3 Chapter Three Emergence and Evolution of Development Approaches

Chapter Three
3. Evolution of Development
Approaches
PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

3.1 Concept and Practices of Development
Administration
▪ The major burden of development work
naturally fall on the public sector (the state).
▪ As a result, high degree of administrative
efficiency is vital for the successful
implementation of development plans and
efforts in order to insure the goal of nation-
building.

▪ Administrative efficiency got primacy with the
emergence of new approaches to
administration known as development
administration/development management.
▪ Public administration serves as the platform
upon which development administration rests.
▪ The emergence of DA has brought about a major
shift in the orientation of public administration
toward addressing developmental and
governance challenges and accelerating
developmental objectives.

▪ Hence, there is symbiotic relationship between
the two with the former as the parent of the
latter.
▪ Chapter Three therefore highlights the nexus as
well as the similarities and divergences between
the two.
▪ More importantly, the Chapter attempts to
discuss the emergence, evolution, and
characteristics of two interrelated, sometimes
interchangeably used, concepts; known as
"development administration" and "development
management".
3.1.1 Emergence of Development Administration
▪ Development administration, both as a concept
and practice, appeared with the emergence of
the Cold War that divided the world into two
categories on the basis of ideology known as
"bi-polar division".
▪ The conceptualization and elaboration of
development administration has been advanced
by Western scholars, especially by Americans,
to protect the newly independent countries from
accepting the communist ideology or joining
Communist countries.
▪ This has been implemented mainly by providing
development assistance to poor countries.
▪ Development assistances in turn required a
different form of administrative capability in
formulating and implementing short, medium,
and long-term development plans.
▪ To this end, the concept of DA appeared for the
first time in the literature in 1955, which hinted
some aspects of administrative changes that
aimed at improving the socio-economic
conditions of the newly independent countries.

▪ Consequently, the concept and practice of DA
has almost exclusively been used with
reference to the developing nations, which have
embarked upon the process of nation-building
and rapid social transformation in the aftermath
of their independences.
▪ Although the term DA was coined by an Indian
Scholar Goswani in 1955, Weidner (1962) was
the first who introduced the concept in his
inciting paper presented for scholarly
discussions in the University of Michigan.

▪ In his paper, Weidner argued that PA had glorified
the means and forgotten the ends of dev’t.
▪ For him, DA was introduced to fill the gap created
in terms of the “ends” left unaddressed by PA.
▪ DA simply draws the focus of administration to
expediting development – elaborating the
developmental role of the state besides the
traditional functions of maintaining law and order.
▪ After it was introduced in the 1950s, the concept
of DA evolved into a comprehensive and accredited
theory since the second half of the 1960s.

▪ A group of writers of comparative public
administration have contributed to the
formation of the theory of DA.
▪ DA eventually gained popularity in the writings
of many scholars, such as Stoner (1966), Gant
(1968), Esman (1970), and Weidner (1970).
▪ Edward Weidner (1970) viewed DA in
government as “the processes of guiding an
organization toward the achievement of
progressive political, economic, and social
objectives that are authoritatively determined
in one way or another”.
▪
▪ According to Gant (1982:21), DA is the term
used to denote the complex of agencies,
management systems, and processes
established by a government to achieve its
development goals.
▪ DA is the public mechanism set up to relate the
several components of development in order to
articulate national socio-economic objectives.
▪ It is adjustment of the bureaucracy to the
increasing number, variety, and complexity of
government functions required to respond to
public demands for development.
▪
▪ DA simply means the administration of policies,
programs, and projects to serve development
purposes.
▪ Landau (1970:15) defined DA as a "directive and
directional process, which is intended to make
things happen in a certain way over intervals of
time".
▪ Others perceived it as a means of improving the
capacities of governments to deal with problems
created by modernization and change.
▪ In this understanding, DA is the instrument for
transforming traditional societies.
▪ As Rumki Basu (1994:49) stated, it is now
acknowledged that DA is public administration
with difference.
▪ "DA is an action oriented, goal-oriented
administration system".
▪ Structurally, DA is concerned with the
organization of new agencies for development
or refashioning established agencies along
changes of procedures.
▪ Such changes are sought through integrated,
organized, and properly directed governmental
actions.
▪ DA is an instrumental means for defining,
consolidating, and implementing national goals
in developing countries.
▪ In the recent past, governments in most of the
developing nations have shifted their focus on
development by means of planned change and
people’s participation.
▪ According to J. D. Montgomery, “DA means
carrying out planned changes in the economy
and social services of the state.”

▪ It is making public administration to be
development-oriented instead of being rigid to
rules and obedience to status quo
▪ In contemporary time, DA is concerned with the
formulation and implementation of the four P’s –
Plans, Policies, Programs and Projects (Sharma,
Sadana and Kaur, 2012) with the intended effects
of bringing change.
▪ The essence of DA is therefore to bring about
change in the structure and behavior of different
administrative institutions through integrated,
organized and properly directed governmental
action.
▪ The goals, values, and strategies of change may
vary but there are always generic processes
through which agreement on goals is reached and
plans, policies, programs and projects are
formulated and implemented.
▪ Essentially, the whole effort propagating DA as a
field of study and practice was to provide balanced
social, economic and political transformation of
nations through institution building and
modernization of the local bureaucratic machinery.

▪ DA therefore needs structure often using
advanced technique or management methods
which should correspond with the environment.
▪ DA is the utilization of public administration as
a parameter in realizing change in the society.
▪ In synopsis, DA is the systematic and organized
use of a well-designed, articulate and
deliberate administrative strategy to bring
positive changes.

From all these definitions, the following concepts can
be clearly identified:
▪ It is a process to move towards higher position.
▪ It is a perpetual (continuous) and dynamic process.
▪ It is a joint effort of different actors for the
achievement of determined goals.
▪ It is a work-oriented and goal-oriented
administration.
▪ It is a significant instrument to solve the diverse
problems of the third world.

It is also essential to cross-examine the nexus
between PA and DA.
▪ As noted above, PA and DA are related in some
instances and are divergent in others.
▪ In spite of these differentiated thoughts, it can be
argued that the two has similar objectives,
although the latter relies on the former to actualize
its objectives.
▪ The following points outline the convergence and
divergence of PA and DA.

Convergences between PA and DA
(i) Both are concerned with effective and efficient
utilization of human and material resources towards
achieving specific objectives.
(ii) Both are concerned with similar goal of providing for
the citizenry wholistic development in a given state.
(iii) Both focus on ensuring the provision of basic
necessities of life.
(iv) Both engage in the formulation and implementation
of policies and strategies towards socio-economic
transformation of the entire society.
(v) Both apply a multidisciplinary approach in bringing
the most desired growth and overall development
Divergences between PA and DA
i. PA is the management of governmental activity
while DA is a deliberate and conscious effort geared
towards actualizing accelerated dev’t.
ii. PA administers various institutions of government
while DA focuses on dev’t of humans.
iii. PA is structured to maintain the already
established protocol or status quo while DA
focuses on discretion and innovation towards
improving the welfare of the citizens.
iv. DA emerged to fill the gap of addressing the
problem of dev’t which PA failed to tackle.
v. PA is purely traditional and normative in its
approach while DA employs scientific approach as
situation demands.
vi. PA tends to be universal in its application while
DA is particularistic focusing mainly on the
developing countries
vii. PA relies heavily on governmental programs and
policies whereas DA pursues developmental
objectives.
viii. PA tends towards routinization of governmental
activities while DA adopts ingenuity towards
realizing further development.
ix. PA is rigid while DA is flexible.
▪ PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester
3.1.2 Attributes/Features of DA
Mohit Bhattacharya (1979) identifies the following
attributes of development administration.
(a)Change-Oriented: The distinctive feature of DA is
its central concern with socio-economic change.
▪ It is this special orientation that distinguishes it
from traditional administration, which is basically
concerned with maintaining the status quo.
▪ Change forms part of philosophic values of DA; i.e.
establishment of new social order wherein growth
and distributive justice coexist.

(b) Result/Goal Oriented: DA has to do with results or
outcomes occurring rapidly and within a definite
time schedule. Its performance is directly related
to productivity.
▪ DA attempts to systematically tackle the diverse
problems facing developing countries, such as:
poverty, social injustice, unequal distribution of
wealth, lopsided (irregular) growth,
underdeveloped technology, etc. by setting
priorities and goals.

(C) Client Orientation: DA is positively oriented
towards satisfying the needs of the specific target
groups, which are marginalized like small and
marginal farmers, landless agricultural laborers and
rural artisans.
▪ The socio-cultural and politico-economic progress
of these target groups forms the essential basis of
performance appraisal of DA.
▪ Many target groups-centered organizations have to
be created so as to provide the underprivileged
sections of society with the necessary goods and
services.
▪
▪ It has been suggested that DA is ‘people-oriented’
administration, which gives priority to and aims at
satisfying the needs target beneficiaries by
preparing, reviewing and, if necessary, changing
the programs, policies and activities.
▪ Improvement of the welfare of the weak people
becomes a part of the whole administrative ethos
and value.
▪ Members of any development organization are
highly motivated and committed to a progressive
philosophy aiming at cutting the roots of vested
interests in the society.
▪
(d) Innovation Oriented: DA focuses on replacing/
improving the existing governing structures and
norms of agencies with the ones that suit the
changing political and social environment.
▪ In other words, DA is dynamic and progressive in
thought and action.
▪ It is interested in identifying and applying new
structures, methods, procedures, techniques,
policies, projects and programs so that the
objectives and goals of dev’t are achieved with
minimum possible resources and time.
▪ Thus, DA has to be innovative enough for the
speedy realization of pre-determined objectives.
(e) Participation Oriented: DA accepts the principle
of associative & participative system of
administration.
▪ Here, people are not treated as mere passive
recipients of benefits or goods and services.
▪ They are taken as active participants in the
formulation and execution of development plans,
policies, and programs.
▪ Participation helps to easily identify local problems
in a realistic frame and use local initiatives,
energies, and resources.
▪
▪ Effective formulation and implementation of
programs with the participation of the local
people is now a well-recognized principle of
administration.
▪ It involves giving people an increasing share in
the governance and management of
developmental affairs of the government.

(f) Coordination Oriented: Since development implies
increasing specialization and professionalization,
the number of agencies and organizations involved
in development tasks has considerably gone up.
▪ In order to have the maximum benefit of this
emergent system, coordination between various
administrative units and activities is essential.
▪ To achieve maximum results, integrating the
efforts and energies of development agencies is
crucial in order to avoid wastage of resources,
time and cost; duplication of functions; and
marginally relevant activities.
(g) Time/Temporal Oriented: Since socio-
economic changes have to be brought as
quickly as possible, time assumes considerable
importance in DA.
▪ All development programs are prepared for a
certain time frame and must be completed
within that.
▪ In DA, the organizational role is committed to
socio-economic change and concern for
completing time bound programs.

(h) Ecology/Environment Oriented: DA shapes the
political, social and economic environment.
▪ DA is not a closed system. It receives feedback
from the social system and responds to the
demands put on it by the system.
▪ In a way, DA is related to the environment and
involves close interaction b/n administration
and environment.
▪ The environment sets forth the operative
parameters of DA. It requires the qualities of
flexibility and responsiveness in administrative
actions and methods.
3.1.3 Scope and Applications of DA
(I) Scope of DA
▪ The scope of DA as a discipline as well as a
profession has increased enormously in recent
years. The discipline has focused on:
▪ First the progressive goals of administrative
systems and thus have strengthened the orientation
and values of PA.
▪ Second, these progressive goals are being studied
in a very wide scope or context involving political,
economic, social, cultural and technological
systems.
▪ Third, the analysis of DA is not confined to national
boundaries; instead transcends to and has become
cross-national and cross-cultural in its approach
and orientation.
▪ Fourth, its expanding intellectual network has
enveloped a number of branches of PA that have
their own origins in a variety of functional
administrative areas.
▪ Such areas, for example, include industrial
administration, agricultural administration,
educational administration, health administration,
etc.
▪ DA, during the past decades, has influenced the
whole notion of governance at the national as well
as the international levels.
▪ Thus, the extensive scope and dimensions of DA in
the process of governance has taken a crucial place
for its clear impact.
▪ Lastly, with the emergence of strong faith in the
philosophy of liberalization, globalization,
privatization, and PPP, the scope of DA is influencing
the co-functioning of the private sector with the
public system.

(II) Applications of DA
▪ The roles of DA is to assure that a friendly
environment and effective administrative support
are provided for the delivery of capital, materials,
and services in the productive process; be it in
public, private, or mixed economies.
▪ The principles of DA requires changing the
perceptions and attitudes of planners and
administrators about the nature of dev’t and
building their capacities.
▪ The challenging role of DA demands three different
functions:
(i) Institution building responsible for sustaining and
promoting industrialization, for providing public
utility services, and for regulating and distributing
essential commodities,
(ii) Manpower planning and development, which deals
with the cultivation of technical, professional and
managerial skills for running public institutions,
(iii) Human development, which would involve
changing the very attitude and temperaments of
people to adjust with changing realities,

▪ George Gant has once again aptly said, DA is
characterized by its purposes, its loyalties, and its
attitudes such that:
▪ In terms of purposes, DA has to stimulate and facilitate
defined programs of social and economic progress, to
apply policies, and to conduct programs of
development specified by the people,
(i) In terms of loyalties, DA has to be goal-oriented, client-
centered, accountable and responsive to public wishes
and demands.
(ii) In terms of attitudes, DA has to be persuasive rather
than restrictive, outward reaching rather than inward
looking, flexible and adaptable rather than adherence to
traditional norms and forms, and result-oriented rather
than process oriented.
▪ Related to the scope of DA, Riggs came up with the
concept of "administrative development" that
refers to increasing the capabilities of an
administrative system to achieve the prescribed
goals.
▪ Another area of academic interest is the close link
of DA with the political process. When trying to
secure equity, there is a likely conflict between the
haves and the have-nots.
▪ Therefore, linking DA with the political process
means creating opportunity for power distribution,
which is a decisive political measure.
Briefly, the present and future priorities of DA are the
following:
a) With the increasing functions of state, the role of
administration will continue to expand in the
development sphere; government becoming the
principal planner, organizer, promoter, and director
of developmental efforts,
b) With increasing diversification of governmental
functions, administrative activities will gradually
become complex and technical,
c) There will be greater need for planning,
coordinating and controlling governmental
activities in the sphere of development,
d) The administrative reforms and improvements will
have to be greatly emphasized; redesigning public
bodies to enable collective decision-making and
promote collaborative problem solving,
f) Personnel training will have to be tailored to
development tasks, rigid rules and regulations will
have no place, decision-making in organizations
will have to be flexible,
g) There will be increasing trend of decentralization
to enable both developmental agencies at field
level to operate more autonomously; and empower
local people to ensure their active participation
and cooperation,
h) There should be free flow of communication at all
levels of the organizational pyramid,
i) There should be adequate working partnership,
between the political and executive wings of
administration,
j) Commitment and dedication on the parts of
development agents, especially on the parts of
political leadership and bureaucracy, will be the
first and foremost essential prerequisite for DA.

3.1.4 Significance and Concerns of DA
In order to fully understand advocate the significance
and concerns of DA, scholars within the field of study
are primarily concerned about:
▪ “The normative questions, which is the desirability
of proposed courses of actions – about the
prescriptions for the maximization or optimization
of selected values,”
▪ “The empirical questions, which is the descriptions
and analyses of existing practices and situations -
the prediction of what is likely to happen under the
given sets of conditions” (Riggs, 1970).
The concept of DA helps to relate administrative
means to administrative ends. It thus helps to the
selection appropriate means for the achievement of
developmental goals in various cultural contexts.
▪ Thus, DA has been viewed as “an aspect of PA that
is centrally concerned with many human values”.
The following are some of the major concerns of DA:
▪ DA suggests for the application of innovative
strategies for development: Increasing the
administrative capability of institutions is its
central concern.

▪ The capacity of an administrative system is crucial
to take decisions in order to meet the ever-
increasing and multiplicity of demands coming from
the environment.
▪ This in turn requires transformation of existing
administrative mechanism into a new machinery
through modernizing the bureaucracy by external
inducement, transfer of technology and training.
▪ DA accentuates the need for increasing the size,
specialization and division of tasks in institutions
and in the professionalization of its personnel.

▪ There must be a pattern of increasing effectiveness
in the optimum utilization of available means.
▪ DA stress on development and utilization of human
capital and other scarce resources.
▪ This calls for scientific manpower planning and
development, which requires the cultivation of
technical, professional and managerial skill as well
as changes in their very attitudes and
temperament.
▪ The outcome of this effort is producing adequately
trained manpower and reducing dependence on
foreign experts.
▪ DA is concerned with undertaking basic
organizational and systems reforms accompanied by
removing or reducing bureaucratic mediocrity and
widespread corruption.
▪ DA emphasizes on development at the grassroots
level, to make development be need-based and self-
reliant.
▪ DA recognizes and underscores the advantages of
unity, rather than dichotomy between politics and
administration.
▪ Part of this is understanding of development not
merely as a technological matter, but also as an
ideological norm.
▪ DA emphasizes on freedom of administrative
machinery to express its values and beliefs as well
as creation of leadership capacity.
▪ Generally, the study of DA has had dominant
normative concern with enhancement of the
administrative capabilities of practitioners to
identify conditions that maximize the rate of
development in various settings (Riggs, 1964).
▪ Nonetheless, the concept and practice of DA was
criticized for its several limitations.
▪ Of the limitations was its failure to build
organizational capacity, generate adequate dev’t,
ensure equity and improve the quality of life of all.
3.2 The Concept of Development Management
▪ Development management (DM) as a concept has
gradually been replacing "development
administration“ (DA).
▪ However, one can rarely find distinct identities
between DM and DA; they are by-and-large highly
related concepts.
▪ Alan Thomas (1996) was concerned about clarifying
whether or not there is a distinctive field that can be
labelled ‘DM’, which is different from DA.
▪ Instead, some writers use both as synonyms.
▪ Meanwhile, many scholars agree in that DM is a
growing and important area in development studies.
3.2.1 Meaning and Aims of DM
▪ The introduction of DM was an attempt to
change the culture of planning from the previous
process of 'development control’.
▪ It is more than policy implementation in a rigid
sense.
▪ It is used as an instrument for achieving smooth
and faster development by applying less control
and more facilitative management system.
Below are selected definitions of the concept of
DM.
(A) Meaning of DM
▪ DM can be defined as managing government agents
so that they can acquire capabilities to adopt and
act upon unremitting (continuous) change to
achieve sustainable socio-economic transformation.
▪ DDM is implementation of programs designed to
bring about modernity that is of socio-economic
progress and nation building.
▪ Riggs (1966: 225) on the other hand pointed out that
DM as typically referred to the “administrative
means to achieve developmental goals”.

▪ According to Paton, “DM is … the expressive
aspect of management in which values and ideas
are promoted as part of, not just as one way, of
getting things done”.
▪ “DM can be perceived in terms of positive
linkages b/n development, capacity building, and
learning at individual, societal and organizational
levels” (Korten, 1987).
▪ “DM is the strategic planning, administration and
monitoring of projects during its life cycle…”
(Ontenyo and Lind; 2006: 112).

▪ Solaiman extended the meaning of DM to another
level and described as “DM means is a process of
improving, building and innovating the entire
system, and evaluating changes in order to ensure
better quality of life of the present situation without
jeopardizing those of the future”.
Finally, Allan Thomas has given the following three

definitions of DM and critically discussed what it
stands for:
(i) Firstly, DM is the management of the specific tasks
involved in development interventions called
management of development;
(ii) Secondly, DM is the normative idea oriented
towards development ideals called “management
for development”.
Management for development implies a style of
management in which any and every activity is
undertaken in such a way as to enhance dev’t.
It is also a more straightforward notion of
management in a development context, known as
“management in development”.

(iii) DM is not just a question of getting the task at
hand completed by the best means available. It
also means simultaneously building the capacity
to undertake future tasks
From all these definitions, one can conclude that, DM

is concerned with the increasing capacity within the
administrative system Gant (2006: 223).

(B) Aims of DM
▪ Once the selected definitions of DM are
presented, the next step is to look into what it
aims to achieve.
▪ DM aims to improve the management of
development projects or programs in a
systematic manner, in order to enhance the
quality of life of people at the grassroots level.
The aim of DM can be elaborately outlined in the

following manner:

i) It is aimed at promoting dev’t through the best
alternative ways and in a cost-effective manner.
ii) It is aimed at improving the efficiency and
effectiveness of individuals as well as
organizations for achieving dev’t.
iii) It is aimed at synergizing the three important
aspects of DM: management of dev’t,
management for dev’t, and management in dev’t.
(iv) DM is more value-laden and aims at promoting
present dev’t without affecting the future, that
is achieving sustainable dev’t.
(v) DM is a positive and proactive approach that
aims at formulating, determining, and delivering
development activities.
To this end, it employs a participatory approach
in the formulation, implementation, monitoring,
and evaluation of development project and
program; instead of using a one-sided, top-down
approach. I
In other words, DM advocates dev’t works to be
undertaken in the spirit of partnership and
inclusiveness.

(vi) It aims at improving the quality of life of people
at the grassroots level through better management
of dev’t projects and programs.
(vii) It intends to build up both individual as well
organization capacities in order to improve
efficiency and effectiveness at all levels.
(viii) It aims at developing an alternative model of
dev’t, which is more efficient, effective, and
productive compared to the existing counterparts.
(ix) It aims at effective management of funds,
functions, and functionaries at various levels.
(x) It aims at just and equitable way of dev’t.
▪ In summary, the abovesaid discussions suggest
that DM aims at management of manpower,
finance, and process involved in the development
endeavors
▪ It also aims at the management of
developmental values, principles, and ethics.
▪ DM involves activities that steer and facilitate
intervention towards the identification and
meeting of human needs.
▪ This style of management 'differs from the
simple idea of getting the work done by the best
means available' (Thomas 1996:101).
3.2.2 Elements of Development Management
DM has four important elements of enhancement
strategies, which include:
(i) Capacity building training,
(ii) Technical assistance,
(iii) Leadership and participation,
(iv) Decentralization and empowerment.
All the four elements directly focus on people
organizations. Therefore, both individuals and
organizations are central to DM.

Moreover, DM needs to focus on four main areas:
(1)Contextual and external factors related to
management, which include physical,
environmental, political, and cultural factors
impacting on projects and programs.
(2) Management strategy, which includes
(a) Organizational structure and institutional
arrangements, encompassing both formally
established and informally constituted working
relationships among affected organizations and
people,
(b) Resources control encompassing financial,
commodity, and logistics management.
(3) Management enhancement strategy, involving:
▪ Attempts to change administrative processes,
such as ways of carrying out dev’t programs in
the local setting and
▪ Efforts to increase consideration of HRM and
behavioral factors, such as skills, performance,
and management capacity of the people who
are part of, or, who will benefit from the project.

(4) Decentralization and empowerment:
▪ The dev’t goal can be effectively and efficiently
achieved if it is decentralized.
▪ The decentralization principles entrust
responsibility at all levels, thereby promoting
accountability and transparency.
▪ The decentralization of political, economic, and
administrative decision making would ensure better
and effective implementation of dev’t projects and
programs.
▪ Capacity building of grassroots functionaries will be
helpful to effectively deal with decentralization and
dev’t.
Related to decentralization areas of emphasis are
to assess:
▪ the impact of the local environment on the
project.
▪ how the project was designed and managed to
encounter the change, and;
▪ activities that strengthen the management and
institutional capacity of those who will sustain
the project after project funding ends.

Effective management strategies for development
must take care of following aspects:
i) Setting goals and benefits – dev’t managers must
set the goals of dev’t and articulate the benefits of
dev’t projects and programs.
ii) Discussion with the stakeholders - dev’t managers
must initiate and hold discussions with the
stakeholders
iii) Time horizon - Dev’t managers have to set a
certain timeframe and stick to the time limit. It is
better for them to prepare a Gantt Chart of various
project and program activities and move
accordingly.
iv) Resource management - Management of both
physical and financial resources of the project is
very important.
v) Managerial leadership - Dev’t managers must
have adequate leadership capacity on how to
manage fiscal and financial resources.
vi) Training and technical assistance - Dev’t
managers need to get continuous training and
technical assistance, from time to time, to
sustain effective DM.

3.3.3 Development Management Cycle
▪ DM intends to set out a detailed and wide variety of
policies to guide the decision-making process for
future planning.
▪ The DM cycle begins with the formulation of
development goals and objectives and ends after
the dissemination of dev’t outcomes.
▪ The following are the critical phases in the DM

cycle.

i) Setting the dev’t goal:
▪ Dev’t goals are formulated after the identification
of dev’t needs. Dev’t needs are the difference
between what the dev’t “should be” and “what it
is”.
▪ The dev’t gaps are identified and documented in
the plan and policy documents.
▪ Based on these gaps, dev’t goals are formulated
by the national and state government, and also by
other actors involved in the implementation of
dev’t projects and programs at the grassroots.

ii) Formulation of dev’t objectives:
▪ Dev’t objectives are drawn out of the developmental
goals. Dev’t objectives are the statement of a
desired end product.
▪ These statements should clearly spell out the
desired outcomes and how they will be attained and
measured. The development objective as far as
possible should be “SMART”, which means:
➢ S-Simple
➢ M-Measurable
➢ A-Attainable
➢ R-Realistic
➢ T-Time-bound
iii) Fixing up development targets/outcomes:
▪ After formulation of objectives, the next action
in the dev’t cycle is the setting of development
targets and outcomes.
▪ The targets and outcomes must be realistic and
based on the objectives of projects or programs,
activities and strategies.
iv) Formulation of dev’t strategies/activities:
▪ Dev’t objectives and expected outcomes enable
the dev’t manager to formulate suitable
strategies.
▪ The activities must be in tandem with the dev’t
outcome.
▪ During the formulation of strategies, the dev’t
manager must take the assistance of area/
subject experts in the specified dev’t area in
which dev’t projects and programs are being
launched.
v) Allocation of resources:
▪ Judicious allocation of balanced resources for
various activities is critical to dev’t
management.

▪ It is observed that a gigantic share of funds goes
to the administrative side and a meagre amount
is left for program activities by dev’t agencies
implementing various projects.
▪ This type of unbalanced allocation of resources
has implications on the outcomes of dev’t
projects.
▪ One of the important roles of the development
manager is to see that resources are allocated
properly on various aspects of development.

vi) Preparation and implementation of dev’t plans
and activities:
▪ Effective implementation of dev’t plans and
activities is a challenge for the organization
implementing dev’t projects.
▪ The activity plan with a “Gantt chart” and
activity mapping are, today, widely used by dev’t
institutions during the formulation of dev’t
projects.
▪ It helps funding and implementing agencies to
monitor the activities against set targets.
vii) Monitoring:
▪ Monitoring is a continuous and periodic review,
and surveillance by the dev’t management at every
level of the implementation of an activity to
ensure that everything proceeds according to plan.
▪ The availability of an activity plan is a pre-
condition for monitoring.
▪ During monitoring, field data are collected,
processed, analyzed, and presented to
management.

viii) Evaluation/impact assessment/gap identification:
▪ Evaluation is the process of determining,
systematically and objectively, the relevance,
efficiency, effectiveness, and impact of project
activities in the light of the stated objectives.
▪ It provides information to the dev’t manager about
past or ongoing activities, and helps for
modification to project activities, if needed .

ix) Dissemination:
▪ The last item in the DM cycle is dissemination. The
result of the project evaluation and impact
assessment needs to be disseminated in the form of
a report to the funding agencies.
▪ This can even be published so that other
stakeholders can learn and replicate it elsewhere.
▪ In summary, DM has become an essential tool for
facilitating better development.
▪ The use of the DM cycle in dev’t would help for
effective implementation of dev’t projects and
programs.
3.2.4 Pre-Requisites for Good DM
Some of the pre-requisites for good development
management include:
(i) Inter and Intra Sectoral Coordination:
▪ For the effective management of development
projects or programs, DM must have a climate of
healthy intersectoral coordination.
▪ Coordination among the sectors is essential for
smooth implementation of dev’t activities.
(ii) Good Governance:
▪ In recent years, good governance has become a
buzz ward in dev’t. It is widely felt that good
governance will ensure faster development.
▪ According to the United Nations, the important
features of good governance are consensus
participation, accountability, transparency,
responsiveness, equitably and inclusiveness.
▪ DM uses good governance as a tool for effective
implementation of projects to achieve dev’t
goals.
(iii) Convergence:
▪ Convergence has been emphasized to check if
there are duplication of efforts and wastage of
resources.

▪ It has been witnessed that at the grassroots level,
the activities implemented by different actors and
sectors sometimes overlap, which leads to wastage
of time and resources.
▪ For example, if a similar program is being
concurrently implemented by the government, non-
governmental organization, and bilateral
organizations, then it will not only be overlapping
but would create confusion in the minds of people.
▪ The judicious convergence of the activities,
functions, funds, etc. by the dev’t managers will
definitely help to avoid wastage of resources and
make the entire program cost effective.
(iv) Decentralization
▪ One of the important pre-requisites of good DM is
decentralization.
▪ Decentralization of funds, functions, and
functionaries to the lower level of governments has
led to effective implementation of programs at the
grassroots level.
Decentralization has been argued on the following
grounds:
▪ Allocative efficiency: Local authorities and
grassroots functionaries are more sensitive to local
priorities and needs and can allocate resources
effectively.
▪ Information Provision: The local gov’t can keep
people better informed as they are closer to them.
▪ Responsiveness: The local gov’t can be more
responsive to the needs of people than state and
central government.
▪ Local revenue maximization: As local gov’ts are
closer to the people they can better motivate and
collect taxes, fees, and user charges.
▪ Accountability: Being closer to people, they will be
more accountable to them and otherwise people by
putting pressure on them will make them
accountable.
(v) Leadership:
▪ Leadership is an essential prerequisite for good DM.
▪ Dev’t managers must influence dev’t workers and
support them for the accomplishment of
developmental tasks.
▪ Effective leadership is the key to good DM. It is said
that an effective leader is one who can successfully
integrate and effectively utilize scarce resources for
the accomplishment of institutional goal.
▪ Five important traits of leadership are honesty,
intelligence, forward looking, competency, and
inspirational.

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3 Chapter Three Emergence and Evolution of Development Approaches

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Chapter Three

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

Finally, Allan Thomas has given the following three

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

From all these definitions, one can conclude that, DM

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

The aim of DM can be elaborately outlined in the

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

▪ The following are the critical phases in the DM

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

PADM 2054 Nega Wubie 2020/21 AY 2nd Semester

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