Gas and Arc Welding

Unit-III:
Gas and Arc Welding: Classification of welding processes, types of
welded joints and their characteristics, Gas welding, Different types of
flames and uses, Oxy – Acetylene Gas cutting. Basic principles of Arc
welding, Manual metal arc welding, Submerged arc welding, Inert Gas
welding – TIG & MIG welding. Problems related to V – I
characteristics of welding machines.
Other Welding Processes: Resistance welding, Solid state welding
processes – Friction welding, Friction stir welding, Forge welding,
Explosive welding; Thermit welding, Plasma welding, Electron beam
welding, Soldering, Brazing and adhesive bonding. Design of welded
joints.
Fabrication Methods :

• Mechanical joining by means of bolts, screws and

rivets.
• Adhesive bonding by employing synthetic glues
such as epoxy resins.
• Welding, brazing and soldering.
Welding :
“Welding is the process of joining together two pieces of
metal so that bonding takes place at their original boundary
surfaces”. When two parts to be joined are melted together,
heat or pressure or both is applied and with or without added
metal for formation of metallic bond.
General Considerations
• Types of joints
• Different types of welding joints are
classified as butt, lap, corner, tee and
edge joints.
• Welding positions
• Edge preparation
1) Butt Joint :
The butt joint can be formed by arranging the two metal ends
together are named as a butt joint. In this kind of joint, the
two ends lie on top of the similar plane otherwise side by
side. This joint is very useful in combining the metal or
plastic parts jointly.
Butt Joint includes different types of welding namely Square
Butt, Bevel groove, V-groove weld, J-groove, U-groove,
Flare-V-groove, Flare-bevel-groove butt welding.
The applications of Butt joint include Pipes Valves,
Flanges, and Fittings
2) Corner Joint
The corner joint can be formed by arranging the
corner of two metal ends at the right angle is named
as a corner joint. The L shape can be formed by
welding two parts with a corner joint. Corner joint
includes different types of welding namely Fillet,
Spot, Square-groove, V-groove, Bevel-groove, U-
groove, J-groove, Flare-V-groove, and Edge Corner-
flange.
The applications of Corner Joint include sheet
metal, light sheets, heavier metal sheets, and this
jointing is also used in the designing of boxes,
frames
3) T-Joint
The T-joint can be arranged by interconnecting two ends at 90-
degree angle as well as one element lies in the middle of the
other. The two ends are welded like a letter T, so it is named as
T-joint. T-joint includes different types of welding namely
Fillet, Plug, Slot, Bevel-groove, J-groove, Flare-bevel groove,
and Melt-through weld.
The applications of T-joint mainly include when a metal part
is connected to some type of base, attaching thin plates,
structural and machine applications.
4) Lap Joint
The lap joint can be formed whenever the two metal or plastic ends are
placed one above another and then joined through the welding process.
This type of joint may one-sided otherwise dual sided. Lap joints are
frequently used to weld two metal pieces with dissimilar width. Lap
joint includes different types of welding namely Fillet, Bevel-groove, J-
groove, Plug, Slot, Spot, Flare-bevel-groove
The applications of lap joint mainly include gas tungsten arc weld,
resistance spot welding, as well as gas metal arc welding. These are also
used in plastic, wood, tabling, temporary framing, assembly of the
frame in cabinet making and in automation relating processes.
5) Edge Joint
The edge joint can be formed by connecting the two edges of metal
parts jointly are known as edge joint. Edge joint is mainly used
wherever the two sheet edges are nearby & that is estimated parallel
planes by the welding end. Edge joint includes different types of
welding namely Square-groove, Bevel-groove, V-groove, J-groove, U-
groove, Edge-flange, and Corner-flange weld.
The applications of edge joint mainly include where sheets edges are
nearby and that are roughly parallel planes on the welding end. These
joints are applicable where the join is essential to weld two nearby
pieces jointly, and where the thickness of sheets is less than 3mm.
Definitions :
• Backing: It is the material support provided at the root side of a weld
to aid in the control of penetration.
• Base metal: The metal to be joined or cut is termed as the base metal.
• Bead or weld bead: Bead is the metal added during a single pass of
welding. The bead appears as a separate material from the base metal.
• Crater: In arc welding, a crater is the depression in the weld metal pool
at the point where the arc strikes the base metal plate.
• Fillet weld: The metal fused into the corner of a joint made of two
pieces placed at approximately 90 deg to each other, is termed fillet
weld.
• Penetration: It is the depth upto which the weld metal combines with
the base metal as measured from the top surface of the joint.
Definitions :
• Torch: In gas welding, the torch mixes the fuel and oxygen and
controls its delivery to get the desired flame.
• Weld face: It is the exposed surface of the weld, as shown in Fig
9-5.
• Weld metal: The metal that is solidified in the joint is called weld
metal. It may be only base metal or a mixture of base metal and
filler metal.
• Weld pass: A single movement of the welding torch or electrode
along the length of the joint, which results in a bead is a weld
pass.
Gas Welding
• Also called as oxy-fuel gas welding (OFW), derives the heat from the
combustion of a fuel gas such as acetylene in combination with
oxygen.
• It is a fusion welding process wherein the joint is completely melted
to obtain the fusion.
• The heat produced by the combustion of gas is sufficient to melt any
metal and as such is universally applicable.
Fuel Gases
Flames
• In all the oxy-fuel gas welding processes, the combustion takes place
in two stages.
• The first reaction takes place when the fuel gas such as acetylene and
oxygen mixture burn releasing intense heat.
• This is present as a small white cone as shown in Fig 9-6.
• C2H2 + O2 → 2CO + H2 + 18.75 MJ/m3
Flames
• The carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen produced in the first stage
further combine with the atmospheric oxygen and give rise to the
outer bluish flame, with the following reaction.
• 4 CO + 2H2 + 3O2 → 4CO2 + 2H2O + 35.77 MJ/m3
• Neutral flame
• Carburising flame or Reducing flame
• Oxidising flame
Oxy-Acetylene Welding Equipment
• The oxygen is normally stored in strong cylinders at a pressure ranging
from 13.8 MPa to 18.2 MPa.
• Acetylene is normally made available in the following two forms:
• Acetylene storage cylinder, and
• Acetylene generator.
Oxy-Acetylene Welding Technique
• A shielding gas is not required. The arc is submerged beneath the
flux blanket and is not normally visible during welding.
• This is a well established and extremely versatile method of welding.
• The electrode may be a solid or cored wire or a strip made from sheet or
sintered material. The flux may be made by either fusing constituents to
form a glassy slag (which is then crushed to form a powder) or by
agglomerating the constituents using a binder and a corning process. The
chemical nature and size distribution of the flux assists arc stability and
determines the mechanical properties of the weld metal and the shape of
the bead.
• SAW is usually operated as a mechanised process. Welding current
(typically between 300 and 1000 amperes), arc voltage and travel speed all
affect bead shape, depth of penetration and chemical composition of the
deposited weld metal. Since the operator cannot observe the weld pool,
great reliance must be placed on parameter setting and positioning of the
filler wire.
Although SAW is normally operated with a single wire
using either AC or DC current, there are a number of
variants including the use of two or more wires, adding
chopped wire to the joint prior to welding, and the use of
metal powder additions. Additional productivity may be
gained by feeding a small diameter non-conducting wire
into leading edge of the weld pool. This can increase
deposition rates by up to 20%. These variants are used in
specific situations to improve productivity through
increasing deposition rates and/or travel speed. Replacing
the wire with a 0.5mm thick strip, typically 60mm wide,
enables the process to be used for surfacing components.
SAW is ideally suited to the longitudinal and
circumferential butt welds required for the manufacture of
line pipe and pressure vessels. Welding is normally carried
out in the flat (BS EN ISO 6947 PA) position because of the
high fluidity of the weld pool and molten slag and the
need to maintain a flux layer. Fillet joints may also be
produced, welding in either the flat or horizontal-vertical
(PB) positions.
SAW Advantages:
One of the top advantages of submerged arc welding is that it prevents hot materials from
splattering and splashing onto workers. Another benefit is that the flux prevents high levels of
radiation from being emitted into the air. Submerged arc welding does not require added pressure
to weld because it is already generated by the electrode. This application is excellent for
quickly welding together thin metal sheets and creates a secure fusion between welds. This
application also produces high productivity, fast travel speed, high repeatability, and quality results.
SAW Disadvantages:
Like most applications there are some limitations to submerged arc welding. One is that materials
that can be welded by SAW are limited to steel, stainless steel, and some nickel. Submerged arc
welding is also limited to materials that are long and straight or are rotated pipes. And despite
having some safety advantages there is still the risk of having the residue from the flux left behind,
which could be harmful to employee health.
Implementing Submerged Arc Welding Applications:
When implementing a SAW application it is important to select a robot with at least a 20kg
capacity. This will allow the robot to be able to hold the wire feed and flux. Units such as
the FANUC ARC Mate 120iC and the FANUC ARC Mate 120iB would be good choices for a SAW
application. It is also important to have a large power supply, one that is at least capable of pulling
1000 amps of weld current.
Submerged-arc welding (SAW) is a common arc welding
process that involves the formation of an arc between a
continuously fed electrode and the workpiece. A blanket of
powdered flux generates a protective gas shield and a slag
(and may also be used to add alloying elements to the weld
pool) which protects the weld zone.
Carbon Arc Welding
• In contrast to graphite electrodes, the carbon electrodes are soft and
therefore, cannot take up very high current densities.
• The arc with the carbon electrodes is more controllable. Lower
currents also add to the higher electrode life.
• In the carbon arc welding practice, the required filler metal is supplied
through a separate filler rod.
Inert Gas Shielded Arc Welding
• In inert gas shielded arc welding processes, a high pressure inert
gas flowing around the electrode while welding, would physically
displace all the atmospheric gases around the weld metal to fully
protect it.
• The shielding gases most commonly used are argon, helium,
carbon dioxide and mixtures of them.
• Argon requires a lower arc voltage, allows for easier arc starting
and provides a smooth arc action.
The noble gases make up a group of chemical
elements with similar properties; under standard
conditions, they are all odorless, colorless, monatomic
gases with very low chemical reactivity. The six
naturally occurring noble gases are helium, neon,
argon, krypton, xenon, and the radioactive radon.
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)

• Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding or gas tungsten arc welding

(GTAW) is an inert gas shielded arc welding process using non
consumable electrode.
• It consists of a welding torch at the centre of which is the
tungsten electrode.
• The inert gas is supplied to the welding zone through the annular
path surrounding the tungsten electrode to effectively displace the
atmosphere around the weld puddle.
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
• Metal inert gas arc welding (MIG) or more appropriately called
as gas metal arc welding (GMAW) utilises a consumable
electrode.
• When thicker sheets are to be welded, the filler metal requirement
makes GTAW difficult to use. In this situation, the GMAW comes
handy.
Metal Transfer
• Short circuit or dip transfer,
• Globular transfer,
• Spray transfer,
• Pulsed spray transfer, and
• Rotating spray transfer.
Flux Cored Arc Welding
• The flux cored arc welding (FCAW) process is a modification of
the GMAW, where the solid electrode wire is replaced by a
tubular electrode containing flux at the centre of the electrode
through out its length.
• This process has the advantages of the stick electrodes in the form
of flux availability to remove the oxides and other contaminants
in the form of slag, which covers the weld bead during
solidification and cooling and protects it for longer periods.
RESISTANCE WELDING
Resistance Welding
• The heat necessary for the melting of the joint is obtained by the
heating effect of the electrical resistance of the joint.
• In resistance welding (RW), a low voltage (typically 1 V) and very
high current (typically 15 000 A) is passed through the joint for a very
short time (typically 0.25 s).
• Total heat generated, H = k I2 R t
Resistance Welding
• The resistance of the joint, R is a complex factor to know because it is
composed of
• The resistance of the electrodes,
• The contact resistance between the electrode and the workpiece,
• The contact resistance between the two workpiece plates,
• The resistance of the workpiece plates.
Heat Balance
• One of the very important characteristics of the resistance welding
process is the transfer of heat to the two parts being joined differently
so that proper fusion obtained even when the plates are dissimilar from
the stand point of material or thickness.
Electrodes
• The electrodes in resistance welding carry very high currents required
for fusion, as also transmit the mechanical force to keep the plates
under pressure and in alignment during fusion.
• They also help to remove the heat from the weld zone thus preventing
over heating and surface fusion of the work.
Advantages
• Very little skill is required to operate the resistance welding machine.
• These are very well suited for mass production, as they give a high production
rate.
• There are no consumables used in this process except for the electrical power and
a relatively smaller electrode wear.
• Heating of the workpiece is confined to a very small part, which results in less
distortion.
• It is possible to weld dissimilar metals as well as metal plates of different
thicknesses.
Limitations
• The resistance welding machine is highly complex with various elements such as a
heavy transformer, electrodes and heavy conductors for carrying the high currents,
the electrode force applying mechanism such as a pneumatic cylinder and its
supply, the heavy machine structure to support the large forces and an expensive
timing arrangement.

• Certain resistance welding processes are limited only to lap joints.

Resistance Welding Processes
• Resistance spot welding,
• Resistance seam welding,
• Projection welding,
• Upset welding, and
• Flash welding.
Welding Schedule
• Squeeze time: time required for the electrodes to align and clamp the two
workpieces together and provide the necessary electrical contact.
• Weld time: time of the current flow through the workpieces to the melting
temperature.
• Hold time: time when the pressure is the maintained on the molten metal with out
the electric current.
• Off time: time during which, the pressure on the electrode is taken off so that the
plates can be positioned for the next spot.
Resistance Seam Welding
• Cylindrical electrodes are replaced by disc electrodes.
• The disc electrodes are continuously rotated so that the workpieces gets advanced
underneath them while at the same time the pressure on the joint is maintained.
• The current is applied through the heavy copper electrodes in a series of pulses.
• The timing is adjusted so that the pulses overlap each other to form a continuous
seam joint.
Projection Welding
• One of the sheets to be joined, is provided with a number of projections to help
localise the current at a predetermined spot.
• The projections are generally very small, of the order of 0.8 mm and are obtained
by means of embossing.
• As the welding current passes through these projections, they soften, get melted
and a fusion joint is made under the pressure applied from the electrode.
Upset Welding
• The two pieces are held tightly together and current is applied, so that
the heat is generated through the contact area between the two plates.
• Because of the joint being under pressure, the ends of the two pieces
gets slightly upset and hence its name.
• This is useful for joining the two ends of rods or similar pieces.
Flash Welding
• One of the plate is fixed while the other is movable, the movement being
controlled by means of a cam.
• The two pieces are brought together and the power supply is switched on.
• Momentarily the two pieces are separated to create the arc to melt the ends of the
two pieces.
• Then again the pieces are brought together and the power switched off while the
two ends are fused under force.
Welding Design
• Arc welding
• Heat input,P = V I
• V is the potential in Volts,
• I is the current in Amperes

• Heat for melting the joint

• v is the travel speed of the electrode, mm/s
Resistance Welding
• In the case of resistance welding, the heat input is given by

• H = I2 R t

• where R is the resistance of the joint in ohms, and

• t is the time in seconds for which the current is flowing through the
joint.
Heat Flow
• Heat from the weld zone is transferred more to the other parts of the
base metal by means of conduction.
• Similarly heat is also lost to surroundings by convection from the
surface, with radiation component being relatively small except near
the weld pool.
Heat Flow
• For relatively thick plates, the cooling rate is

• T0 = Initial plate temperature, C

• k = thermal conductivity of base metal, J/mm . s . C
• R = Cooling rate at the weld centre line, °C/s
• Tc = Temperature at which the cooling rate is calculated, C
Heat Flow
• For relatively thin plates, the cooling rate is

• h = thickness of the base metal, mm

•  = density of base metal, g/mm3
• c = specific heat of the base metal, J/g . °C
Heat Flow
•   0.75 thin plate equation is valid
•   0.75 thick plate equation is valid
Distortions
• Transverse shrinkage occurring perpendicular to the weld line
• Longitudinal shrinkage occurring parallel to the weld line, which is
very small of the order of about 0.1% of the weld length and hence can
be neglected.
• Angular change as a rotation about the weld line.
Defects in Welding
• Undercut
• Incomplete fusion
• Porosity
• Slag inclusion
• Hot cracking
• Cold cracking
• Lamellar tearing
Solid State Welding is a welding process, in which two work pieces are joined
under a pressure providing an intimate contact between them and at a temperature
essentially below the melting point of the parent material. Bonding of the materials
is a result of diffusion of their interface atoms.

Advantages of Solid State Welding:

Weld (bonding) is free from microstructure defects (pores, non-metallic
inclusions, segregation of alloying elements)
•Mechanical properties of the weld are similar to those of the parent metals
•No consumable materials (filler material, fluxes, shielding gases) are required
•Dissimilar metals may be joined (steel - aluminum alloy steel - copper alloy).

Disadvantages of Solid State Welding:

Thorough surface preparation is required (degreasing, oxides removal,
brushing/sanding)
•Expensive equipment.
The following processes are related to Solid State welding:

•Forge Welding (FOW)

•Cold Welding (CW)
•Friction Welding (FRW)
•Explosive Welding (EXW)
•Diffusion Welding (DFW)
•Ultrasonic Welding (USW)
Forge Welding
• In this process the ends of the parts to be joined are heated to a
temperature slightly below the solidus temperature and a pressure is
applied so that a fusion joint is obtained.
• The force can be applied in repeated blows manually or by a machine,
or continuously by rotating rolls.
Friction Welding
• The heat required for welding in this process is obtained by the
friction between the ends of the two parts to be joined.
• One of the parts to be joined is rotated at a high speed around 3000
revolutions per minute and the other part is axially aligned with the
second one and pressed tightly against it as shown in Fig 10-6.
• The friction between the two parts raises the temperature of both
the ends. Then the rotation of the part is stopped abruptly and the
pressure on the fixed part is increased so that the joining takes place.
Friction welding (FRW):

Friction welding is essentially a metal fusion process in

which two metals surfaces are joined by producing heat at
the joint area through friction due to relative motion
between the parts and simultaneous application of a lateral
force which allows the metals to fuse together thus joining
them together.
Friction Stir welding (FSW) :

Friction Stir welding though still a metal

fusion process but uses a friction stir tool.
The tool has a small probe projecting out
from the shouldered tool which sits at the
joint line of the two metals. The rotation of
the tool at high speeds produces friction
which in terms produces heat and the
metal near the probe goes into plastic
deformation region and join together. As
the tool moves along the line the preceding
metal gets joint due to fusion at plastic
temperature region.
Explosion Welding

• In explosion welding (EXW), detonation of explosives is

used to accelerate a part to move towards the other plate
at a fast rate, so that the impact creates the joint.
• As the plate moves at high velocity and meets the other
plate with a massive impact, very high stress waves (the
order of thousands of MPa) created between the plates,
which clear all the oxide and scales present in the
interface and make a clean joint.
Explosion welding (EXW) is a solid state (solid-
phase) process where welding is accomplished by accelerating
one of the components at extremely high velocity through the
use of chemical explosives. This process is most commonly
utilized to clad carbon steel plate with a thin layer
of corrosion resistant material (e.g., stainless
steel, nickel alloy, titanium, or zirconium). Due to the nature
of this process, producible geometries are very limited.
Typical geometries produced include plates, tubing and tube
sheets.
Diffusion Welding :
Diffusion bonding or diffusion welding is a solid-
state welding technique used in metalworking,
capable of joining similar and dissimilar metals. It
operates on the principle of solid-state diffusion,
wherein the atoms of two solid, metallic surfaces
intersperse themselves over time.
Diffusion Welding

• The diffusion can be achieved by keeping the two

pieces in intimate contact under pressure.
• The pressures used are in the range of 35 to 70 MPa,
because of the large contact areas used.
• The diffusion being a rate process, can be accelerated
by the use of heat, though is not essential.
• By the application of heat, the bonding time can be
reduced from hours to minutes.
Thermit Welding
• The heat source utilised for fusion in thermit welding is the
exothermic reaction of the thermit mixtures.
• A typical thermit mixture for welding steels is aluminium and iron
oxide.
• When the intimately mixed thermit powder is brought to its ignition
temperature of 1200C, the thermit reaction starts.
• Aluminium has greater affinity towards oxygen, and as a result, it
reduces the ferric oxide to liberate iron and in the process, releases
heat.
Thermit Welding
• 3 Fe3O4 + 8 Al → 9 Fe + 4 Al2O3 + 3.01 MJ/mol

• The temperature reached is of the order of 3000ºC.

• The enormous amount of heat liberated, melts both the iron and
aluminium oxide to a very fluid state.
• Because of the large differential in the densities, aluminium oxide
would be floating on the top with the molten steel settling below.
• Once started, the reaction continues till all the thermit mixture in the
reaction vessel or ladle is completely reduced.
Electro Slag Welding
• This is a single pass process using a consumable electrode for filling
the gap between the two heavy plates.
• The heat required for melting the plates and the electrode is obtained
initially by means of an arc so that flux will form the molten slag.
• Once the molten slag is formed, the arc is extinguished and the heat
of welding is obtained by the resistance heating of the slag itself.
Working:
 Plasma Arc Welding Process

▪ PAW process needs a high power DC supply to generate electric spark in

between tungsten electrode and welding plates (For transferred PAW Process)
or in between tungsten electrode and discharge nozzle (For Non-transferred
PAW process).

Plasma arc torch: This torch is quite similar as used in TIG welding but too
complex. It consist four main parts which are tungsten electrode, collets, inner
nozzle, and outer nozzle.

PAW torches are water cooled because arc is contained inside the torch which
produces high heat, so a water jacket is provided outside the torch.
• A plasma is a gas which is heated to an extremely high temperature and ionized
so that it becomes electrically conductive. Similar to GTAW (Tig), the plasma
arc welding process uses this plasma to transfer an electric arc to a work piece.
The metal to be welded is melted by the intense heat of the arc and fuses
together.
• In the plasma welding torch a Tungsten electrode is located within a copper
nozzle having a small opening at the tip. A pilot arc is initiated between the
torch electrode and nozzle tip. This arc is then transferred to the metal to be
welded.
• By forcing the plasma gas and arc through a constricted orifice, the torch
delivers a high concentration of heat to a small area. With high performance
welding equipment, the plasma process produces exceptionally high quality
welds.
• Plasma gases are normally argon. The torch also uses a secondary gas, argon,
argon/hydrogen or helium which assists in shielding the molten weld puddle
thus minimizing oxidation of the weld.
PAW Welding
• Application:
• This welding is used in marine and aerospace industries.
• It is used to weld pipes and tubes of stainless steel or titanium.
• It is mostly used in electronic industries.
• It is used to repair tools, die and mold.
• It is used to welding or coating on turbine blade.
PAW Welding
• Advantages:
• High welding speed.
• High energy available for welding. It can be easily used to weld hard and thick
work pieces.
• The distance between tool and work piece does not effects the arc formation.
• Low power consumption for same size weld.
• More stable arc produced by PAW method.
• High intense arc or high penetration rate.
• It can work at low amperage.
PAW Welding
• Disadvantages:
• Higher equipment cost.
• Noisy operation.
• More radiation.
• High skill labor required.
• High maintenance cost.
Electron Beam Welding
• The cathode (heated filament) within the electron gun is the source
of a stream of electrons.
• These electrons are accelerated towards the anode because of the
large potential difference that exists between them.
• The potential differences that are used are of the order of 30 kV to
175 kV.
• The higher the potential difference, higher would be the acceleration.
Electron Beam Welding
• The current levels are low ranging between 50 mA to 1000 mA.
• Depending on the accelerating voltage, the electrons would travel at
the speed of 50 000 to 200 000 km/s.
• The depth of penetration of the weld depends on this electron speed
which in turn is dependent upon the accelerating voltage.
Electron Beam Welding Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:

•The advantages of electron beam welding are that the welds

are clean, with no porosity since there is no air; no shielding
gas is required; and as the energy input is in a narrow,
concentrated beam, distortion is almost eliminated.

•The speed may be as fast as 2500 mm per minute, and it

will weld or cut any metal or ceramic, diamond, sometimes
as thick as 150 mm.
 Disadvantages:

One of the disadvantages of the electron beam process

is its high capital cost. The price of the equipment is
very high, and it is expensive to operate, due to the
requirement for vacuum pumps. Also, fit up must be
precise and locating the parts with respect to the beam
must be perfect.
Electron Beam Welding Applications

•Almost all metals can be welded with the electron

beam welding process. The metals that are most often
welded are super-alloys, the refractory metals, the
reactive metals, and the stainless steels. Many
combinations of dissimilar metals can also be welded.

•Today automobile, airplane, aerospace, and other types

of equipment including ball-bearing over 100 mm are
being welded by the electron beam welding process.
Laser Beam Welding
• The laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) is a
concentrated beam of coherent monochromatic radiation.
• Laser beam is a high energy source of heat to melt (even evaporate)
the joint for fusion welding in laser beam welding (LBW).
Laser Beam Welding
• With low power lasers typically less than 1 kW, the penetration would
not be much and the weld is obtained by means of complete welding
of the joint near the surface.
• But as the power is increased, the large heat density obtained would
cause the metal at the centre of the laser jet to be vaporised with a
key hole being formed similar to that of the electron beam welding.
• Temperatures within this keyhole can reach as high as 25,000°C.
Laser Beam Welding
• This gives rise to a larger penetration as shown in Fig 10-5.
• Instead of heat being conducted mainly downward from the surface,
it is conducted radially outward from the keyhole, forming a molten
region surrounding the vapour.
• As the laser beam moves along the workpiece, the molten metal fills
in behind the keyhole and solidifies to form the weld. This technique
permits large welding speeds depending on laser size.
Laser Beam Welding
• Faster welding rates
• Low distortion
• No flux or filler metal required
• Single pass two side welding
• Noncontact, eliminating any debris buildup
• Can reach otherwise inaccessible locations
• Shorter cycles and higher uptimes
• Welds magnetic materials
Brazing
• In brazing the base metal is not melted, but the joint is obtained by
means of a filler metal.
• Brazing is the coalescence of a joint with the help of a filler metal
whose liquidus temperature is above 450C and is below the solidus
temperature of the base metal.
• The filler metal is drawn into the joint by means of capillary action
(entering of fluid into tightly fitted surfaces).

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Brazing
• Because the filler metal reaches the joint by capillary action, it is
essential that the joint is designed properly.
• The clearance between the two parts to be joined should be critically
controlled.
• While designing a brazed joint, care is to be taken to see that the
differences in the coefficients of thermal expansion of the two pieces
to be joined are properly accounted for.

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Braze Welding
• Braze welding is similar to brazing in that the joint is obtained by
means of a filler metal, whose liquidus temperature is above 450C
and below the solidus temperature of the base metal.
• But the difference is that in braze welding the filler metal reaches the
joint without the capillary action since the joint gap is more.
• As a result, the types of joints that can be used in braze welding are
much more varied.

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Soldering
• Soldering is a method of joining similar or dissimilar metals by means
of a filler metal whose liquidus temperature is below 450C.
• Soldering is normally used for obtaining a neat leak proof joint or a
low resistance electrical joint.
• The joint design (Fig 10-10) used for soldering is similar to that of
brazing since the filler metal enters the soldered joint by capillary
action.

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Soldering Methods
• With soldering iron (flame or electrically heated),
• Dip soldering, and
• Wave soldering.

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Adhesive bonding
• Adhesive bonding is used to fasten two surfaces together, usually
producing a smooth bond. This joining technique involves glues, epoxies,
or various plastic agents that bond by evaporation of a solvent or by
curing a bonding agent with heat, pressure, or time.
• Historically, glues have produced relatively weak bonds. However, the
recent use of plastic-based agents such as the new “super-glues” that self-
cure with heat has allowed adhesion with a strength approaching that of
the bonded materials themselves.