SUMMARIZING:

INTRODUCTION

- The main items of ATC Equipment are:

o Communication eq.
o Surveillance Eq.
o Flight planning Processing Eq.
o Presentation Eq. for all information elements

RADIO THEORY

- Frequency is the number of oscillations or cycles per unit of time

o F is usually expressed in Hertz (Hz)
o One Hz is equal to one cycle per second
- Period is the time required to complete One cycle. It’s measured in seconds. (T = 1/F)
- Wavelenght is The distance, in the direction of propagation, between two successive points of an
electromagnetic waveform (meters) . lambda = c / 2.

- HF Frequency goes from 3Mhz to 30Mhz and its wavelengths from 100m to 10m
- VHF Frequency goes from 30Mhz to 300MHz and its wavelength from 10m to 1m
- UHF frequency goes from 300Mhz to 3000Mhz its wavelengths from 1m to 0,1m

A transmission line is physical link between the equipment and the feeding point of the radiant element of the
system.

The dimensions of an antenna have to be considered in accordance with the wavelength to be transmitted or
received. For an antenna to be efficient, its length shall be a multiple or sub multiple of the wavelength (Half, Fourth
a wavelength)

An impedance missmatch (due to signal wavelength vs. Antenna length) in the line of transmission/antenna can result
in loss of coverage and TX damage.

Energy is associated to a front of electromagnetic waves that consist of:

- An electrical field (E) whose orientation is identical to that of the position of the radiant element.
- A magnetic field (H) whose orientation is perpendicular to that of the electrical field.

The polarisation of an antenna is defined by the orientation of the electrical field (E) in space.

we shall distinguish between two types of basic polarisations vertical and horizontal.

In order to solve the communication problem we turn to the MODULATION process, which consists of “linking” the
audio frequency signal (containing the information) to the radio frequency signal which provides the diffusion.

- A lower frequency signal (audio frequency) which contains the information we want to diffuse. This signal
is known as the MODULATOR.
- A higher frequency signal (radio frequency) which does not contain any information, but that will facilitate
its diffusion (emission) and reception between considerably separated geographical points. This signal is
known as the CARRIER.

The amplitude modulation procedure consists of varying the amplitude of the carrier signal according to the
modulator signal (audio or information to be transmitted)

In ground/air aeronautical communications amplitude modulation is used for the exchange of messages between the
ground station and the aircraft station.

The relationship between values taken by amplitude variations of the carrier signal modulated provide the data of an
important parameter in this type of emissions and this is known as the modulation index.

ICAO (Annex 10) determines that the modulation percentage for aeronautical communications must be higher than
85%.
Frequency modulation (FM) is another method used to modify a carrier signal with the aim of transmitting
information at a distance. In this type of modulation, the instant frequency of the carrier signal varies depending on
the rhythm of the modulator signal; the amplitude of the carrier signal remains constant.

In conventional AM Almost 75% of energy broadcasted does not contain any information.

As the information is contained in both sidebands, the bandwidth may be reduced by emitting a single sideband. In
professional communication equipment, reducing the bandwidth by half, which is strictly necessary, and transmitting
only the energy that contains information, means that much higher communication ranges can be reached using the
same amount of power. Modulation that takes advantage of this property known as single sideband (SSB)

A receiver receives RF signals from all emitters within whose effective range

RX Local oscillator: its objective is to generate a frequency signal whose value varies with the action of the
tuner. The objective of this signal is to mix with that of the tuned signal to achieve an Intermediate Frequency (IF).

RX Mixer: in this unit signals from the tuner/RF amplifier are mixed with the local oscillator. With the mixer
output, we obtain a signal of lower frequency than that tuned, which is called the INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY (IF). In
all AM receivers the value of the IF is constant and equal to 455 kHz (in commercial radio broadcasting). The value of
the IF in FM receivers is 10.7 kHz. The signal from the mixer has the same amplitude variations as the originally tuned
RF signal.

The reason for generating this intermediate frequency is based on the demodulator or detector stage (deletion of the
carrier) and it is designed to obtain an optimum result at a determined and fixed frequency which must be lower than
RF signals from the transmitter equipment.

Demodulator: the objective of this unit is to delete the RF carrier and obtain the result of amplitude variations. We
should remember that amplitude variations of the carrier signal (envelope) represent the original low frequency signal
(which contains the audio information)

Since the Earth has a curved surface, and since waves bend slightly because of refraction, as the distance between
the transmitter and the receiver increases, the risk that the wave does not reach the receiver increases The Radio
horizon is theoretical because it does not take into account the unevenness of terrain and the means of propagation.

The ionosphere is a zone of the atmosphere located at a high altitude (from approximately 50 km onwards). It is
composed of an important number of free electrons and positive ion

The vertical structure of the ionosphere includes four layers or regions. These layers are not static but are rather in
continuous movement. The density of the electrons of each layer varies with the time of day and the season of the
year. As a consequence of changes and movements in the ionosphere, fading effects are produced in addition to
periods of silence in the receivers

Waves of frequencies lower than 30 megahertz are curved or reflected by the ionosphere. Therefore, a remote
receiver may receive two signals: a direct one, and another one which is the result of a wave reflected by the
ionosphere The sum of both waves may be additive (when they are in phase) or destructive when they are opposite
in phase. The paths of both propagations may vary depending on temperature changes and other propagation
conditions, something which is shown in periodic variations of the signal received and which is known as fading.

High Frequency (HF) radio transmission is the only non-satellite communication system capable of establishing a
direct link between aircraft and ground station, or between ground stations, at distances above that of the radio
horizon.

FREQUENCIES:

National and International Aeronautical Mobile Services (Intermediate allocations shall be determined by regional
agreement. National agreements shall be solved by consultations between the interested administrations so that
there is not any interference in communications): 118 – 121.4 MHz

Emergency civil: 121.5MHz

Emergency military: 243MHz

Ground communications (taxi) in aerodromes (Reserved for ground movements, checks prior to the flight, ATS
clearances and connected functions.): 121.6 – 121.975MHz
National Aeronautical Mobile Services (Only APP): From 122 to 123.05 MHz

National Aeronautical Mobile Services (Only Route): From 123.15 to 135.975 MHz

In operation with offset frequencies (Ground Tx only), the service area is covered by two or more land stations that
work on the same radio channel but with slightly different carrier frequencies in the transmission process.

A direction finder (DF) is not a direct navigation system but a support system for ATC, which allows the recovery of
missing aircraft, equipped with a communication system, by means of localization and guidance, providing the crew
with orientation data. When communications are performed over the VHF band, the system is called VDF. In the case
of using communications in the UHF band, the system is known as UDF band. In its simplest form, a current direction
finder is made up of a procedural radio receiver and an antenna designed with marked directional properties. Modern
antennas are based on the Doppler effect to determine the orientation of the source of the emission.

The aircraft incorporates complementary equipment, known as ADF (Automatic Direction-finding Equipment) used
to determine the position of the aircraft in respect to a non-directional beacon (NDB), in such a way that the system
aids the pilot in knowing his position at all times when using this instrument.

VCS:

RADIO OPERATION The objective of radio operation is to facilitate radio communications (VHF and UHF) between the
operator position and aircraft.

The aim of this telephone operation is to make audio links with internal and external positions possible, with the
previous calling protocol typical in telephony.

- Internal Links. Those established between system operators.

- External Links. Those established with external users to the system

The telephone interfaces can be:

- Direct Access (DA). In the field of VCS telephony operation, a direct access position is considered that which
one can access, both to make a call and to receive it by just one touch.
- Indirect Access (IA). All other access to telephone resources is considered indirect access. On that basis,
indirect access can be carried out through scheduled Agendas (Pages A/I), or by dialling a specific number
in the established numbering plan system.

HOTLINE: The purpose of the operation of a hotline telephone is to enable audio links with internal or external
positions, without pre-call.

SELCAL, ACARS, CPDLC

SELCAL is a system that allows selective calling of individual aircraft, on radiotelephony channels that link a ground
radio station with the aircraft. It is an effective complement to voice communication.

CPDLC is done by mutual agreement between the pilot and the controller and is used for routine communications
during the en-route phase, where time is not a critical factor. CPDLC is an additional system to voice communications
and does not intend to replace.

Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) is a digital data link system for the transmission
of short, relatively simple messages between aircraft and ground stations via radio or satellite

RADAR:

From the point of view of the "intervention" of the target to be detected by the radar system, we can establish a first
division:

- Passive systems: are those in which the target to detect is "not involved" in the process. The target will be
detected anyway. In this type of radar we can find pulse primary radar systems used in aerial surveillance
and air traffic control. (PSR)
- Active systems: are those in which the target to detect is "actively engaged" in the process. The mobile
equipment, whose presence and characteristics are to be detected, "responds" actively to the "questioning"
of the ground equipment. (SSR)
In ATC surveillance long-range radar control operating in the L-band (1 to 2 GHz) is used for en route and medium-
range radars operating in S band (2 to 4 GHz) are used for approach control (TMA).

The basic elements that make up the pulses radar are: Synchronizer, Transmitter, Receiver, Duplexer, Antenna,
Display or presentation system.

During the Second World War, due to the need to distinguish the planes which were friends or enemies among all
those flying over the Channel, an identification system called IFF. Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) is the civilian
development of the military IFF system.

The operating principle of a secondary radar (SSR) is based on:

- The ground radar equipment emits a sequence of pulses which are spaced in time (PULSE INTERROGATION).
The different separation times of the interrogation pulses define the MODES OF INTERROGATION.
- The interrogation pulses emitted by the ground equipment are received onboard the aircraft by a piece of
equipment called a TRANSPONDER.
- The transponder times the separation of the interrogation pulses and determines the MODE OF
INTERROGATION.
- Transponder code data for aircraft identification together with altitude from barometric altimeter are
processed and a pulse train is generated and sent to the ground equipment. The train of pulses sent by the
transponder to the ground equipment is called ANSWERS.
- The ground equipment gets the answers transmitted from the transponder and measures the time between
the issuance of the interrogation pulses and the reception of the response pulses. Thus, distance (R), at
which the aircraft is from the ground station, is calculated.
- P1 and P3 are the interrogation pulses (DIRECTIONAL RADIATION PATTERN). The time 't' of separation
between P1 and P3 defines the interrogation mode.
o 3/A: 8 µS, Identification
o C: 21 µS, Altitude
- The P2 (OMNIDIRECTIONAL RADIATION PATTERN) pulse is "always" emitted 2 μs behind P1 in order to
suppress the answers on the side lobes of the antenna’s radiation pattern (DDR).
- Displayed information of an aircraft
o Aircraft symbol
o Label associated with the aircraft. The label includes data identification code and altitude.
o Vector plot. Indicates the expected direction for the next round of antenna.
o Track History which provides information on the speed relative to other

SSR CODE ALLOCATION:

7500 unlawful interference. It is used to notify the aircraft is in a situation of unlawful interference.

7600 communications failure. Once you are confident that the receiver has a fault this key is selected to report that
and that the aircraft will continue to fly according to established procedures.

7700 emergency. Unless otherwise specified by ATC, this is the key to be selected in the transponder to indicate that
the aircraft is in an emergency.

2000. Controlled flight without code assigned by ATC.

7000. Uncontrolled flight without code assigned by ATC.

The number of codes that Mode A/C provides is 4.096, shared between civil and military use (theoretically codes
between 0000 and 7777). Mode S provides 16 million codes, allowing each aircraft to have its own identification tag.

Mode S uses a carrier frequency of 1030 MHz (interrogation) and 1090 MHz (response), as well as conventional SSR
pulses.

GNSS

THE GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM (GNSS) is a navigation and positioning system based on information
provided by a constellation of satellites to a receiver, fixed or mobile. Currently there are two fully functional systems
that meet the characteristics of GNSS, these are the NAVSTAR GPS system in the U.S.A. and the Russian GLONASS
system.
There are two ways to degrade the signal from GPS satellites. The first is called Selective Availability (SA), and the
other called Anti-Spoofing (A-S). The aim of both is to deny users proper use of the system.

To determine position and the moment or real time in which a mobile object is located 4 satellites are required

AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS

SBAS (Satellite Based Augmentation System) ICAO defines them as "augmentations systems of wide coverage in which
the user receives the augmentation information via a transmitter on board a satellite."

GBAS (Ground Based Augmentation System) Defined by ICAO as augmentation systems in which the user receives
augmentation information via a transmitter located on earth.

According to the SARPs, a GNSS navigation system composed of GPS and/or GLONASS and GBAS augmentation would
be able to support all departure procedures, approach, landing (up to Category III) and surface operations within a
coverage area of approximately 20-30 NM around the transmitter.

ABAS (Aircraft Based Augmentation System) Defined by ICAO as augmentation systems that improve and/or integrate
the information obtained from GNSS elements with information available on board the aircraft. The simplest
technique is the use of RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring).

AMSS

The aeronautical mobile-satellite service (AMSS) will overcome the limitations of traditional communications systems.
The constellation of satellites that is used for aeronautical mobile-satellite service (AMSS) is called INMARSAT

ADS

ADS (Automatic Dependent Surveillance) is a surveillance technique in which the target determines its position by
itself (avionics) and communicates it to the ground systems and other aircraft via datalink. ADS has been broken down
into two techniques that are based on the same principles. The aim of this system is to be capable of providing real-
time flight data, from the aircraft to other aircraft and to ATC services, at any stage of flight, surpassing the current
limits of surveillance radar systems coverage.

ADS BROADCAST (ADS-B) This is the transmission, through data link, of certain on-board parameters from an aircraft
to land and to other aircraft (ground to ground and air to air), at frequent and regular intervals.

ADS CONTRACT (ADS-C) This involves the transmission of certain data from the aircraft to a ground station. It is also
known as addressed ADS (ADS-A).

AMHS

AFTN. This a message-handling network running according to ICAO Standards documented in Annex 10 to the ICAO
Convention. With a history dating back to the 1950s. This network is structured around a nodal topology to exchange
messages on links of different types and speeds using “store-and-forward” procedures.

Common ICAO Data Interchange Network (CIDIN) was conceived in the 1980s to replace the AFTN core. While the
services provided by the AFTN, CIDIN network use higher capacity techniques and better quality of service, such as
X.25 and ISO OSI layering for CIDIN protocols.

ICAO LOCATION INDICATORS:

The first letter of a location indicator identifies the routing area of the aeronautical fixed service into which the world
is divided, as shown in the figure below. A routing area can consist of a single state.

The second letter will be assigned to the state or territory, within which the place is located. When a state is a routing
area itself, it is the first letter that identifies the state or territory.

For the third and fourth letters, the state concerned shall allocate the letters as desired, avoiding the use of a
combination NN in this group of letters. When a state is by itself a routing area this point applies to the second, third
and fourth letters.

An ICAO location indicator is not in itself a destination indicator or an indicator of an AFTN message sender. To this
end, the sender or recipient of an AFTN message will consist of an AFTN address indicator consisting of a four-letter
ICAO location plus a 4- letter suffix as set out in ICAO Doc 8585
OLDI:

For flights receiving ATC service, in which several control centres are involved, the OLDI (Online Data Interchange)
was established in order to make the transfer between those control centres is as safe as possible and with the least
amount of coordination (to avoid verbal coordination).

AUTOMATIC DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION

The main objective of the broadcasts is to provide aircraft in flight with information for their safety in the en-route
flight phase as well as arrival and departure operations. There are basically three types of broadcasts:

- HF broadcasting for the Operational Flight Information Service (OFIS), also available over VHF.
- Terminal Area broadcasting, or ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information System) in VHF.
- Meteorological information broadcasting for aircrafts in flight, or VOLMET. Also available over VHF.

Broadcasting of the flight information service, when carried out, should include messages containing integrated
information about operational and meteorological elements selected for and adapted to the different flight phases.

VOLMET:

VOLMET broadcasts contain present weather reports (METAR/SPECI) for a group of aerodromes as well as parts for
the trend/tendency (TREND), if available. The aerodromes for which reports and forecasts in VOLMET broadcasts are
to be included, the order of transmission and hours of broadcasting, should be determined by regional air navigation
agreements.

In Spain there are six VOLMET broadcasts covering the entire national territory.

ATIS:

The conventional ATIS (or Voice-ATIS) is broadcast via a frequency in the VHF band communication channel or through
an associated audio VOR channel on the VHF navigation band. The information broadcast is continuous, repetitive
and refers to a single aerodrome, being updated immediately after a major change. Each ATIS transmission will be
identified by a letter taken from the ICAO spelling alphabet

The information provided by ATIS can be divided into three (3) sections or blocks: information provided by the TWR
(i.e. Runway in use), information provided by the AIS Office and information provided by the Meteorological Office
(i.e. Wind direction and speed).

The information which has been disseminated by NOTAM more than 48 hours in advance shall not be included in the
ATIS message.

ATC Working position:

The working position or control position forms the HMI (Human-Machine Interface) and is the
tool used by air traffic controllers. The control position is where the various subsystem results
are displayed and where the air traffic controller interacts with the rest of the ATC system.
Since the objective in this section is to recognize the existing control position equipment we will use the control
position FOCUCS SACTA UCS (Sector Control Unit, in SACTA terminology) as a model or example.

The TMA (approach control) and Route (area control) UCS is composed of two physically equal positions. The main
components of these positions are:

 Flight progression strip printer: one for the UCS as a whole.

 Main screen: the screen on which the geographical presentation of flights and the environment, the primary
video presentation, Planner Flight Plan management functions, and the presentation of the System Time
and Local Position Functions are shown.
 Auxiliary screen (or display): intended for MET/AIS information and the presentation of different tables for
Flight Plan and position Flight Plan management functions for the executive controller.
 Touch-screen keyboard: allows certain, preconfigured actions to be carried out so that you have quick
access to these functions.
  Alphanumeric keyboard: used to edit the fields that require alphanumeric values. Also, certain keys or
combinations of two keys have specific functions.
 Mouse: associated with mouse functions and supports certain other functions.
 Position computer and UCS computer: these computers are designed to be high performance, scalable,
reliable and flexible without compromising on economy.
 Terminal server: allows you to connect any serial device to the Ethernet. It is ideal for console management
through servers, hubs and routers. Also used to connect terminal to database applications.
 Slave clock: connected to the server via LAN.
 Voice Communication System: management of ground-ground and ground-air voice communications using
a touch pad.
 Telephony system: access to public switched telephone network, independent of the Voice
Communications System (SCV). Also called the last resort telephony system.
 Emergency radio: direct access to radio transmitter centres, as an alternate to VCS.
 Flight strip bay or flight progress board.

In addition to equipment that is similar or equivalent to that previously described for a generic control position. In a
TWR we will also find:

 Wind Indicator.
 SMR (Surface Movement Radar presentation). Optional and dependent on the level of technology and
equipment in the TWR.
 RVR and Altimeter setting indicator.
 Lighting control panel.
 Crash alarm.
 CCIS. Optional and dependent on the level of technology and equipment in the TWR.
 Direction-finding (Radiogoniometric) equipment or DFTI (Direction Finder Track Indicator).
 Other: signalling lamp, signalling/flare gun, binoculars.

SACTA:

MULTI-DEPENDENCE SURVEILLANCE DATA PROCESSING SUBSYSTEM (TDVM): The objective of this subsystem is to
receive, process and display radar information obtained from the signal coming from both military and civil radars
throughout the Spanish territory, and in the future, also signals coming from neighbouring countries such as France
and Portugal.

MULTILATERATION:

Multilateration is a proven technology that has been in use for many decades. It was developed for military purposes
to accurately locate aircraft — many of which did not wish to be “seen” — by using a method known as Time
Difference of Arrival (TDOA).

Multilateration, also known as hyperbolic positioning, is the process of locating an object by accurately computing
the time difference of arrival (TDOA) of s signal emitted from that object to three or more receivers. It also refers to
the case of locating a receiver by measuring the TDOA of a signal transmitted from three or more synchronised
transmitters.

Multilateration is commonly used in civil and military surveillance applications to accurately locate an aircraft, vehicle
or stationary emitter by measuring the time difference fo arrival (TDOA) os a signal from the emitter at three or more
receiver sites.

USE OF MULTILATERATION:

o AIRPORT SURFACE
o Advanced Surface Movement Guidance and Control Systems (A-SMGCS)
o TERMINAL AREA
o WIDE AREA MULTILATERATION (WAM)
o PRECISION RUNWAY MONITORING (PRM)
o ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
o AIRPORT OPERATIONS AND REVENUE MANAGEMENT
In the future ADS-B environment, today’s secondary surveillance radars will essentially be decommissioned or
become backup systems. ANSPs that have announced ADS-B programs, such as Airservices Australia and the FAA,
have also stated their intention to correspondingly reduce their SSR installations by as much as 50 percent.

Surveillance data processing:

Basically surveillance information will be subjected to a differentiated processing at three different levels:

 Processing performed at the sensor level at the radar site itself, including signal processing and plots
extraction.
 Transmission of monitoring information from the source or sensor, to the control center or in the absence
of the processing center.
 Processing at the control or data processing center.

Future:

SESAR (the Single European Sky ATM Research Programme) in Europe and NextGen in the US are designed to
transform air traffic management and achieve on a continental scale the same technology-driven efficiencies achieved
on a local scale. SESAR is expected to cut air-traffic management costs to airlines by 50 per cent and environmental
impact by 10 per cent while maintaining the same absolute safety levels (ie no more accidents even if traffic itself
doubles or trebles).

Three technological innovations are central to achieving these ambitious goals: First, a new type of transponder
technology called ADS-B (Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast) allows aircraft to transmit their position
and trajectory to the ground and other aircraft, even outside conventional radar coverage.

The second innovation – improved data links between ground controllers and pilots – will be essential too. Instead of
time-consuming, error-prone radio exchanges about frequency changes, routings and so on, controllers and pilots
will be able to exchange clearances using CPDLC (Controller Pilot Data Link Communications).

The cockpit itself is host to the third group of changes. Satellite navigation lets planes fly with ever-greater precision.
For example, at some airports, planes fly down approach corridors, to avoid mountains or reduce noise pollution, that
are just 0.1 miles wide. In conjunction with advanced autopilots and flight management systems, planes can also fly
sophisticated 4D profiles with great accuracy – meaning that they can fly a specific path in three dimensions and
arrive over waypoints at specific times.

All these changes will make life better for the travelling public. Flying will become safer, cheaper and more efficient
even as the number of flights increases.