts that must work together to achieve their goals. This led to an even greater
emphasis on teamwork and collaboration and the development of tools such as total quality
management and continuous improvement.

The systems approach has helped to shape management theories and practices by emphasizing
the importance of understanding the complex nature of organizations and the need for a holistic
approach to management.

1.5 Contingency theory states that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to management and that
the most effective management style and practices will vary depending on the specific situation.
This theory has shaped the evolution of management theories and practices by emphasizing the
importance of flexibility and adaptability. It has led to the development of various management
approaches, such as situational leadership and contingency planning, which aim to tailor
management strategies to fit the unique circumstances of each situation. This approach has
 helped managers to be more responsive to changing environments and to better meet the needs of
their organizations.

1.6 Quality management has played a significant role in shaping management theories and
practices. The viewpoints of quality management have evolved over time, leading to changes in
how organizations approach managing quality. Some of the key viewpoints that have shaped the
evolution of management theories and practices include:

a. Total Quality Management (TQM): TQM emphasizes the continuous improvement of

processes, products, and services to meet or exceed customer expectations. This approach
focuses on involving all employees in the quality management process, promoting
teamwork, and using data to drive decision-making.

b. Six Sigma: Six Sigma is a data-driven approach that aims to eliminate defects and minimize
variability in processes. This approach uses statistical methods to measure and analyze
performance, identify areas for improvement, and develop solutions that address root causes of
problems.
c. Lean Management: Lean management aims to eliminate waste and improve efficiency in
processes. This approach emphasizes continuous improvement and the elimination of non-value-
added activities.
d. ISO Standards: ISO standards provide guidelines for quality management systems that help
organizations ensure consistency and meet customer needs. These standards cover a range of
areas, including quality management, environmental management, and information security
management.

Overall, these viewpoints have helped organizations improve quality, increase efficiency, and
meet customer needs. By adopting these approaches, organizations can better compete in the
global marketplace and achieve long-term success.

2 The debate over whether management is an art or a science has been ongoing for decades.
Some argue that management is an art because it involves creativity, intuition, and the ability to
adapt to unique situations. Others argue that management is a science because it involves
systematic processes, data analysis, and the use of evidence-based techniques.

Management is both an art and a science. Successful managers need to have a solid
understanding of management theories and techniques, as well as the ability to be creative,
innovative, and adaptable. They should also be able to analyze data and make informed decisions
based on evidence.

Ultimately, the best managers are those who can balance the art and science of management.
They are able to use their knowledge and skills to create a positive and productive work
environment, while also adapting to changing circumstances and making data-driven decisions.
3. As a school principal or educational administrator, I believe in the importance of being an
effective leader, decision-maker, and communicator. To achieve this, I strive to stay up-to-date
on both traditional and contemporary leadership and management theories and practices.

In terms of management, I believe that creating a positive and inclusive school culture is key to
overall success. This involves setting clear expectations and goals, fostering open
communication and collaboration, and promoting a sense of community among all stakeholders.
I will prioritize the development of strong relationships with students, staff, families, and
community members to ensure that everyone feels valued and supported.

As a leader, I believe in the importance of being approachable, empathetic, and transparent. I

strive to lead by example and to empower others to take ownership of their own learning and
professional development. This involves providing ongoing feedback and support, as well as
celebrating successes and learning from failures.

In terms of decision-making, I believe in using data-driven approaches and seeking input from
all stakeholders to ensure that decisions are informed and equitable. I will prioritize making
decisions that align with our school's mission, vision, and values, and that prioritize the needs of
our students.

I believe that effective school management requires a balance of strong leadership, management,
and communication skills, as well as a commitment to continuous learning and growth.

b. As a school principal or educational administrator, it is crucial to be an effective leader,

decision-maker, and communicator. Conducting a complete assessment of problems is essential
to identify areas that need improvement and determine the best course of action. This is
important because it allows for effective decision-making and can lead to positive changes in the
school's environment and academic performance. Traditional and contemporary leadership and
management theories and practices can be utilized to guide the assessment process and provide
insight into potential solutions.

c. As a school head, it is important to understand that managing and leading are two distinct but
equally important roles. While management involves handling day-to-day operations and
resources efficiently and effectively, leadership involves inspiring and motivating individuals
towards a common vision and purpose.

In addressing a problem, it is important to consider the situation and the interests and objectives
of the school and organization. One management theory that can be applied is the contingency
theory, which suggests that there is no one best way to manage or lead, and that the most
effective approach depends on the situation at hand.

To address the problem as a manager, I would first assess the situation and identify the root
cause of the problem. I would then gather relevant data and information, and involve key
stakeholders in the decision-making process. This would ensure that all perspectives are
considered and that decisions are made collaboratively and with the best interests of the school
and organization in mind.

To address the problem as a leader, I would focus on inspiring and motivating individuals toward
a common vision and purpose. I would communicate the importance of addressing the problem,
and provide a clear and compelling vision of what success would look like. I would also work to
build trust and relationships with individuals and provide support and resources to help them
achieve their goals.

In conclusion, by applying the principles of contingency theory, and balancing the roles of
manager and leader, I believe that I could effectively address the problem and achieve the
interests and objectives of the school and organization.