Oral Histology

Salivary glands

The salivary glands are exocrine glands that produce saliva through a system
of ducts. Humans have three paired major salivary glands
(parotid, submandibular, and sublingual), as well as hundreds of minor salivary
glands. Salivary glands can be classified as serous, mucous,
or seromucous (mixed).
In serous secretions, the main type of protein secreted is alpha-amylase,
an enzyme that breaks down starch into maltose and glucose,
whereas in mucous secretions, the main protein secreted is mucin, which acts
as a lubricant.
In humans, between 0.5 and 1.5 l of saliva are produced every day. The
secretion of saliva (salivation) is mediated by parasympathetic
stimulation; acetylcholine is the active neurotransmitter and binds to muscarinic
receptors in the glands, leading to increased salivation.

Saliva
is an extracellular fluid produced and secreted by salivary glands in the mouth.
In humans, desquamated oral epith. cells, microorganism and their product,
food debris and serum component and inflammatory cells that gain access in the
gingival sulcus.
Composition
Produced in salivary glands, human saliva comprises 99.5% water, but also
contains many important substances, including electrolytes, mucus, antibacterial
compounds and various enzymes.
Electrolytes:sodium (lower than blood plasma) potassium (higher than plasma),
calcium (similar to plasma) magnesium and others.Mucus (mucus in saliva
mainly consists of mucopolysaccharides and glycoproteins)
secretory immunoglobulin A)
Epidermal growth factor (EGF)
Various enzymes; most notably:
o α-amylase (Lingual lipase, which is secreted by the acinar cells of the
sublingual gland; has a pH optimum around 4.0 so it is not activated until
entering the acidic environment of the stomach
o Antimicrobial enzymes that kill bacteria:
Lysozyme
Salivary lactoperoxidase
Lactoferrin
o Proline-rich proteins (function in enamel formation, Ca2+-binding,
microbe killing and lubrication)

Development
Similar to teeth, the individual salivary glands arise as a proliferation of oral
epithelial cells, forming a focal thickening that grows into the underlying
ectomesenchyme. Continued growth results in the formation of a small bud
connected to the surface by a trailing cord of epithelial cells, with mesenchymal
cells condensing around the bud . Clefts develop in the bud, forming two or
more new buds; continuation of this process, called branching morphogenesis,
produces successive generations of buds and a hierarchic ramification of the
gland.
1. The epithelium invaginates into the underlying connective tissue, bringing the
epithelial basal lamina with it.
2. The invagination develops a lumen that communicates to the original
surface.
3. The invagination differentiates into a secretory unit at its furthest part and a
duct that connects the secretory unit to the epithelium.
The primoridia or buds of different glands appear at different period .Buds of
parotid and submandibular glands appear at 5- 6 weeks of I.U.L., primordium of
sublingual glands appears after 7-8 weeks of I.U.L. minor salivary glands stat
developing at the third month of I.U.L.

Histology of Salivary glands

Both major and minor S.G. composed of parenchyma elements are derived
from oral epith. and consists of secretary end piece or acini either serous or
mucous or a combination of the two called serous demilunes and these
secretary units leading into ducts that open into oral cavity. The connective
tissue (C.T.) forms a capsule around the gland and extends into it, dividing
groups of secretary units and ducts into lobes and lobules, the blood and lymph
vessels and nerves that supply the gland are contained within Capsule.

The major salivary glands are

1-Parotid gland
The two parotid glands are major salivary glands wrapped around
the mandibular ramus in humans. These are largest of the salivary glands,
secreting saliva to facilitate mastication and swallowing, and amylase to begin
the digestion of starches. It is the serous type of gland which secretes alphaamylase.
It enters the oral cavity via the parotid duct. The glands are located
posterior to the mandibular ramus and anterior to the mastoid process of the
temporal bone. They produce 20% of the total salivary content in the oral
cavity. Mumps is a viral infection, caused by infection in the parotid gland.

2-Submandibular glands
The submandibular glands (previously known as submaxillary glands) are a pair
of major salivary glands located beneath the lower jaws, superior to
the digastric muscles.The secretion produced is a mixture of both serous
fluid and mucus, and enters the oral cavity via the submandibular duct or
Wharton duct. Around 70% of saliva in the oral cavity is produced by the
submandibular glands, though they are much smaller than the parotid
glands. This gland can usually be felt via palpation of the neck, as it is in the
superficial cervical region and feels like a rounded ball. It is located about two
fingers above the Adam's apple (laryngeal prominence) and about two inches
apart under the chin.

3-Sublingual glands
The sublingual glands are a pair of major salivary glands located inferior to the
tongue, anterior to the submandibular glands. The secretion produced is
mainly mucous in nature, but it is categorized as a mixed gland. Unlike the
other two major glands, the ductal system of the sublingual glands does not
have intercalated ducts and usually does not have striated ducts, either, so saliva
exits directly from 8-20 excretory ducts known as the Rivinus ducts. About 5%
of saliva entering the oral cavity comes from these glands.

Minor salivary glands

Around 800 to 1,000 minor salivary glands are located throughout the oral
cavity within the submucosa of the oral mucosa in the tissue of the buccal,
labial, and lingual mucosa, the soft palate, the lateral parts of the hard palate,
and the floor of the mouth or between muscle fibers of the tongue. They are 1 to
2 mm in diameter and unlike the major glands, they are not encapsulated by
connective tissue, only surrounded by it. The gland has usually a number
of acini connected in a tiny lobule. A minor salivary gland may have a common
excretory duct with another gland, or may have its own excretory duct. Their
secretion is mainly mucous in nature and have many functions such as coating
the oral cavity with saliva. Problems with dentures are sometimes associated
with minor salivary glands if dry mouth is present.The minor salivary glands are
innervated by the seventh cranial or facial nerve.

Ducts
The ductal system of salivary glands is a varied network of tubules that
progressively increase in diameter, beginning at the secretory end pieces and
extending to the oral cavity The three classes of ducts are intercalated, striated,
and excretory, each with differing structure and function. The ductal system is
more than just a simple conduit for the passage of saliva; it actively participates
in the production and modification of saliva.
1. Intercalated Ducts The primary saliva produced by the secretory end pieces
passes first through the intercalated ducts. The first cells of the intercalated
duct are directly adjacent to the secretory cells of the end piece, and the
lumen of the end piece is continuous with the lumen of the intercalated duct.
The intercalated ducts are lined by a simple cuboidal epithelium, and
myoepithelial cell bodies and their processes typically are located along the
basal surface of the duct. The overall diameter of the intercalated ducts is
smaller than that of the end pieces, and their lumina are larger than those of
the end pieces. The duct cells are low cuboidal, and their cytoplasm stains
lightly with eosin. The surrounding serous end piece cells stain with
hematoxylin. A few small secretory granules may be found in the apical
cytoplasm, especially in cells located near the end pieces. The apical cell
surface has a few short microvilli projecting into the lumen; the lateral
surfaces are joined by apical junctional complexes and scattered
desmosomes and gap junctions and have folded processes that interdigitate
with similar processes of adjacent cells. Because of their small size and lack
of distinctive features, intercalated ducts often are difficult to identify in
routine histologic sections.

2. Striated Ducts The striated ducts, which receive the primary saliva from the
intercalated ducts, constitute the largest portion of the duct system. These
ducts are the main ductal component located within the lobules of the gland,
that is, intralobular . Striated duct cells are columnar, with a centrally placed
nucleus and pale, acidophilic cytoplasm . In well-preserved tissue, faint
radially oriented lines or striations may be observed in the basal cytoplasm
of the ducts. The overall diameter of the duct is greater than that of the
secretory end pieces, and the lumen is larger than those of the secretory end
pieces and intercalated ducts. A basal lamina encloses the striated duct, and a
capillary plexus is present in the surrounding connective tissue.

3. Excretory Ducts The excretory ducts are located in the connective tissue
septa between the lobules of the gland, that is, in an extralobular or
interlobular location. These ducts are larger in diameter than striated ducts
and typically have a pseudostratified epithelium with columnar cells
extending from the basal lamina to the ductal lumen and small basal cells
that sit on the basal lamina but do not reach the lumen . As the smaller ducts
join to form larger excretory ducts, the number of basal cells increases, and
scattered mucous (goblet) cells may be present . The epithelium of the main
excretory duct may become stratified near the oral opening.

End pice of salivary gland

The functional unit of the salivary glands is the terminal secretory piece
called acini with a roughly spherical or tubular shape. It also consists of
branched ducts for the passage of the saliva and also plays an important role in
the production and modification of saliva.

What is Serous
The serous is a type of gland found in salivary glands, producing a protein-rich
fluid with digestive enzymes. The serous is composed of clusters of cells
called acini. The cells in these clusters contain round, central nuclei. All of the
three salivary glands, parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands contain
serious glands. Parotid gland only contains serous glands. Submandibular
and sublingual glands contain both serous and mucous glands. The serous
glands contain large striated ducts.
The secretion of the serous gland is isotonic with the blood plasma. It contains
zymogens, antibodies, and inorganic ions. The main function of the secretions
of the serous glands is to solubalize dry food, maintain oral hygiene, and initiate
starch digestion. The alpha-amylase in the serous secretion breaks down starch
into maltose.

What is Mucous
The mucous is a type of gland found in salivary glands, producing a slippery
solution with mucus. The cells in the mucous glands are arranged into clusters
called mucous acini. The mucous cells in the acini comprise flattened nuclei
against the basement membrane. Submandibular and sublingual glands contain
mucous glands. The mucous glands contain small striated ducts.The secretion of
the mucous glands is a thick solution containing a lot of mucus. The main
function of the mucous secretions is to lubricate the oral cavity and make food
into the slippery bolus.
Similarities Between Serous and Mucous
Serous and mucous are two types of glands, which make up the salivary
glands.
Both are exocrine glands, stimulated by the parasympathetic nervous
system.
Both serous and mucous glands comprise acinar epithelial cells.
Secretions of both glands are involved in lubrication, solubilizing dry food,
and oral hygiene.

Difference Between Serous and Mucous

Definition
Serous: Serous gland is a constituent of salivary glands, producing a solution
with proteins in an isotonic watery fluid.
Mucous: Mucous gland is a constituent of salivary glands, producing a
slippery, aqueous

Myoepithelial cells:
They are contractile cells(contain the contractile filaments actin and myosin)
associated with secretary acini and intercalated ducts of S.G. They have many
similarities to smooth muscle but are derived from epith. These cells are present
around the secretary acini and have stellate shape, numerous branching prosses
extend from the cell body to surround and embrace the acinar. These cells are
difficult to identify in routine histologic preparation, but their typical stellate
shape can be observed in special histochemical technique. Their appearance is
resemble the basket cradling the secretary units. Contraction of these cells is
thought to provide support for the acini and intercalated ducts during active
secretion of saliva.
A diagram of part of a salivary gland showing a serous acinus and mixed
serous-mucous acinus.
Salivary glands are made up of secretory acini (acini - means a rounded
secretory unit) and ducts. There are two types of secretions -
serous and mucous. The acini can either be serous, mucous, or a mixture of
serous and mucous.
A serous acinus secretes proteins in an isotonic watery fluid.
A mucous acinuss secretes secretes mucin - lubricant
In a mixed serous-mucous acinus, the serous acinus forms a
serous demilune around mucous acinus, as shown in the diagram.
The secretory units merge into intercalated ducts, which are lined by simple
low cuboidal epithelium, and surrounded by myoepithelial cells.

A
Images A,B, and C are of three different salivary glands. In image A you can
see both secretory acini, and a duct.
Sublingual glands have mainly mucous acini.
Parotid glands have mainly serous acini.

Submandibular glands have a mixture of mucous and serous acini.

Mucous acini stain more weakly than serous acini, because of the
techniques used to produce the sections.

Function
Salivary glands secrete saliva, which has many benefits for the oral cavity and
health in general. These benefits include:
Protection: Saliva consists of proteins (for example;
mucins) that lubricate and protect both the soft and
hard tissues of the oral cavity. Mucins are the
principal organic constituents of mucus, the slimy
viscoelastic material that coats all mucosal surfaces.
Buffering: In general, the higher the saliva flow rate,
the faster the clearance and the higher the buffer
capacity, hence better protection from dental caries.
Therefore, people with a slower rate of saliva
secretion, combined with a low buffer capacity, have
lessened salivary protection against microbes.
Pellicle formation: Saliva forms a pellicle on the
surface of the tooth to prevent wearing. The film
contains mucins and proline-rich glycoprotein from
the saliva.
The proteins (statherin and proline-rich proteins) within the salivary pellicle
inhibit demineralisation and promote remineralisation by attracting calcium
ions.
Maintenance of tooth integrity: Demineralization
occurs when enamel disintegrates due to the presence
of acid. When this occurs, the buffering capacity
effect of saliva (increases saliva flow rate) inhibits
demineralisation. Saliva can then begin to promote
the remineralisation of the tooth by strengthening the
enamel with calcium and phosphate minerals.
Antimicrobial action: Saliva can prevent microbial
growth based on the elements it contains. For
example, lactoferrin in saliva binds naturally with
iron. Since iron is a major component of bacterial
cell walls, removal of iron breaks down the cell wall,
which in turn breaks down the bacterium.
Antimicrobial peptides such as histatins inhibit the
growth of Candida albicans and Streptococcus
mutans. Salivary immunoglobulin A serves to
aggregate oral bacteria such as S. mutans and prevent
the formation of dental plaque.
Tissue repair: Saliva can encourage soft-tissue repair
by decreasing clotting time and increasing wound
contraction.
Digestion: Saliva contains amylase, which
hydrolyses starch into glucose, maltose, and dextrin.
As a result, saliva allows some digestion to occur
before the food reaches the stomach.
Taste: Saliva acts as a solvent in which solid
particles can dissolve and enter the taste buds
through oral mucosa located on the tongue. These
taste buds are found within foliate and circumvallate
papillae, where minor salivary glands secrete saliva.