Survey of European History 1850-1945

Survey of European History 1850-1945
Table of Contents
Chapter One................................................................................................................................................2
1. Revolution and reaction..........................................................................................................................2
1.1. The Congress of Vienna 1814-1815..................................................................................................2
1.2. Reaction............................................................................................................................................5
1.3. Nationalism.......................................................................................................................................7
1.4. The revolution of 1848 and their lessons........................................................................................12
1.5. The Italian Unification:....................................................................................................................24
1.6. German Unification.........................................................................................................................32
1.6.1. Character of German unification.............................................................................................33
1.6.2. The Constitutional Crisis in Prussia and Bismarck’s appointment as chief minister of Prussia in
1862...................................................................................................................................................33
1.6.3. Bismarck’s aims and his Policy (1862-1864).............................................................................34
1.6.4. The First war of German Unification........................................................................................35
1.6.5. The Second War of German Unification (Austro-Prussian war of 1866)..................................36
1.6.6. The Third War of German Unification (Franco-Prussian war 1870-71) and the completion of
German Unification...........................................................................................................................37
UNIT TWO..................................................................................................................................................44
2. EASTER EUROPE, 1815-1914..................................................................................................................44
2.1. Russia: Reform and Reaction..........................................................................................................44
2.2. Austria-Hungary..............................................................................................................................49
Chapter Three............................................................................................................................................53
3. Ottoman Empire and the Balkans..........................................................................................................53
Chapter Four..............................................................................................................................................59
4. Labour Movement.................................................................................................................................59
4.1. Anarchism.......................................................................................................................................62
4.1.1. First International and the Paris Commune.............................................................................65
4.1.2. Organized labour.....................................................................................................................67
4.1.3. Propaganda of the deed and illegalism....................................................................................69
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4.1.4. Russian Revolution and other uprisings of the 1910s..............................................................70

4.1.5. Conflicts with European fascist regimes..................................................................................71
4.1.6. Spanish Revolution..................................................................................................................72
4.1.7. Post-war years.........................................................................................................................73
4.1.8. Classical anarchist schools of thought Mutualism...................................................................75
4.1.9. Post-classical schools of thought.............................................................................................80
Chapter Five..............................................................................................................................................85
5. The First World War (WWI)...................................................................................................................85
5.1. Europe at the eve of WWI..............................................................................................................86
5.1.1. The Immediate Causes of the WWI.........................................................................................86
5.1.2. Outbreak of the war....................................................................................................................90
5.1.3. The Military aspects of the War...............................................................................................91
5.1.4. Major Fronts of WWI...............................................................................................................91
5.1.5. The End of the War..................................................................................................................93
5.1.6. Immediate Consequences...........................................................................................................95
5.1.7. Motives of the Big Three..........................................................................................................96
5.1.8. The Peace Conference at Paris and the treaty of Versailles.....................................................97
Chapter Six..............................................................................................................................................101
6. The Interwar Developments................................................................................................................101
6.1. Causes of the Russian revolutions............................................................................................102
6.2. The First Russian revolution of 1905.........................................................................................104
6.3. The 1917 Russian Revolutions..................................................................................................105
6.4. The Political unrest and the Depression.......................................................................................110
6.4.1. The First period (1917-1923).................................................................................................110
6.4.2. The Second Period (1924-1929).............................................................................................110
6.4.3. The Third Period....................................................................................................................111
6.5. Fascism in Italy and Germany.......................................................................................................112
6.5.1. The Rise of Mussolini to Power:.............................................................................................113
6.5.2. Mussolini in Power:...............................................................................................................114
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6.5.3. The Rise of Hitler to Power....................................................................................................114

6.6. The Spanish Civil War 1936-1939.............................................................................................117
Unit Seven...............................................................................................................................................121
7. The Second World War........................................................................................................................121
7.1. The Road to the War (1939-1945)................................................................................................122
7.1.1. The Munich agreement and the Destruction of Czechoslovakia:-.........................................124
7.1.2. The Spanish Civil war, 1936-1939..........................................................................................125
7.1.3. The Nazi-Soviet Non-aggression Pact of 1939........................................................................126
7.2. The Destruction of Poland, September 1939:-..............................................................................129
7.2.1. The Phoney war:-...................................................................................................................129
7.2.2. The end of the Phoney war, the conquest of Denmark and Norway:-...................................130
7.2.3. The Fall of France: -................................................................................................................130
7.2.4. The Battle of Britain: -............................................................................................................131
7.2.5. The U.S.A and the War (1939-1941):-....................................................................................131
7.2.6. The USSR and the war, September 1939-June 1941:-............................................................133
7.2.7. The Balkans and Italy, 1940-1941:-........................................................................................133
7.2.8. Invasion of the Soviet Union:-................................................................................................135
7.2.9. The Attack on Pearl Harbor: -.................................................................................................135
7.2.10. The World at war: -..............................................................................................................136
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Dear Colleague! Well come to this course “History of Europe from 1850 to 1945(HiHM,
332)”. This course is designed assuming that you succeed in European History from 1850-
1945.This course covers the most important period that people want to know. It also describes
major historical developments of Europe during the period under discussion.
The course is designed to have about Seven Chapters. Hence, it includes revolutions and
Unifications; Eastern Europe from 1815-1914; Ottoman Empire and the Balkans; Fascism and
Nazism; the USSR 1917-1941 and the WWII.
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Chapter One
1. Revolution and reaction
Introduction!
Dear learners! Under this unit you will study different aspects of nationalism. It also deals with the
Congress of Vienna, reforms in Great Britain, liberalism and nationalism; second Empire under
LouisNapoleon and German and Italian unification. You will have a good understanding of how
nationalism existed first and the creation of independent nation states.
Objectives:
At the end of this unit you will be able to:
Discuss the Vienna Congress and its major point of agreement
Explain the reforms taken place in both Britain and France
Discuss nationalism in Europe after the Vienna Congress
Explain how nationalism developed and reached its climax in Europe
Identify the process of the creation of the successful nation states of Italy and Germany
1.1. The Congress of Vienna 1814-1815

The Congress of Vienna was held from September of 1814 to June of 1815. After
the downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte, this international conference was called to create a
balance among the European powers in such a way so as to prevent future wars and
maintain peace and stability on the European continent. The means of achieving this goal
would be through a major reshaping of European interior borders.
Important People of the Conference:
Though the conference opened with a series of shiny balls and conferences, the
delegates soon got down to work. Mainly, the four major powers of Europe (Austria, Russia,
Prussia, and Great Britain) were left to make most of the big decisions. Austria sent Prince
Clemens von Metternich, the Austrian minister of State who was also acting as a president of
the Congress. The Russian Empire was represented by Alexander I, the emperor of Russia. The
main delegate from Prussia was Prince Karl August von Hardenberg, and Great Britain was
represented by Lord Castlereagh, and later Arthur Wellesley, the first duke of Wellington. This
group of major powers decided that France, Spain, and the smaller powers would have no voice
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in important decisions. However, the French diplomat, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, was
successful in allowing France to have an equal voice in the negotiations. Talleyrand became the
deciding vote in many of the decisions.
Important Decisions:
France was deprived of all territory conquered byNapoleon. The French monarchy was
restored under the rule of Louis XVIII. Austria was given back most of the territory it had lost
and was also given land in Germany and Italy (Lombardy and Venice). Russia got Finland and
control over the new kingdom of Poland. Prussia was given much of Saxony and important
parts of Westphalia and the Rhine Province. Britain got several strategic colonial territories, and
they also gained control of the seas. The Dutch Republic was united with the Austrian
Netherlands to form a single kingdom of the Netherlands under the House of Orange. Norway
and Sweden were joined under a single ruler. Switzerland was declared neutral and Spain was
restored under Ferdinand VII
Results of the meeting:
The goal of the congress was to re-establish a balance of power among the countries
of Europe and have peace between the nations. The Congress proved to be highly successful
in achieving its goal, for the peace in Europe was left almost undisturbed for nearly 40 years.
After the defeat of Napoleon, it was necessary to make changes to the boundaries of Europe.
Napoleon’s conquered territories and puppet republics needed to be reviewed. The leaders of
this congress intended to make France pay for all of the disruptions that Napoleon caused. The
congress was chaired by Prince Metternich who at that time was the Austrian Prime Minister.
Metternich was under orders from his emperor to make sure that the monarchy would be
preserved as well it should be restored in France mainly because the emperor felt threatened in
his own country. Since borders between countries would be re-written, Metternich would
attempt to secure for Austria all its former territories and more if necessary.
The congress would undertake most of its policies in a very conservative way (it is better
to exclude liberal ideas which would lead to revolution in Europe). The French Revolution
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would be criticized by the delegates at the congress mainly because of the legacy that it left
behind (Nationalism and the execution of the monarchs).
The Conference of Vienna was bases on three principles:

1. Legitimacy – this meant that only the legal rulers of the European countries should be
monarchs.
2. Compensation – France would have to pay more than 700 million francs to countries that
Napoleon invaded and caused damage. France would have to give-up any claim to conquered
territories.
3. Security – it was decided that in order to prevent somebody like Napoleon from coming to
power again, the great monarchies of Europe would enter into alliances with each other.
In 1815, the Holy Alliance came into effect, including Russia, Austria and Prussia. The
Quadruple Alliance of Russia, Austria, Prussia and Britain was also formed in 1815. In 1818
the Quintuple Alliance would be formed, Russia, Prussia Austria, Britain and France. This
system of alliances was only a temporary measure and unfortunately it did not prevent war
from happening in Europe.
Chief Territorial Agreements Made At Vienna, 1815
1. Napoleon’s Confederation of the Rhine broke-up. In its place the German Confederation
with its thirty nine member states were allowed self government, Austria now dominates.
2. Most of Italy goes under Austrian control.
3. Prussia got part of Saxony and all Swedish Pomerania and the left bank of the Rhine River.
4. Russia gets Poland, a divided country.
5. Holland gets Austrian Netherlands while Austria got Lombardy and Venetia.
6. Switzerland becomes independent and is guaranteed neutrality.
7. Sweden gets Norway from Denmark, while Russia in turn gets Finland and Sweden.
8. Britain maintains control of all colonies, and gets Cape of Good Hope, Malta, Ceylon,
Mauritius and former French West Indian possessions
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1.2. Reaction
The years after the Vienna Congress were of political reaction all over Europe.
Government and ruling classes feared revolution and their main concern was to avoid another
revolution; conservatives, intellectuals turned against the ideas and principles of the 18 th century
enlightenment. The ruling classes turned back to religion and supported the established churches
as pillars of the social and political order.
The most reactionary states were the absolute monarchies of Russia, Prussia and Austria.
In Western Europe there were some constitutional states like Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium,
France, Switzerland and some of the South German states. However, the constitutional states
were not democratic. Their governments and ruling classes strongly resisted the expansion of
political rights to the working people because it was believed that the political concessions would
lead to political and social revolutions. Therefore, the period between 1815 and 1848 was a
period of intense revolutionary unrest all over Europe.
For a few years after 1815, the Great powers tried to maintain a system of regular meeting called
congress to solve question of common interest and to maintain peace. France was accepted again
as one of the Great powers and admitted to the congress system in 1818.After 1822, the congress
system ceased to function mainly because Britain withdrew from it. Britain withdrew because the
British government and the British ruling classes, though conservative at home, had no sympathy
with the reactionary absolutism of Austria, Prussia and Russia. It is clear that Austria, Prussia
and Russia wanted to use the congress system as a means of intervening against revolution and
even constitutional change in any country. The British government did not believe this policy
was sensible or possible and therefore, abandoned the congress system.
The congress system was replaced by the co-operation of a small group of the three of the
most reactionary great powers: Austria, Prussia and Russia. This co-operation between the three
reactionary great powers was called the Holy Alliances.
From the early 1820s to the early 1850s, the three most reactionary great powers: Russia, Austria
and Prussia were associated together in what was called the Holly alliance. Though this
association in what was not in fact a form of alliance, the Holy Alliance was based on
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conservative and reactionary aims. First, it was intended to prevent frontier changes that are to
preserve the status quo (the existing situation) of the 1815 Vienna Settlement.
Second it was intended to stop revolutions and constitutional concessions within other states by
interventions if necessary to preserve the internal status quo. For example with the approval of
the Holy alliance partners, Austria intervened in Italy in 1820s and 1830s to suppress revolutions
and constitutions in the petty Italian states.
In 1833, the Holy Alliance, more formalized in what was called the treaty of Munchengratz.
According to this treaty:
First Russia and Austria agreed to maintain the status quo in Turkey and to act together if
change in Turkey did become necessary and inevitable. Change in Turkey might become
necessary and inevitable because of the weakness of the Turkish government and the growing
pressure for national liberation in the Balkans.
Second, Russia and Austria guaranteed each other’s polish territories and promised to help
each other if there was a rising in Poland.
Third, Russia, Austria and Prussia said that they would reject any principle of non-intervention
if they received and appeal to military help against revolution from an independent ruler.
The basic meaning of the 1833 treaty was that the holy Alliance partners asserted their
determination to intervene against revolution outside their own state. Russia and Austria also
asserted their solidarity and mutual support against the national liberation struggle in Poland.
In the period 1815-1848, the chief danger to the settlement established by the congress of
Vienna and the chief danger to the reactionary Old Regime states appeared to be a renewed
revolution in France and renewed French aggression. In fact, the revolution in France of 1830
and 1848 showed that the French bourgeoisie was no longer as revolutionary as of 1792, 1793
and 1794. This was because the French bourgeoisie was now afraid of revolution, that is,
socialism and socialist revolution.
Other major international problems and threats to the Vienna settlement were Italy and
Poland. In 1831, Joseph Mazzini (1805-1872) founded the Young Italy society and achieved the
unification of Italy. In Poland, the national Liberation Movement produced a major insurrection
in Russia Poland in 1830, but the revolt was suppressed by force.
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Another international problem and challenge to the conservative Vienna settlement would later
be the question of Germany. In the first half of the 19 th century, German nationalism and German
desire for unity were increasing. Later; Prussia and Austria were to come in to conflict over the
question of Germany when Prussia abandoned the desire to maintain the Vienna settlement in
Germany and aspired to uniting Germany under herself.
The other major international problem in Europe and threat to the Vienna settlement and
the Holy alliance was the Balkans. The Balkans were still under Turkish rule though Greece
achieved independence in 1832. Russia had ambitions in the Balkans since 1762. She wanted
Constantinople and the Straits because they controlled Russia’s outlet to the Mediterranean Sea.
Moreover, they were strategic and military bases. In addition Russia felt sympathy with the
Balkan Christians under Turkish rule. Many of the Balkan people were fellow Orthodox and
fellow slaves. The Tsarist government believed that the national liberation movement in the
Balkans would create Balkan states dependent on Russia as give Russia hegemony in the Balkan
area.
Austria also regarded the Balkan as her sphere of influence and feared and opposed
Russia expansionism in the Balkans. Austria also had economic reasons for opposing Russian
hegemony in Balkans.
Austria did not want the River Danube to be under Russian control. It was in fact the rival
interest of Russia in the Balkans which finally broke up the Holy Alliance at the Crimean war
(1854-56).
1.3. Nationalism
In the second half of the nineteenth century and in the years before the First World War,
nationalism was reaching its climax in Europe and nationalism was one of the most powerful
forces. The process of the formation of independent national state continued though it was not
completed until the end of the First World War.
The second half of the nineteenth century and the years before WWI therefore saw the
struggle of peoples in Europe against alien rule in order to achieve national liberation that is their
own independent national states. Some nation had already achieved such steps but others had and
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therefore struggled to achieve such aim. The Italians struggled to achieve liberation from
Austria. The Poles struggled to gain liberation from Russia, Austria and Prussia while the Irish
got independence from Britain. In the Balkans the Balkan nations struggled to achieve
independence from Turkey and later some of them then struggled to achieve independence from
Austria. Not all in this entire national liberation struggle was successful before the end of WWI.
The Poles and the Irish and the people of the Northwestern Balkans had to wait until the end of
WWI for independent national state.
In Europe, the national question was also sometimes a question of Political unity in 19 th
century. Italy and Germany were the main example. Both were divided into separate states and
Italian and German nationalist wanted real political unity. The Italian national problem was to
achieve liberation from Austria. Germany did not suffer from foreign domination, but needed
unity. The two greatest successor of nationalism in the mid 19 th century were Italian liberation
and unification and German unification.
The nineteenth century Europe also saw national revivals among relatively politically and
economically backward people who had previously seemed and destined to be absorbed by more
advance and numerous neighboring people. The main example was Czechs, which successfully
resisted absorption into the German nationality. The Ruthenes who did not become Poles or
Magyars and the Slovaks who were not absorbed by the Magyars of Hungary were also
examples.
In 19th century Europe, the rise of the bourgeoisie and the capitalism and the rise of
nationalism were linked. The bourgeoisie engaged in trade and industry and wanted a strong
national state as a means of consolidating national market and gaining powerful states support
for bourgeoisie activities outside their frontiers. This was particularly the case with the German
bourgeoisie who wanted to enjoy with the powerful support which the British and French
bourgeoisie got from their own government overseas.
The professional bourgeois and petty bourgeois, lawyers, writers, journalists, university
and school teachers etc played an important role in spreading and strengthening European
nationalism. The development of its own national bourgeoisie was of course and important stage
forward in revival and development of more backward peoples.
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A characteristic feature of the 19th century European nationalism was that nationalist claimed
independence, unity and right for their own nationality. But they were all too ready to ignore the
legitimate national claims of other nationalities. Nationalist were also ready to believe that their
own particular nation was superior and a historical mission to impose its rule or culture on
others. For example, the Italians freed themselves from the Austrians and united Italy then
started to impose Italian colonial rule in Africa. After WWI, Italy had no hesitation also in
imposing Italian rule over large numbers of Austrian, Germans in south Tyrol and on south Slavs
in the Adriatic area.
Outside Europe the existing of modern nationalism were being felt in Asia particularly
from mid 1880s. However, even earlier there were movements in Asia which can be described at
least in part as national. In China the great Taiping Rebellion in 1851-1864 was basically anti-
feudal with mass support from peasants and craftsmen. However, it was also directed against the
foreign Manchu Government and the Taiping leaders also opposed the western penetration of
China which was becoming stronger and stronger.
In India, there was a powerful revolt in northern India in 1857-59 which the British called the
Indian Mutiny, but which some modern historian regard as first Indian national Liberation
struggle. On the other hand, India was still deeply divided by language, religion and caste. So
that it is difficult to say that in the middle of the nineteenth century a real Indian national
coconscious yet existing.
Japan nationalism was also an important dynamic in the drive following the Meiji Restoration
1867-68 for Japanese modernization and industrialization. The Japanese did feel the strong sense
of national pride and were determined to avoid colonial or semi-colonial domination by the west
through a policy of “self strengthening “ by modernization and industrialization.
Nationalism was also an important factor in the development of Europe. In the 19th century, a
wave of romantic nationalism swept the continent of Europe transforming the countries of the
continent. Some new countries, such as Germany and Italy were formed by uniting smaller states
with a common "national identity". Others, such as Romania, Greece, Poland and Bulgaria, were
formed by winning their independence.
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The French Revolution paved the way for the modern nation-state and also had a big part
in the birth of nationalism. Across Europe radical intellectuals BonaparteNapoleon, was the
instrument for the political transformation of Europe. Revolutionary armies carried the slogan of
"liberty, equality and brotherhood" and ideas of liberalism and national self-determinism.
National awakening also grew out of an intellectual reaction to the Enlightenment that
emphasized national identity and developed a romantic view of cultural self-expression
through nationhood. The key exponent of the modern idea of the nation-state was the German G.
W. Friedrich Hegel. He argued that a sense of nationality was the cement that held
modern societies together in the age when dynastic and religious allegiance was in decline. In
1815, at the end of the Napoleonic wars, the major powers of Europe endeavored to restore the
old dynastic system as far as possible, ignoring the principle of nationality in favor of
"legitimism", the assertion of traditional claims to royal authority. With most of Europe's peoples
still loyal to their local province or city, nationalism was confined to small groups
of intellectuals and political radicals. Furthermore, political repression, symbolized by
the Carlsbad Decrees published in Austria in 1819, pushed nationalist agitation underground.
A strong resentment of what came to be regarded as foreign rule began to develop.
In Ireland, Italy, Belgium, Greece, Poland, Hungary and Norway local hostility to
alien dynastic authority started to take the form of nationalist agitation. Nationalism came to be
seen as the most effective way to create the symbols of resistance and to unite in a common
cause. First national revolution was in Serbia (1804–1817) which created the first nation-
state in Central Europe. Success came in Greece where an eight-year war (1821–1829)
against Ottoman rule led to an independent Greek state; in 1831 Belgium obtained
independence from the Netherlands. Over the next two decades nationalism developed a more
powerful voice, spurred by nationalist writers championing the cause of nationalist self-
determination. In 1848, revolutions broke out across Europe, sparked by a
severe famine and economic crisis and mounting popular demand for political change.
In Italy Giuseppe Mazzini used the opportunity to encourage a war for national unity. In 1861 he
wrote: "No people ever die, nor stop short upon their path, before they have achieved the
ultimate aim of their existence, before having completed and fulfilled their mission. A people
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destined to achieve great things for the welfare of humanity must on day or other be constituted a
nation".
In Hungary, Lajos Kossuth led a national revolt against Austrian rule; in
Transylvania, Avram Iancu (also known as Craisorul Muntilor, which means The Prince of the
Mountains) led the Romanian revolt against the Hungarian rule; in the German Confederation a
National Assembly was elected at Frankfurt and debated the creation of a German nation. None
of the nationalist revolts in 1848 were successful, any more than the two attempts to win Polish
independence from Russian rule in 1831 and 1846 had been. Conservative forces proved too
strong, while the majority of the populations little understood the meaning of national struggle.
But the 1848 crisis had given nationalism its first full public airing, and in the thirty years that
followed no fewer than seven new national states were created in Europe. This was partly the
result of the recognition by conservative forces that the old order could not continue in its
existing form. Conservative reformers such as Cavour and Bismarck made common cause
with liberal political modernizers to create a consensus for the creation of conservative nation-
states in Italy and Germany. In the Habsburg Empire a compromise was reached
with Hungarian nationalists in 1867 granting them a virtually independent state. In
the Balkans the Serbian example had inspired other national awakenings.
Native history and culture were rediscovered and appropriated for the national struggle.
Following a conflict between Russia and Turkey, the Great Powers met at Berlin in 1878 and
granted independence to Romania, Serbia and Montenegro and a limited autonomy to Bulgaria.
Nationalisms growth and export

The invention of a symbolic national identity became the concern
of racial, ethnic or linguistic groups throughout Europe as they struggled to come to terms with
the rise of mass politics, the decline of the traditional social elites,
popular discrimination and xenophobia. Within the Habsburg Empire the different peoples
developed a more mass-based violent and exclusive form of nationalism. This developed even
among the Germans and Magyars, who actually benefited from the power-structure of
the empire. On the European periphery, especially in Ireland and Norway, campaigns for
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national independence became more strident. In 1905 Norway won independence from Sweden,

but attempts to grant Ireland the kind of autonomy enjoyed by Hungary foundered on the
national divisions on the island between the Catholic and Protestant populations. The Polish
attempts to win independence from Russia had previously proved to be unsuccessful,
with Poland being the only country in Europe whose autonomy was gradually limited rather than
expanded throughout the 19th century, as a punishment for the failed uprisings; in 1831 Poland
lost its status as a formally independent state and was merged into Russia as a real union country
and in 1867 she became nothing more than just another Russian province. Faced with internal
and external resistance to assimilation, as well as increased xenophobic anti-Semitism, radical
demands began to develop among the stateless Jewish population of eastern and central
Europe for their own national home and refuge. In 1897, inspired by the Hungarian-born Jewish
nationalist Theodor Herzl, the First Zionist Congress was held in Basle, and declared their
national 'home' should be in Palestine. By the end of the period, the ideals of European
nationalism had been exported worldwide and were now beginning to develop, and both compete
and threaten the empires ruled by colonial European nation-states.
The last half of the 1800s can be called as age of Nationalism. By harnessing national
feeling, European leaders fought ruthlessly to create strong, unified nations. Under Otto Von
Bismarck, Germany emerged as Europe’s most powerful empire but at a considerable cost.
Bismarck welded the German states in to a powerful empire. A divided Italy found political
unity. And throughout European continent, strong leaders harnessed national feeling to
encourage industrialism and modernization. In some countries, nationalism was a divisive rather
than a unifying force. It strained Austria’s multinational empire. It led Russian Czars to suppress
the cultures of national minorities within their land. To this day, nationalism has remained a
powerful force that has unified countries and sparked rivalries, conflicts and great bloodshed.
1.4. The revolution of 1848 and their lessons

The mere fact of revolution carried with it great excitement in 1848 as it had done in
1789. An entrenched social and political order had collapsed. To everyone who had chafed under
that order ‘the March days’ were days of unparalleled freedom and seemed to offer a future
dispensation full of promise. Nonetheless, in every Country, too there were people who thought
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that Europe was suffering from March madness. There was general agreement on only one point
that the adjective vormärzlich(before march), like the adjective ‘pre-war) in the years after 1918
or 1945, referred to days which were beyond recall.
One former German radical, David Friedrich Strauss had complained as early as April 1848 that
he had lived more happily in pre-revolutionary times, able to devote himself to ‘true theory’
without bothering himself about how to apply it. That was one’s individual response. Another,
not dissimilar was the novelist Adalbert Stifter’s in Vienna. The revolution had shown that the
‘people who are possessed by powerful desires and urges’ were not to be trusted. People who
promised ‘to overwhelm you with immeasurable freedom’ were mostly men corrupted by the
power of their emotions.’ These were very different very different responses from that contained
in a Paris placard of March 1848 which read ‘When only counter-revolution has had that right to
speak for half a century, is it too much to give perhaps a year to liberty?’ A contrasting response
on the part of large numbers of people during and after the springtime of liberty, not usually put
in to words, had nothing to do with ‘theory’ or with past experience. They preferred to put their
trust in individual self-help and their own material betterment rather than in communal
revolutionary fervor.
Each revolutionary situation had its own history with tangled strands, confusing
alignments and contrasting personalities, but there were elements that were common to them all,
including ultimate disillusionment. For the twentieth century American historian Bernadotte
Schmitt 1848 was a ‘terminus’, while for the British historian G.M. Trevelyan, disappointed
rather than disillusioned, it was ‘the turning point at which modern history failed to turn.’ The
liberal forces in which Trevelyan, descendant of Macaulay, believed had failed to take charge of
events. In June 1848, France which led the way t revolution had provided the first evidence of
the despair that could accompany ‘reaction’ and by the end of 1848; revolutionary causes were in
danger everywhere. It was not until 1849, however that the revolutionary fires were finally put
out in Germany and in central Europe. The Russians then played the role of firemen in a way that
they had not been allowed to play the part of policemen after 1815. Authority had triumphed.
Bothe sides learned lessons from 1848 and 1849. ‘Authority’ learnt what it meant to have to
prevaricate and to yield: for a time. As the King of Prussia put it, it had been forced to crawl on
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its stomach. ‘Never allow that to happen again’ was his lesson. The revolutionaries, who before
1848 had learnt most of what they Knew from books-it was books, indeed which had done the
talking –learnt lesson perhaps from experience; and divided as they always had been , they now
gave way to others. But for new revolutionaries, it was not simply that new chapters had been
added to old books: the whole text required substantial revision. A major theme for the future
was to be the national unification of Germany and Italy, not achieved in 1848. How could that be
accomplished?
There seemed to be three main sets of lessons to be learnt from 1848 and the year that
followed, although not everyone drew the same lessons and there were divisions inside the
revolutionary and counter-revolutionary camps as well as between them. The first concerned the
dynamics of social-class; and in that connection what had happened in France was the main,
though not the sole, source of instruction. A second theme was related to the interplay of
nationalisms, far more intricate than either nationalists or anti-nationalists had realized before
1848; and the third was the role of force in politics and in nation buildings, a subject which
nationalists had increasingly begun to talk about 1848 and 1849 while their opponents acted,
driven by fear more than hope. There were two other themes that concerned all three sets of
lessons- the relationship between monarchies and ‘parliamentarianism’ (which in future was to
involve far more than the granting or withdrawal of constitution and the development of the
apparatus, including the military apparatus of the state.
Reforms in Great Britain

A series of political reforms during the 1800s and 1900s transformed Great Britain from a
monarchy and aristocracy into a democracy while some British politicians opposed the reforms,
most sided in favor of reforming parliament to make it more representative of the nation’s
growing industrial population. No doubt that at the very early period, the House of Commons
did represent the people of England. But at present, the House of Commons does not represent
the people of England. The people called loudly for reform, saying that whatever good existed in
the constitution of this House, whatever confidence was placed in it by the people, was
completely gone.
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From Monarchy to Democracy:

In the early 1800s, Britain’s government was a monarchy and aristocracy under the rule
of Queen Victoria, and the aristocrats and landowners in the House of Lords; A series of reforms
during the 1800s and early 1900s transformed Britain’s government in to a democracy. The first
of these reforms was the Great Reforms Act of 1832 by which seats in the parliament was
distributed to give more representation to growing industrial areas. The act also expanded the
vote to include about one in five adult men. The second reform Act in 1867 was spearheaded by
Benjamin Disraeli, a conservative leader who hoped to defeat his liberal rival William Gladstone
and Victoria, the empress of India and ruler of some 300 million subjects around the World,
became a reversed symbol of British might.
During her reign, Victoria witnessed growing agitation for social reform. The Queen
herself commented that the lower classes “earn their bread and riches so deservedly that they
cannot and ought not to be kept back.” As the Victorian era went on, reformers continued the
push toward greater social and economic justice.
In the 1860s, a new era dawned in British politics. The Old political parties regrouped under new
leadership. Benjamin Disraeli forged the Tories into the modern conservative party. The Whigs,
led by William Gladstone evolved into the Liberal Party. Between 1868 and 1880s, as the
majority in Parliament swung between the two parties, Gladstone and Disraeli alternated as
prime minister. Both fought for important reforms.
Disraeli and the conservative party pushed through the reform Bill of 1867. By giving the vote to
many working-class men, the new law almost doubled the size of the electorate. In the 1880s, it
was the turn of Gladstone and the Liberal Party to extend suffrage. Their reforms gave the vote
to frame-workers and most other men. By century’s end, almost universal male suffrage, the
secret ballot and other Chartist ambitions had been achieved. Britain had truly transformed itself
from a constitutional monarchy to a Parliamentary democracy, a form of government in which
the executive leaders (usually a prime minister and cabinet) are chosen by and responsible to the
legislature (Parliament), and are also members of it.
In the early 1900s, many Bills passed by the House of Commons met defeat in the House of
Lords. In 1911, a Liberal government passed measures to restrict the power of the Lords,
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including their power to veto tax bills. The Lords resisted. Finally, the government threatened to
create enough new lords to approve the law and the Lords backed down. People hailed d the
change as a victory for democracy. In time, the House Lords would become a largely ceremonial
body with little power. The elected House of Commons would reign supreme.
Social and Economic reform in Great Britain

During the early 1800s, Parliament passed a wide variety of laws important new laws.
One the most controversial measure involved the issue of Free trade or Trade between Countries
without quotas, tariffs or other restrictions.
Free trade and the Corn laws: In the early 1800s, Britain like other European nations taxed
foreign imports in order to protect local economies. But supporters of free trade demanded end to
such protective tariffs. Free traders, usually middle-class business leaders agreed with Adam
Smith that a policy of Laissez faire would increase prosperity for all. If tariffs were abolished,
merchants everywhere would have larger markets in which to sell their goods, and consumers
would benefit from open competition.
Some British tariffs were repealed in the 1820s. However, fierce debate erupted over the
Corn Laws, which imposed high tariffs on imported grain (In Britain, corn refers to all cereal
grains such as wheat, barley and oats). Farmers and wealthy landowners supported the Corn
Laws because they kept the price of British grain high. Free traders, however, wanted
Parliament to repeal or cancel the Corn Laws. They argued that repeal of these laws would lower
the price of grain, make bread cheaper for workers and open up trade in general. Parliament in
finally repealed the Corn Laws in 1846, after widespread crop failures swept many parts of
Europe. Liberals hailed the repeal as a victory for free trade and laissez-fair capitalism. However,
in the late 1800s, economic hard times led Britain and other European countries to impose
protective tariffs on many goods again.
Other reforms aimed at the criminal justice system. In the early 1800s, more than 200
crimes were punishable by death. Such capital offenses included not only murder but also
shoplifting, sheep stealing and impersonating an army veteran. In practice, some juries refused to
convict criminals, because the punishments were so harsh. Executions were public occasions and
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the hanging of a well-known murder might attract thousands of curious spectators. Afterward,
instead of receiving a proper burial, the criminal’s body might be given to a medical College for
dissection.
Reformers began to reduce the number of capital offenses. By 1850s, the death penalty
was reserved for murder, piracy, treason and arson. Many petty criminals were instead
transported to penal colonies, or settlements for convicts in the new British territory of Australia.
In 1868, parliament ended public hangings. Additional reforms improved prison conditions and
outlawed imprisonment due to dept.
Victories of the working class
Four (ghosts) haunt the poor: Old age, accident, sickness and unemployment,” declared Liberal
politician David Lloyd George in 1905. “We are going to (expel) them” .Parliament had begun
passing laws aimed at improving social conditions as early as the 1840s. During the early 1900s,
it passed a series of additional reforms designed to help the men, women and children whose
labor supported the new industrial society.
Improving working conditions;
Working conditions in the early industrial age were grim and often dangerous. Gradually,
parliament passed laws to regulate conditions in factories and mines. In 1842, for example mine-
owners were forbidden to employ women or children under age 10.An 1847 law limited women
and children to a 10-hour day. Later, in the 1800s, the government regulated many safety
conditions in factories and mines; and sent inspectors to see that the laws were enforced. Other
laws set minimum wages and maximum hours of work.
The Struggle to win votes for women

In Britain, as elsewhere, women struggled against strong opposition for the right to vote.
Women themselves were divided on the issue. Some women opposed suffrage altogether. Queen
Victoria, for example called the suffrage struggle “mad, wicked folly”. Even women in favor of
suffrage disagreed about how best to achieve it.
Suffragist Revolt: By the early 1900s, Emmeline Pankhurst, a leading suffragist had become
convinced that only aggressive tactics would bring victory. Pankhurst had another radical
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suffragists interrupted speakers in parliament, shouting, “Votes for women!” until they were
carried away. They collected petitions and organized huge public demonstrations. When mass
meetings and other peaceful efforts brought no results, some women turned to more drastic,
violent protests. They smashed windows or even burned buildings. Pankhurst justified such
tactics as necessary to achieve victory. “There is something that governments care far more for
human life,” she declared , “and that is security of property , so it is through property that we
shall strike the enemy.”
Victory at last: Even middle-class women who disapproved of such radical and violent actions
increasingly demanded votes for women. Still, parliament refused to grant women’s suffrage.
Not until 1918 did parliament finally grant suffrage to women over age 30. Younger women did
not win the right to vote for another decade.
Instability in Ireland: Throughout the 1800s, Britain faced the ever-present “Irish questions.”
Te English had begun conquering Ireland in the 1100s. In the 1600s, English and Scottish settlers
colonized Ireland, taking possession of much of the best farmland.
The Irish never accepted English rule. They bitterly resented settlers especially, absentee
landlords who owned large estate but did not live on them. Many Irish peasants lived in
desperate poverty while paying high rents to landlords living in England. In addition, the Irish
most of whom were catholic, had to pay tithes to support the Church of England. Under these
conditions, resistances and rebellion were common.
The Irish Potato Famine
Under British rule, three quarters of Irish farmland was used to grow crops that were
exported. The potato was the main source of food for most of the Irish people. In 1845, disaster
stuck. A blight or disease destroyed the potato crop. Other crops such as Wheat, and oats were
not affected. Yet British landowners continued to ship these crops outside Ireland, leaving little
for the Irish except the blighted potatoes. The result was a terrible famine that the Irish called
“Great Hunger.” In four years, about one million Irish men, women and children died of
starvation or disease. Many more emigrated to the United States and Canada. The Great Hunger
left a legacy of Irish bitterness toward the English.
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Irish Nationalism
Like the national minorities in the Austrian Empire, Irish nationalists campaigned
vigorously for freedom and justice in the 1800s. Nationalist leader Daniel O’Connell nicknamed
“the Liberator “organized an Irish catholic League and held mass meetings to demand repeal of
unfair laws. “ My first object,” declared O’Connell “is to get Ireland for the Irish!”
Under pressure from O’Connell and other Irish nationalists, Britain slowly moved to improve
conditions in Ireland. In 1829, Parliament passed the Catholic emancipation Act, which allowed
Irish catholic’s to vote and hold political office. Yet many injustices remained. Absentee
landlords could evict tenants almost at will. Other British laws forbade the teaching and speaking
of the Irish language.
The famine in Ireland left the Irish with a legacy of bitterness and distrust toward Britain.
In the 1850s, some Irish militants organized the Fenian Brotherhood. Its goal was to liberate
Ireland from British rule by force. In the 1870s, moderate Irish nationalist found a rousing leader
in Charles Stewart Parnell. He rallied Irish members of Parliament to press for home rule, or
local self government. The debate dragged on for decades.
The Irish questions disrupted English politics. At times, political parties were so deeply split over
the Irish questions that they could not take care of other business. As prime minister, Gladstone
pushed for reforms in Ireland. He ended the use of Irish tithe money to support the Anglican
Church and tried to ease the hardships of Irish tenant farmers. New laws prevented landlords
from charging unfair rents and protected the rights of tenants to the land they worked.
Finally, in 1914 parliament passed a home rule bill. But it delayed putting the new law into effect
when World War I broke out that year. The southern countries of Ireland finally became
independent in 1921.
France underNapoleon III
After the Revolution of 1848,Napoleon III, nephew ofNapoleon Bonaparte rose to power
and set up the second Empire. His appeal cut across lines of class and ideology. The Bourgeoisie
saw him as a strong leader who would restore order. His promise to end poverty gave hope to the
lower classes. People of all classes were attracted by his name, a reminder of the days when
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France had towered over Europe. Unlike his famous uncle, however,Napoleon III would bring
France neither glory nor an Empire.
Limits on Liberty
On the surface, the second Empire looked like a constitutional monarchy. In
fact,Napoleon III ruled almost as a dictator, with the power to appoint his cabinet, the Upper
house of the legislature and many officials. Although the assembly was elected by universal male
suffrage appointed officials “managed “elections so that supporters of the emperor would win.
Debate was limited and newspapers faced strict censorship.
In the 1860s, the emperor began to ease controls. He lifted some censorship and gave legislature
more power. On the eve of his disastrous war with Prussia,Napoleon III even issued a new
constitution that extended democratic rights.
Promoting Economic reports: Like much of Europe, France prospered at mid-
century.Napoleon III promoted investment in industry and large-scale ventures such as railroad
building and the urban renewal of Paris. During this period, a French entrepreneur, Ferdinand de
Lesseps (duh lay seps), organized the building of the Suez Canal in Egypt to link the
Mediterranean with the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. Workers enjoyed some benefits of economic
growth.Napoleon legalized labor unions, extended public education to girls and created a small
public health program. Still, in France, as in other industrial nations, many people lived in great
poverty.
Napoleon’s worst failures were in foreign affairs. In the 1860s, he tried to place Maximilian, an
Austrian Hapsburg prince, on the throne of Mexico. Through Maximilian,Napoleon hoped to
turn Mexico in to the French satellite. But after a large commitment of troops and money, the
adventure failed. Mexican patriots resisted fiercely and the United States protested. After four
years, France withdrew its troops. Maximilian was overthrown and shot by Mexican patriots.
Napoleon’s success was almost as costly as his failures. He helped Italian nationalists defeat
Austria and in return the regions of Nice (nees) and Savoy were ceded to France. But this victory
soon backfired when a united Italy emerged as a rival on France’s border. And though France
and Britain won the Crimean War, France had little to show for its terrible losses except a small
foothold in the Middle East.
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A disastrous war was fought between France and Prussia. At this time, France
was growing increasingly concerned about the rise of a great rival, Prussia. The Prussian leader
Otto Von Bismarck shrewdly manipulated the French and luredNapoleon into war in 1870s. This
war was a disastrous for France. Following the capture ofNapoleon III, Garman forces advanced
toward Paris and encircled the City. After four Months of siege by Prussian troops, starving
Parisians were reduced to catching rats and killing circus animals for food.
Challenges of the Third Republic
At the news of theNapoleon’s capture, republicans declared an end to the Second Empire. They
set up a provisional or temporary government that shortly evolved into France’s Third Republic.
In 1871, the newly elected National Assembly accepted a harsh peace with Germany. France had
to surrender the Provinces of Alsace and Lorraine and pay a huge sum to Germany. The French
were eager to avenge their losses.
The Commune:
In 1871, an uprising broke out in Paris. Rebels set up the Paris Commune. Like the
radical government during the French revolution, its goal was to save the republic from royalists.
Communards, as the rebels were called, included workers and socialists as well as bourgeois
republicans. As patriots, they rejected the harsh peace that the national Assembly had signed
with Germany. Radicals dreamed of creating a new socialist order.
The National Assembly ordered the Paris Commune to disband. When the Communards refused,
the government sent troops to retake Paris. For weeks, civil wars raged. As government troops
advanced, the rebels set fire to several government buildings, toppled a monument
commemoratingNapoleon I, and slaughtered a number of hostages. Finally, the Paris Commune
left bitter memories that deepened social divisions within France.
Government Structure: Despite its shaky beginnings, the Third Republic remained in place for
70 years. The new republic had a two-house legislature. The powerful lower house or Chamber
of Deputies was elected by universal male suffrage. Together with the Senate, it elected the
president of the republic. However, he had little power and served mostly as a figurehead. Real
power was in the hands of the Premier or prime minister.
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Unlike Britain with its two party systems, France had many parties reflecting the wide
splits within the country. Among them were royalists, constitutional monarchists, moderate
republicans and radicals. With so many parties, no single party could win a majority in the
legislature. In order to govern, politicians had to form coalitions or alliances of various parties.
Once a coalition controlled enough votes, it could then name a premier and form cabinet.
Multiparty systems and coalition governments are common in Europe. Such alliances allow the
citizens to vote for a party that most nearly matches their own beliefs. Coalition governments
however are often unstable. If one party deserts a coalition, the government might loss its quality
in the legislature. The government then falls and new elections must be held. In the first 10 years
of the Third Republic, 50 different coalition governments were formed and fell.
Political Scandals: despite frequent changes of governments, France made economic progress. It
paid Germany the huge sum required by the peace treaty and expanded its overseas empire. But
in the 1880s and 1890s, a series of political scandals shook public trust in the government.
One crisis erupted when a popular minister of war, General Georges Boulanger, rallied royalists
and ultranationalists eager for revenge on Germany. Accused of plotting to overthrow the
republic, Boulanger fled to Belgium. In another scandal, a nephew of the president was caught
selling nominations for the Legion of Honor, France’s highest award. The president was forced
to resign.
Anti-Semitism and the Dreyfus Affair
The most serious and divisive scandal began in 1894. A higher-ranking army officer,
Alfred Dreyfus was accused of spying for Germany. However, at his military trial, neither
Dreyfus nor his lawyer was allowed to see the evidence against him. The injustice was rooted in
anti-Semitism. The military elite detested Dreyfus, the first Jewish person to reach such a high
position in the army. Although Dreyfus proclaimed his innocence, he was convicted and
condemned to life imprisonment on Devil’s Island, a desolate penal colony off the coast of South
America. By 1896, new evidence pointed to another officer, Ferdinand Esterhazy, as the spy.
Still, the army refused to grant Dreyfus a new trial.
The Dreyfus affair as it was called, scarred French politics and society for decades. Royalists,
ultranationalists and Church officials charged Dreyfus supporters or “Dreyfusards” with
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undermining France. Paris echoed with cries of “Long live the army” and “Death to traitors!”
Dreyfusards, mostly liberals and republicans, upheld ideals of justice and equality in the face of
massive public anger. In 1898, French novelist Emile Zola joined the battle. In an article
headlined J’Accuse! (I accuse), he charged the army and government with suppressing the truth.
As a result, Zola was convicted of Libel or the knowing publication of false and damaging
statements. He fled in to exile.
Slowly, though the Dreyfusards made progress and eventually the evidence against Dreyfus was
shown to be forged. In 1906, a French court finally cleared Dreyfus of all charges and restored
his honors. That was a victory for justice, but the political scars of the Dreyfus affair took longer
to heal.
The Dreyfus case reflected the rise of anti-Semitism in Europe. The enlightenment and
the French revolution had had gained jobs in government, universities and other areas of life.
Others had achieved success in banking and business but most struggled to survive in the ghettos
of Eastern Europe or the slums of Western Europe. By the late 1800s, however, anti-Semitism
was again on the rise. Anti-Semites were often members of the lower middle class who felt
insecure in their social and economic positions. Steeped in the new nationalist fervor, they
adopted an aggressive intolerance for outsiders and a violent hatred of Jews.
The Dreyfus case and the programs in Russia stirred Theodor Herzl, a Hungarian Jewish
Journalist living in France. He called for rights that were otherwise denied to them in European
Countries. Herzl helped launch modern Zionism, a movement devoted to rebuilding a Jewish
state in Palestine. Many Jews had kept this dream alive since the destruction of the temple in
Jerusalem by the Romans. In 1897, Herzl organized the First Zionist Congress in Basel,
Switzerland.
Reforms in France: Although shaken by Dreyfus affair, France achieved serious reforms in
the early 1900s. Like Britain, France passed laws regulating wages, hours and safety
conditions for workers. It set up a system of free public elementary schools. Creating public
schools was also part of a campaign to reduce the power of the Roman Catholic Church,
which controlled education.
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Separating Church and State: Like Germany, France tried to repress Church involvement
in government. Republicans viewed the Church as a conservative force that opposed
progressive policies. In the Dreyfus affair, it had backed the army and ultranationalists.
The government closed Church schools along with many convents and monasteries. In 1905,
it passed a law to separate church and state and stopped paying the salaries of the clergy.
Catholics, Protestants and Jews were all to enjoy freedom of worship, but none would have
any special treatment from the government.
Under theNapoleonic Code, French women had few rights. By the 1890s, a growing
women’s rights movement sought legal reforms. It made some gains such as an 1896 law
giving married women the right to their own earnings. In 1909, Jeanne-Elizabeth Schmahl
founded the French Union for women’s Suffrage. Rejecting the radical tactics used in
Britain, Schmahl favored legal protests. Yet even liberal men were reluctant to grant women
suffrage. They feared that women would vote for Church and conservative causes. In the
end, French women did not win the vote until after WWII.
By the 1914, France was the largest democratic Country in Europe with a constitution
that protected basic rights. France’s economy was generally prosperous and its overseas
empire was second only to that of Britain. Yet the outlook was not all smooth. Coalition
governments rose and fell at the slightest pressure. To the east loomed the industrial might of
Germany. Many French citizens were itching for a chance to avenge the defeat in the
Franco-Prussian war and liberate the “Lost provinces” of Alsace and Lorraine. That came in
1914, when all of Europe exploded into World War I.
1.5. The Italian Unification:

In this section, you are going to learn about the Italian unification. The Italians needed national
unity. Moreover, Italy suffered from a domination of foreign rule that is Austria. Major topics
covered under this section include Italy, the characters of Italian unification, completion of the
Italian unification and the like.
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Objectives:
After the completion of this section, students will be able to:
Describe various personalities contributed to the Italian unification
Explain the characteristics of Italian unification
Identify the obstacles to the Italian unification
State the process and completion of the Italian unification
Italy in 18151:
The failure of the 1848 revolution in Italy restored the pre-1848 situation with Austria as
the dominant power in Italy. The two rich northern provinces of Lombardy and Venetia were
part of the Austrian Empire and Austrian influence was predominant in the rest of the Italian
peninsula except in the state of Piedmont. In northern and central Italy there were duchies of
Parma, Modena and Tuscany. These were petty states whose rulers were puppet of Austria and
who only maintained their despotisms with Austrian support.
Right across Italy there were the Papal States which consisted of the provinces of Romagna, the
Marches, Umbria and patrimony of St. Peter. The papal head (Pope) had dual works: as head of
the Church all over the world and was also an absolute monarchy.
The Pope at the time of Italian unification was Pius IX (1846-78). Under him, papal rule in the
Papal States was inefficient, reactionary, despotism and in the middle of the 19 th century the
Pope and the Catholic Church stood for extreme social and intellectual reaction as well. Since
1849, Papal authority in Rome had been upheld by French garrison.Napoleon III, maintained
French troops in Rome to please French Catholics and to show Austria that France also had
interest in Italy.
In the south the kingdom of Naples consisted of the southern mainland of Italy and island
of Sicily. The king of Naples was the alley and puppet of Austria. In Sicily there was strong
secret feeling against the rule from the mainland.
The northwest of Italy and the Island of Sardinia formed the kingdom of Piedmont. The king of
Piedmont, Charles Albert on his defeat by Austria in 1848-49 war, abdicated in favor of his son
Victor Emmanuel II (1849-1878). Victor Emmanuel did not reject the constitution. Piedmont
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was the only constitutional state in Italy and there was a fairly free press. Moreover, Victor
Emmanuel was not an Austrian puppet. He still supported the Italian cause, though he could not
do anything for it in Italy.
Italian liberals and nationalist looked towards Piedmont for leadership and were willing
to accept union with Piedmont under the constitutional monarchy of Victor Emmanuel II. Italian
exiles from all over Italy moved to Piedmont after 1848 and Piedmont did become headquarter
of the Italian national movement.
Before 1848, many Italian nationalists were followers of Mazzini (1805-72). Mazzini
wanted a united Italy liberated from Austria as a bourgeois Democratic republic. Mazzini had
established the young Italian society to achieve this program and in the 1830s and 1840s, these
societies had done much to inspire Italian youth with belief in the national cause. However, in
the 1850s the influence of Mazzini became weaker. This was mainly because Italian nationalist
only union of Piedmont under Victor Emmanuel offered a real chance for the practical
achievement of Italian unification.
What were obstacles to Italian unification?
The major obstacles to the Italian unification and liberation were the power of Austria, the
opposition of the Italian rulers except the kingdom of Piedmont and the influence of the Pope
and the Catholic Church. Of these obstacles the power of Austria was the most important. The
Italian rulers were only puppets of Austria and would be collapsed if Austrian power would
collapse.
As regards the pope and the Catholic Churches although the majority of Italians were
practicing Catholics, Italian nationalist who were Catholics were willing to disobey the Pope and
the Catholic Church over the national issue. Therefore, the opposition of the pope and the
Catholic Church to the national unification was not effective. Moreover, the long centuries of
political divisions in Italy had produced cultural divisions. The Italians felt more loyalty to their
city or province than to the concept of Italy. Moreover, the spoken dialects of the Italian people
were mutually incomprehensible (did not understand).
Which parts favored the unification?
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The bourgeoisie of the towns especially in the north and the mass of the urban working
people supported Italian liberation and unification. Many of the patriotic and liberal landowners
of the north also supported the nation cause. On the other hand most of the peasants who formed
the majority of the Italian people were indifferent to the national which they did not even
understand.
The character of Italian Unification
Italian unification was achieved partly from above, that is by the action of the state of Piedmont
through diplomacy and war. It was also achieved partly from below, that is by popular
movement of the people themselves. However, the government of Piedmont and the ruling
classes were able to exploit and control such popular movements for their own purposes. The
absence of a modern international proletariat in Italy in the mid 19th century meant that the Italian
bourgeoisie did not fear popular movements and popular risings in the work of population.
Cavour and his Policies up to 1859:
The main architect of Italian unification from above was Cavour (1810-61) who was a
younger son of a landowning noble family of Piedmont. In 1852 he become prime minister of
Piedmont and retained this position except for a short brake in 1859 until his death in 1861. His
aim was to unite Italy as a parliamentary constitutional monarchy under Victor Emmanuel and to
make Italy a liberal capitalist state like Britain or Belgium. As prime he prepared piedmont for
leadership in the task of unification. A great deal of money also spent on strengthening the army
in preparation for war against Austria.
In foreign policy, Cavour’s aim was to find an ally for Piedmont against Austria because
Piedmont was not able to fight Austria by herself. In 1855, Piedmont entered the Crimean war on
the side of Britain and France hoping that this would earn the gratitude of Britain and France and
that they would do something for Italy. Cavour used the peace conference of 1856 as a forum for
criticizing Austria but Piedmont gained nothing concrete from the treaty of Paris.
The chief importance of the Crimean war for Italy was that it destroyed the Holy Alliance and
isolated Austria and therefore made Italian unification possible. Cavour felt that France was the
most likely ally for Piedmont because Napoleon III like Cavour wanted to over throw the status-
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quo of Vienna settlement. Cavour therefore worked hard to achieve an alliance with France and
in 1858 Cavour and Napoleon III reached to an agreement.
Cavour was to provoke an Austrian attack against Piedmont. Napoleon III would then declare
war on Austria in defense of Piedmont. France and Piedmont would continue the war until
Austria had been completely expelled from Italy. Piedmont was to get Lombardy and Venetia.
Napoleon III was to get Savoy and Nice (These were two parts of Piedmont which would be
ceded to France as a reward for her help against Austria. Cavour did not want to cede Piedmont
on his territory; but he knew this was a price for French help against Austria. Also there were
historical and cultural grounds for French claims to Savoy and Nice.
Napoleon III also wanted to replace Austrian influence in Italy by French influence. Moreover,
Napoleon III believed that nationalism was the most important dynamic of modern history and
that its success was inevitable.
Napoleon III’s policy towards Italian nationalism was of course contradictory. On one
hand, he was willing to help the Italian national cause in northern Italy. On the other hand,
French troops in Rome were keeping Rome from unification with the rest of Italy.
Finally,Napoleon wanted to win military glory for himself and France by leading a French army
to victory in northern Italy.
The Franco-Austrian war of 1859
In April 1859, Cavour provoked to declaring war on Piedmont. France then enters the
war in support of Piedmont. Napoleon III in person led a French army over the Alps to northern
Italy and joined up with the army of Piedmont. Austria was then defeated by the Franco-
Piedmonts army at two battles in June 1859; the battle of Magenta and Solferino. The Austrians
were driven out of Lombardy but still retained Venetia.
Napoleon III then decided to end the war on the basis of compromise without driving the
Austrians completely out of Italy. Without informing Victor Emmanuel or Cavour, he met Franz
Joseph at Vellafranca in July 1859 and signed a peace agreement. Piedmont was to get
Lombardy. But Austria was to keep Venetia. Napoleon III’s motives for ending the war was that
he realized that to drive Austria out of Venetia would mean a hard& bloody struggle which he
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might not win and continuing the war might cause political problems in France and international
complexity as well.
When Cavour and Victor Emmanuel discovered the agreement that the Napoleon III
made to end the war, they protested but there was nothing could do because Piedmont could not
continued the war alone. However, the government of Piedmont did tellNapoleon III that he
could not get Nice and Savoy because he had not carried out the agreement made at Plombieries.
The Revolt in Duchies and the Romagna and their Unification with Piedmont
As a result of Franco-Austrian war and news of the Austrian defeat at Magenta revolts
broke out in the Duchies of Parma, Modena and Tuscany and in papal provinces of the Romagna.
The governments in these territories were overthrown and provincial government were setup
under bourgeoisies’ liberal nationalist leadership. The provincial governments were in close
touch with Cavour and demanded union with Piedmont; whether the union with Piedmont was
possible or not depended very largely on the attitude ofNapoleon III. He could accept union or
join with Austria in blocking it. Cavour helpedNapoleon III to decide in favor of the union by
suggesting a new agreement between Piedmont andNapoleon III. IfNapoleon III supported the
union of Parma, Modena, Tuscany and the Romagna with Piedmont then Piedmont would cede
Savoy and Nice to France Plebiscites were held in all the territories. Following this Plebiscites
Parma, Modena, Tuscany and Romagna were united with Piedmont and Nice and Savoy were
ceded to France in March 1860.
Garibaldi and the Unification of Italy
The main leader of Italian unification from below was Garibaldi (1807-82). In 1860
garibaldi had already made a great reputation for himself as a patriot and as a leader in guerrilla
type warfare in South America and with Mazzini in the defense of the Roman republic in 1849.
In April 1860, there was a rising in Sicily against the king of Naples. The Sicilians invited
garibaldi to come and help them and take over the leadership of the rising which he agreed to do.
Garibaldi collected about 11,000 volunteers in Northern Italy, the “famous Thousands” and took
them to Sicily by Sea. Later, more volunteers came to join garibaldi until in the end he had
between 20,000 and 30,000 men. But he started his campaign with only about 11,000 ill-armed
volunteers.
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Cavour’s attitude to the expedition was hostile. He thought the expedition was a reckless
adventure which dangerous and failure would arm the national cause. Moreover although
garibaldi was fighting under the slogan “Italy and Victor Emmanuel”, Cavour distrusted
garibaldi’s democratic and republican background as former followers of Mazzini. However,
public opinion in Piedmont made it impossible for Cavour to stop garibaldi’s expedition. Cavour
therefore let him to go to Sicily. Cavour would take a fruits of victory if Garibaldi was
successful, but repudiate him if he fails.
When Garibaldi landed in Sicily in May 1860, the insurrection had almost collapsed. Garibaldi
succeeded in rousing the people defeating the forces of the king of Naples and liberating Sicily in
about three months. Garibaldi proclaimed a temporary dictatorship under himself.
Garibaldi’s success in Italy was partly owing to his own attractive and magnetic personality and
his great abilities as a commander in guerrilla type warfare. However, the main reason for his
success was the mass support he got from the peoples of Sicily. He got this support because the
government of the kingdom of Naples was extremely unpopular and autonomist feelings were
strong in Sicily among all classes.
Moreover, the ordinary people’s of Sicily who were mostly peasants believed that garibaldi
would give them freedom from oppression and give them land for this reason the peasants of
Sicily supported garibaldi and this mass support enabled him to defeat the Neapolitan
government.
Garibaldi encouraged the peasants to support him by announcing as soon as he arrived in
Sicily the abolition of some taxes and that grants of land would be given to the poor who join his
forces. In Sicily there was soon the beginning of incipient social revolution. Peasants began to
assassinate landlords and rich and seized the Latifundia(large states ) and divide the land among
themselves.
Garibaldi suppressed this incipient social revolution by force using his northern volunteers. He
himself believed in democracy and he was afraid of favor of land reform that violent risings
would isolate property owners in Italy from the national cause and would also harm the case of
Italy internationally. The social orders in Sicily in fact helped to promote the union of Sicily with
Piedmont. Although the propertied classes in Sicily favored Sicilian autonomy, they were so
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frightened by the incipient social revolution that they demanded union with Piedmont as quickly
as possible. Even though this meant no autonomy for Sicily the bourgeoisie and the land lords of
Sicily wanted northern officials , policemen and soldiers in Sicily as quickly as possible to
protect them from social revolution. This was more important to the Sicilian landlords and
bourgeoisie than autonomy.
Following his victory in Sicily, Garibaldi and his army crossed to the mainland and
advanced rapidly up the Italian forces of the king of Naples. But the forces still loyal to the king
made a stand and Garibaldi could not advance any further. Following garibaldi’s success in
Sicily and Southern Italy, Cavour and Victor Emmanuel decided to intervene with the army of
Piedmont. Victor Emmanuel led his army himself through the Papal States occupying some
provinces but avoiding Rome and the patrimony of St. Peter which was still being defended by
French troops.
The army of Piedmont then invaded the northern part of the kingdom of Naples and the
linked up with Garibaldi’s army outside Naples. Garibaldi resigned his temporary dictatorship
and hailed over the territories he had liberated to Victor Emmanuel. Garibaldi then retired into
private life refusing any rewards. The advance of the army of Piedmont into south made some
risks of Austrian intervention against Piedmont but Cavour had correctly calculated that France
would not allowed Austria, to attack and defeat Piedmont and Austria did not in fact attempt to
do this. Cavour also correctly calculated thatNapoleon III would allow Piedmont to take over the
papal territory as long as Piedmont did not touch Rome or the patrimony: Plebiscites were held
in the liberated territories and following these Plebiscites they were joined with Piedmont. The
name of the kingdom of Piedmont was changed to the kingdom of Italy. In March 1861, Victor
Emmanuel took the new title Victor Emmanuel II king of Italy. In June 1861, Cavour dies
suddenly, which was great loss to the new kingdom of Italy.
The Completion of Italian Unification: Venetia and Rome Patrimony

Italian unification was completed from above when Italy took advantage of external events to
obtain first Venetia and then Rome and the patrimony.
How Venetia was restored to Italy?
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1. Venetia: In early 1866, the Austrio-Prussian war was approaching, a contest for supremacy in
Germany. In April 1866, Italy allied herself with Prussia, because Bismarck promised that if
Italy supported Prussia against Austria, Italy would get Venetia at the end of the war. In the war
of 1866, the Italian army was defeated and the Italian navy also defeated. However, the Prussian
victory over Austria forced Austria to make peace with Prussia and Italy and by the peace
settlement Italy got Venetia as previously promised.
2. Rome and the patrimony: The Franco-Prussia was the last of the war of German unification
broke out in July 1870.Napoleon III withdrew all French troops from Rome in August 1870
because they were needed for the war against Prussia.
On September 2, 1870Napoleon III was defeated by Prussian at the battle of Sedan. On
September 4, 1870 a popular rising in Paris overthrew Napoleon III’s regime and established a
republic. The new French republic was not interested in helping the pope and in any case needed
all its forces to fight Prussia. The Italian government therefore sent its army into the patrimony
of St. Peter and on September 20, 1870 Italian troops took Rome. Rome was then made the
capital of the kingdom of Italy.
2.1. The Irredenta: - For much Italian nationalist Italian unification had not been completed even
with the taking of Rome in 1870.This was because large numbers of Italians still lived under
Austrian rule. Italian nationalist called this Austrian territory inhabited by Italians the Irredenta.
They claimed the city of Trieste for Italy, the province of Istria and other territory as well even
though the ethnic grounds for these claims were not very good.
1.6. German Unification

Dear colleague! In this section you will learn about unification of Germany. In these section
major topics covered are the steps in the unification of Germany, Bismarck’s aims and policy
and wars of German unification.
Objectives:
After the completion of this section you will be able to:
Describe the steps that was followed in German unification
Analyze Bismarck’s aims and policy
Explain the character of German unification
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1.6.1. Character of German unification

The German bourgeoisie wanted unity for reasons of national sentiment supported by
reasons of economic self interest .The success of Italian unification in 1859-61 and in 1866
stimulated German aspiration for unity.
The bourgeoisie had failed to achieve a united liberal Germany in 1848-1849. A united Germany
was achieved for the bourgeoisie from above by the action of the Prussian state under the
direction of Bismarck (1864-71). Bismarck created a united Germany dominated by Prussia. He
carried out unification in such a way that the power of the monarchy the army and the Junker
ruling class was maintained in Prussia and extended over the rest of Germany. Bismarck gave
Germany unity. He also created a united Germany but not a liberal Germany.
1.6.2. The Constitutional Crisis in Prussia and Bismarck’s appointment as chief minister of
Prussia in 1862
In 1861, William I became King of Prussia. William was a professional soldier whose
main interest was the army and he wanted to strengthen the Prussian army. The king and his war
minister, Von Roon prepared a program of army reform to strengthen the Prussian army.
Moreover, William was no longer satisfied that Prussia should take second place in Germany to
Austria. He wanted Prussia to have at least equality with Austria in Germany and Prussian
predominance in north Germany. To achieve this strong army was required.
The reform put forward by William and Von Roon were a big increase in the size in the Prussian
army and the number of army unites, the re-introduction of universal conscription so that all
young men had to do three years of military service and an increase in the regular, long service
cadres of non commissioned officers.
The proposed army reforms resulted in the constitutional crises between king and
Prussian parliament. To pay for the reforms new taxation were required and parliament refused
to accept the new taxes. The Prussian parliament had an objection to a strong army because it
realized that a strong army was necessary if Prussia was to take lead in German unification. The
controversy was over the character of the army and control over the army. The crisis reached a
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deadlock. The king would not modify his army reforms and parliament therefore would not
accept the new taxation to pay for the army reforms.
The king then appointed Bismarck as a chief of Prussia to overcome the crisis with the victory
for the king. Bismarck, a Junker who had proved his conservation and his ability since 1848.
Bismarck’s loyalties were to the king, to Prussia, to his own Junker class and to himself.
Bismarck’s cared much more about Prussia than he did about Germany, but he was willing to
exploit German nationalism for Prussia and Prussian conservatism.
In 1862, William I appointed Bismarck as chief minister of Prussia. Bismarck soon achieved
dominating influence over the king and continued to direct foreign and domestic policy
until1890. Bismarck solved the constitutional crisis by simply ignoring parliament and collecting
new taxes without parliament’s approval. Parliament protested but it was only verbal. The new
taxation was therefore collected and was used to implement the army reforms. Prussian army
made the most efficient in Europe and it was the Prussian army which was the instrument of
German unification.
1.6.3. Bismarck’s aims and his Policy (1862-1864)

Bismarck’s intention from the beginning was to unite Germany according to the Little
German plan under hegemony of Prussia. He knew that this would mean war against Austria
because Austria would not give up her supremacy in Germany without fighting. German
unification would also probably mean was against France because traditional French policy was
to keep Germany divided and therefore weak. Bismarck knew that he could not succeed in these
aims without Russian good will and the certainty of Russian neutrality in any war of German
unification. In 1863, the revolt in Russian Poland gave Bismarck an opportunity of willing
Russian friendship. Russia crushed the polish revolt in 1863. As a result Napoleon III lost the
goodwill of Russia which he had enjoyed since the end of the Crimean war. The only great
power to adopt a policy favor to Russia over Poland was Prussia. Prussia had a common interest
with Russia in suppressing the Polish revolt. Therefore Bismarck wanted to win Alexander II’s
(Russian Tsar) good will for Prussia in the forthcoming struggle for German unification.
Bismarck’s policy was successful. The good understanding which had previously existed
between Russia and France was replaced by a good understanding between Prussia and Russia
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which lasted until 1871. In all wars of German unification Russia maintained friendly neutrality
towards Prussia. Russian neutrality also resulted from Russia’s own internal problems in the
period of German unification. The Russian government did not want to get involved in a serious
of war in Europe during this period, but preferred to stay neutral. Moreover, as regards Austria,
Alexander II was happy to see Austria weakened by defeat because of Austro-Prussian rivalry in
the Balkans.
1.6.4. The First war of German Unification

Bismarck was preparing for the war against Austria. However, before this took place
events pushed Bismarck into fighting of war against Denmark. Prussia and Austria were in fact
allies for a moment in this war.
The war came as the result of a dispute over the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Schleswig
and Holstein are the two duchies ruled by the king of Denmark but were not part of Denmark
itself. The population of Holstein was entirely German and that of Schleswig was a mixture of
Germans and Danes. In 1863, the new king of Denmark who had just succeeded to the throne
Christian IX tried to change the administration of the duchies and to annex Schleswig to
Denmark. This roused strong nation feeling in Germany.
The Diet of the German Bund decided to go to war against Denmark to assert German’s claims
to the duchies. At this point Prussia and Austria, the two leading German states took over the
dispute from the Bund. Prussia and Austria declared war on Denmark. Neither Austria nor
Prussia could allow the other to act alone over a German issue and therefore Prussia and Austria
for the moment and fight against Denmark. The alliances of Prussia and Austria made it much
less liking that any other power would try to intervene in the dispute over the duchies and in fact
no other state intervened to help Denmark. Denmark fought alone a small state against two great
powers and defeated in a few weeks in a weeks in 1864.
By the treaty of Vienna (1864) which ended the war the king of Denmark ceded all his
rights in Schleswig and Holstein to Prussia and Austria. Prussia and Austria agreed to joint
control of the duchies between themselves. The joint administration by Prussia and Austria was
certain to cause friction his as satisfactory for Bismarck because such friction would give him a
pretext for war against Austria.
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1.6.5. The Second War of German Unification (Austro-Prussian war of 1866)

By 1866, Bismarck was ready for war against Austria and had ensured that the war would
take place under the most favorable condition for Prussia under Austria isolated. The war was
fought quite simply over who was to have supremacy over Germany, Prussia or Austria there
was no other issue.
Russia was friendly to Prussia and antagonistic to Austria and would remain neutral.
Britain was not interested in the war in central Europe between Prussia and Austria. The chief
problem for Bismarck before the war was the attitude of France because the traditional policy of
France was to keep Germany divided and therefore weak. Any war fought on supremacy over
Germany therefore, involved French neutrality. However, Napoleon III decided to remain neutral
in the coming war between Prussia and Austria.
Napoleon III believed in the Principle of neutrality and therefore thought that some kind of
German unification was inevitable as in the case of Italy. This German unification Napoleon III
thought would be acceptable in France if France herself got territorial compensation to maintain
the balance of power and to satisfy public opinion in France. But nothing was definite or agreed.
Napoleon III’s decision for neutrality was also probably because he underestimated the strength
of Prussian army and believed that a war between Prussia and Austria would be indecisive or
even that Austria would win.
Bismarck also prepared for war against Austria by making an alliance with Italy in April
1866. The bases of the alliance were that if Italy participated in the war on the side of Prussia, at
the end of the war Italy would get Venetia. This alliance had the important effect of making
Austria divide her army because she had to fight against Prussia and Italy at the same time.
Bismarck successfully provoked crisis of Austria over Schleswig and Holstein, but the real cause
of the war was future of Germany. The war began in June 1866 and involved all the states of the
Bund. Some states, the smaller north German states supported Prussia. But the majority of the
German states supported Austria. This was because their rulers wanted to keep their
independence feared Prussia’s ambition and thought an Austrian victory was less dangerous for
their independence than a Prussian victory.
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The Austro-Prussian war was over in seven weeks. The war was decided by the Prussian
victory over the Austrian army at the battle of Sadowa also called Konjggratz on July 3, 1866.
The Prussian victory was owing to earlier Prussian army reforms, ability of the Prussian general
Von Moltke and the efficiency of the general staff of the Prussian army.
After the battle of Sadowa Franz Joseph decided to make peace by accepting Prussia’s terms and
peace was finalized by the treaty of Prague in August 1866. The outcome of the war of 1866 was
as follows:
i) Prussia annexed Schleswig and Holstein
ii) Prussia also annexed the territory of some of the north German states
iii) A new organization of the north German states was created by Bismarck in 1867
iV) The old Bund was dissolved and in its place a new North German Confederation to which all
north states belonged was established. It was dominated by Prussia.
V) Austria was excluded from the organization of Germany.
The south German States however were not annexed by Prussia. Bismarck also did not annex
any Austrian territory for Prussia. The only territory which Austria lost was Venetia to Italy. The
main reason for Bismarck does not annex south German states and any Austrian territory was
desired to end the war quickly before possible French intervention against Prussia. Moreover
Bismarck believed that it was in Prussia’s own interest that Austria should continue to exist as a
powerful state in central Europe.
1.6.6. The Third War of German Unification (Franco-Prussian war 1870-71) and the
completion of German Unification
Bismarck deliberately provoked the Franco-Prussian war in 1870. His purpose in doing
this was to complete German unification by bringing in the south German states.
Although Napoleon III had earlier believe that German unification was not contrary to the
French interests , he had been severely criticized in France for allowing the Prussian victory over
Austria , Prussia’s big increase in territory and the establishment of the North German
confederation. Napoleon III therefore, made it clear that France would resist further German
unification if necessary by force, France therefore became an obstacle to the completion of
German unification and an obstacle which could only removed by the war.
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Moreover Bismarck thought that war itself could be the direct means of completing
German unification. The south German rulers wanted to keep their independence. This and the
cultural difference between north and south Germans would make unification by agreement
difficult under normal circumstances. However, a war against the traditional enemy (France)
would rouse tremendous national enthusiasm all over German. In the south as in the north
victory over the France would create an irresistible demand from the south German people for
union with the north which the south German rulers would have to accept.
The Franco-Prussian war was brought about by Bismarck as a result of the crisis arising
from the Hohenzollern candidature to the Spanish throne in July 1870. This was a crisis which
Bismarck himself had provoked. The outcome of the crisis over the Hohenzollern candidature
was that France declared war on Prussia on 19 July 1870. France thus appears to be the aggressor
in the eyes of Europe and in the eyes of Germans. Though in fact it had been Bismarck’s
maneuvers which had provoked war, in Germany a wave of patriotic enthusiasm swept the north
and the south. Germans felt that for Germany it was a war of self-defense against the traditional
enemy, France and against French expansionist ambitions in the Rhineland. The south German
states allied with the North German confederation and joined the war against France.
In France, on the other hand there was little enthusiasm for the war. The French working class
opposed the war. Some of the bourgeoisie opposed the war and there was little support for the
war in the provinces. Moreover, France was isolated without ally; Russia was still friendly to
Prussia and unfriendly to France and stayed neutral. Italy also stays neutral. Italy would never
help France while French troops were holding Rome and Italians still remembered the loss of
Nice and Savoy.
Britain in fact asked both sides, France and Prussia to respect the neutrality of Belgium in
the war and when both sides agreed to do this Britain stayed neutral in the war. France hoped
that Austria would join France against Prussia to revenge the defect of 1866 and regain Austria’s
position in Germany. However, Austria stayed neutral. Franz Joseph decided to wait and see if
France was going to win. In fact France suffered defeats from the very beginning of the war and
Franz Joseph therefore stayed neutral. This neutrality made that Franz Joseph finally accepted
Austria’s exclusion from Germany and Prussian supremacy over Germany.
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In spite of Napoleon III’s attempts to strength the French army after 1866 the French army in
1870 was still greatly inferior to the German armies. The morale of some of the French troops
was poor. Since 1866 the German armies had been completely re-equipped with steel, breech-
loading cannon which could fire further and faster than the French cannon. In the Franco-
Prussian war artillery was the decisive one.
The decisive battle of the Franco-Prussian war was the battle of Sedan, 2 September
1870. In this battle 20,000 of the French soldiers were killed and whole the rest of the army
which Napoleon III was leading 84,000 of the soldiers were taken prisoners including Napoleon
III himself. At the news of Sedan Napoleon III’s regime was overthrown by popular rising in
Paris on 4 September 1870 and a republic was proclaimed in Paris. The new French republic
tried to continue war, which for France was now definitely a war of defense but German forces
occupied large areas of northern France, besieged Paris and defeated all the attempts to break
besiege.
In January 1871, while the war was still in progress German unification was completed under
pressure from their people and their armies. The rulers of the south German states had to agree
the unity with Northern German Confederation. The North German confederation in fact
disappeared and the south and north Germany came together in a new political entity called the
German Empire. William I the King of Prussia become also William I, the Emperor of Germany.
On January 18, 1871, the German Empire and William I as the German Emperor were
proclaimed at a ceremony in the hall of mirrors in the Palace of Versailles. Versailles was the
headquarters of the German army besieged Paris.
A few days later, the French government capitulated and signed up an armistice with a
new German Empire. Peace was finalized by the Treaty of Frankfurt on May 10, 1871 on
terms dictated by Bismarck. The peace terms were very severe for France. France lost the whole
of the provinces of Alsace. France had to pay an indemnity to Germany of 5 billion francs. Large
parts of northern and eastern France were to be occupied by German troops until the indemnity
had been paid. In fact, the French paid very quickly. Payment was completed and German troops
withdrawn from France in 1873.
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Alsace and Lorrain were annexed partly for military reasons to give Germany a strong frontier.
There were also economic reasons. Alsace had important textile industries and Lorrain had
important deposits of iron ore. There was also pressure of annexation from German nationalism.
A relation between the German Empire and France was therefore always basically hostile and the
annexation over Alsace and Lorrain provided the seeds (origins) of the WWI.
Summary
Nationalism is the feeling of loyalty to a group or nation. There are /were different types
of nationalities like independent nationality, subject nationality and extreme nationality or
chauvinism. A nationality has common lies or bonds, which link them together. The common
ties can be either of them or all of them, i.e. language, religion, common cultural background and
interest and common territory.
Nationalism or sprit of nationalism is for different purposes. That will be for democracy,
dictatorship, imperialism, anti-imperialism, national unification on disruption of empires.
The idea and feeling of nationalism was developed to the level of forming a nation state like in
Germany and Italy. The Germans formed their own state, Germany by bringing to get her
different small German states under the leadership of few men with different responsibilities.
The same was true to Italy.
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Checklist
Put () of you have understood about!
A) Quadruple Alliance ………………………………………………………
B) Quintuple Alliance……………………………………………………..….
C) Holly Alliances…………………………………………………………….
D) The Congress of Vienna……………………………………………………
E) Papal States…………………………………………………………………
F) Mazzini………………………………………………………………………
G) Cavour ……………………………………………………………………….
H) Garibaldi………………………………………………………………………
I) Victor Emmanuel………………………………………………………………
J) Young Italy Society…………………………………………………………...
K) “Famous Thousands”……………………………………………………….. 
L) Irredenta……………………………………………………………………....
M) Napoleon III……………………………………………………………….…
N) Method from above………………………………………………………..…..
O) “Blood and Iron”……………………………………………………………....
P) Hohenzollern dynasty…………………………………..……………………...
Q) Diet……………………………………………………….............................
R) North German Confederation………………………………………………...
S) Junker…………………………………………………………………………
T) Sadowa ……………………………………………………………………….
U) Sedan…………………………………………………………………………..
V) Bund…………………………………………………………………………….
W) New German Empire………………………………………………………..…
X) The French Provisional government………………………………………..….
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Self Test exercise

Part I: Matching
Direction: Match the Items under Column “a” with those under “B”
____1.Mazzini a) prime minister of Italy
____2.Garibaldi b) King of united Italy
_____3.Sedan c) a place at which the Franco-Prussian war took place
____4.Victor Emmanuel II d) Sword of unification of Italy
____5.Cavour e) Young Italy movement
____6.Ceded to France f) Savoy and Nice
_____7.Large estate g)Latifundia
_____8.restored to Italy in 1870 h) Venetia
____9.restored to Italy in 1866 i) Rome
_____10.Lombardy
_____11.Otto Von Bismarck j) battle of Magenta and Solferino
K) Prussian chief of Staff
_____12.Moltoke L) A place at which the Franco-Prussian war
Ended
_____13.Sedan M) King of Prussia
_____14.William I N) Cause of the Danish war of 1864
____15).Schleswig and Holstein O) Chancellor of united Germany
Part II: Choices

Choose the best answer from the given alternatives!!
____1.Which Italian state took the leading position in the movement for unification?
A) The papal state B) Piedmont Sardinia
C) The Duchies D) Naples E)Sicily
_____2.Which of the following is a promoting factor for the Italy?
A) Austria B) The Italian rulers with the exception of Piedmont
C) The bourgeoisie of the towns D) The Catholic Church E) All
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____3.Venetia was restored to Italy as a result of:-

A) Ausrio-Prussian war of 1866
B) Franco-Prussian war of 1870
C) The Danish war of 1870
D) None of the above
____4.Rome was restored to Italy in ______and became the capital of the united Italy.
A) 1870 B) 1871 C) 1859 D) 1866 E) 1864
_____5.Which one of the following is termed as the “Sword of the Italian unification?”
A) Garibaldi B) Mazzini C) Cavour D) Victor Emmanuel
_____6.The reason for Garibaldi’s success in Sicily was:
A) owing to his own attractive and magnetic personality
B) Mass support he got from the peoples of Sicily
C) Peasants believed that Garibaldi would give them freedom from oppression
D)”A” and “B” E) all of the above
____7.Which one of the following is hindering factor to the German unification?
A. Differences among the German troops B. Reaction from Austria C. Opposition of
German states D. All of the above
______8.The Unification of Germany was achieved by:
A. “Blood and iron” B. Frankfurt Assembly
B. External Invasion D. Religious wars
_______9.How Germans solved the problem of Austrian influence during the movement for
unification?
A. By arbitration B. By the war with Austria
C. By the war with Denmark C. “B” and “C”
_____10.The two provinces over which Denmark and Prussia quarreled were:
A. Savoy and Nice B. Alsace and Lorrain
B. Parma and Modena D. Schleswig and Holstein
_____11.Which one of the following was not the result of the Austrio-Prussian war of 1866?
A. Venetia was restored to Italy B. Austria-Hungary was formed
C. The north German confederation was set up D. The Old Bund was dissolved
E. none of the above
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UNIT TWO
2. EASTER EUROPE, 1815-1914
Introduction
Dear Colleagues! Welcome to this chapter in which you are going to learn about the
Eastern Europe from 1815-1945. Under the Chapter you will learn about the reforms and
reaction in Russia, Russia’s social structure, its ruling system and its impacts on social and
economic activities of the People. The Unit will also deal with the Austro-Hungary, the Decline
of Hapsburg Empire, and formation of the Dual Monarchy. Hence, read carefully and try to
understand the content of the unit efficiently!
Eastern Europe is defined as that part of the continent which lies east of the German and Italian
Speaking people and west of what were/are the borders of Russia/Soviet U n i o n .
Objectives:
At the end the unit you will be able to:
* Explain the Russia’s social structures
*List some of the reforms of Alexander II
* Discuss about the “Bloody Sunday”
* Elaborate Russification program
2.1. Russia: Reform and Reaction

By 1815, Russia was not only the largest, most populous nation in Europe but also a great
world power. Since the 1600, explorers had pushed the Russian frontier eastward across Siberia
to the pacific. Peter the Great and Catherine the great had added lands on the Baltic and Black
Seas, and Tsars in the 1800s had expanded in to central Asia. Russia had thus acquired a huge
multinational Empire, part Europe and part Asian.
Other European nations looked on the Russian colossus, or giant, with a mixture of wonder and
misgivings. Russia had immense natural resources. Its vast size gave it global interests and
influences. But Western Europeans disliked its autocratic government and feared its expansionist
aims. Despite efforts by Peter and Catherine to Westernize Russia, it remained economically
Page 44
undeveloped. By the 1800s, tsars saw the need to modernize but resisted reforms that would
undermine their absolute rule.
A) Russia’s Social Structure
A great obstacle to progress was the rigid social structure. Landowning nobles dominated
society and rejected any change that would threaten their privileges. The middle class was too
small to have much influence. The majority of Russians were serfs or laborers bound to the land
and to masters who controlled their fates.
Most serfs were peasants others were servants, artisans or soldiers forced into the tsar’s
army. As industry expanded, some masters sent serfs to work in factories but took much of their
pay. Many enlightened Russians knew that serfdom was inefficient. As long as most people had
to serve the whim of their masters, Russia’s economy would remain backward. However,
landowning nobles had no reason to improve agriculture and took little interest in industry.
For many centuries tsars had ruled with absolute power; imposing their will on their subjects. On
occasion, the Tsars made limited attempts at liberal reform such as easing censorship or making
legal and economic reforms to improve the lives of serfs. However, in each instance the tsars
drew back from their reforms when they began to fear losing the support of nobles. In short, the
liberal and nationalist changes brought about by the enlightenment and the French revolution had
almost no effect on Russian autocracy.
B) Emancipation and Stirrings of revolution
Alexander II came to power in 1855 during the Crimean war. His reign represents the
pattern of reform and repression used by his father and grandfather, Alexander I and Nicholas I.
The Crimean war had broken out after Russia tried to seize Ottoman lands along the Danube
River. Britain and France stepped in to help the Ottoman Turks, invading the Crimean Peninsula
that juts into the black Sea. The war which ended in a Russian defeat revealed the Country’s
backwardness. Russia had only a few miles of railroads and the military bureaucracy was
hopelessly inefficient. Many felt that dramatic changes were needed.
A widespread popular reaction followed. Liberals demanded changes and students
demonstrated seeking reform. Pressed from all sides, Alexander II finally agreed to reforms. In
1861, he issued the royal decree that required emancipation or freeing of the serfs.
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Freedom brought problems. Former serfs had to buy the land they had worked, but many were
too poor to do so. Also the lands allotted to peasants were often too small to farm efficiently or to
support a family. Peasants remained poor and discontent festered.
Still emancipation was a turning point. Many peasants moved to the cities, taking jobs in
factories. Equally important freeing the serfs boosted the drive for further reform.
Along with emancipation, Alexander II set up a system of local government. Elected assemblies
called Zemstvos were made responsible for matters such as road repair, schools and agriculture.
Through this system, Russians gained some experience of self- governments at the local level.
The tsars also introduced legal reforms based on ideas like trial by jury, and he eased censorship.
Military service terms were reduced and brutal discipline was limited. Alexander also
encouraged the growth of industry in Russia which still relied heavily on agriculture.
Alexander’s reforms failed to satisfy many Russians. Peasants had freedom but not land.
Liberals wanted a constitution and an elected legislation. Radicals who had adopted socialist
ideas from the west demanded even more revolutionary changes. The tsar meantime moved away
from reform and toward repression. In the 1870s, some socialists went to live and work among
peasants, preaching reform and rebellion. They had little success. The peasants scarcely
understood them and sometimes turned them over to the police. The failure of this movement
combined with renewed government repression, sparked anger among radicals. Some turned to
terrorism. On March 13, 1883, terrorists assassinated Alexander II.
Alexander III responded to his father’s assassination by reviving the harsh methods of
Nicholas I. To wipe out liberals and revolutionaries, he increased the power of the secret police,
restored strict censorship and exiled critics to Siberia. The tsar also launched a program of
Russification aimed at suppressing the cultures of non-Russian peoples within the Empire.
Alexander insisted on one language, Russian, and one Church (The Russian Orthodox Church).
Poles, Ukrainians, Finns, Armenians, Muslims, Jews and many others suffered persecution.
Russia had acquired a large Jewish population when it carved up Poland and expanded into
Ukraine. Under Alexander III, persecution of the Jewish people in Russia increased. The Tsar
limited the number of Jewish people who were allowed to study in universities and practice
certain professions. He also forced them to live in restricted areas.
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Official persecution encouraged programs or violent mob attacks on Jewish people. Gangs beat
and killed Jewish people and looted and burned their homes and stores. Saved with savage
persecution, many left Russia. They became refugees or people who flee their homeland to seek
safety elsewhere. Large numbers of Russian Jews went to the United States.
C) The Drive to Industrialization

Russia finally entered the industrial age under Alexander III and his son Nicholas II. In
the 1890s, Nicholas’ government focused on economic development. It encouraged the building
of railroads to connect iron and coal mines with factories and to transport goods across Russia. It
also secured foreign capital to invest in industry and transportation systems such as the Trans-
Siberian Railroad, which linked European Russia to the Pacific Ocean.
Political and social problems increased as a result of industrialization. Government
officials and business leaders applauded economic growth. Nobles and peasants opposed it,
fearing the changes it brought. Industrialization also created new social ills as peasants flocked to
cities to work in factories. Instead of a better life, they found long hours and low pay in
dangerous conditions. In the slums around the factories, poverty, diseases and discontent
multiplied. Radicals sought supporters among the new industrial workers. At factory gates
Socialists often handed out pamphlets that preached the revolutionary ideas of Karl Marx.
D) Crisis and Revolution
When war broke out between Russia and Japan in 1904, Napoleon II called on his people
to fight for “the Faith, the tsar and the fatherland.” Despite all of their efforts, the Russians
suffered one humiliating defeat after another.
News of the military disasters unleashed pent-up discontents created by years of oppression.
Protesters poured into the streets. Workers went on strike demanding shorter hours and better
wages. Liberals called for a constitution and reforms to overhaul the government. As the crisis
deepened, a young orthodox priest organized a peaceful march for Sunday, January 22, 1905.
Marchers flowed through the streets of St. Petersburg toward the tsar’s winter palace. Chanting
prayers and singing hymns, workers carried holy icons and pictures of the tsars. They also
brought a petition for justice and freedom.
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Fearing the marchers, the tsar had fled the palace and called in soldiers. As the people
approached, they saw troops lined up across the square. Suddenly, gunfire rang out. Hundreds of
men and women fell dead or wounded in the snow. One woman stumbling away from the scene
moaned: “The tsar has deserted us! They shot away the Orthodox faith.” Indeed, the slaughter
marked a turning point for Russians. “Bloody Sunday” killed the People’s faith and trust in the
tsar.
F) The Revolution of 1905
In the Months that followed Bloody Sunday, discontent exploded across Russia. Strike
multiplied. In some cities, workers took over local government. In the countryside, peasants
revolted and demanded land. Minority nationalities called for autonomy from Russia. Terrorist
targeted officials and some assassins were cheered as heroes by discontented Russians.
At last, the clamor grew so great that Nicholas was forced to announce sweeping reforms. In the
October manifesto, he promised “freedom of person, conscience, speech, assembly and union.”
He agreed to summon a Duma, or elected national legislature. No law, he declared, would go
into effect without approval by the Duma.
G) Results of the Revolution
The manifesto won over moderates, leaving socialists isolated. These divisions helped the
tsar who had no intention of letting strikers, revolutionaries and rebellious peasants challenge
him. In 1906, the first Duma met but the tsar quickly dissolved it when leaders criticized the
government. The manifesto won over moderates, leaving socialists isolated. These divisions
helped the tsar who had no intention of letting strikers, revolutionaries and rebellious peasants
challenge him. In 1906, the first Duma met but the tsar quickly dissolved it when leaders
criticized the government.
Stolypin soon realized that Russia needed reform not just repression. To regain peasant support
he introduced moderate land reforms. He strengthened the zemstvos and improved education.
Unfortunately, these reforms were too limited to meet the broad needs of most Russians and
dissatisfactions still simmered. Stolypin was assassinated in 1911. Several more Dumas met
during these period but new voting laws made sure they were conservatives. By 1914, Russia
was still an autocracy but one simmering with unrest.
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2.2. Austria-Hungary
Napoleon had dissolved the Holy Roman Empire which was under the leadership of
Hapsburg for about 400 years. Austria’s center of power had shifted to central Europe.
Additional wars resulted in continued loss of territory to Germany and Italy. Why did
nationalism bring new strength to some countries and weaken others?
In Eastern and central Europe, the Austrian Hapsburgs and the Ottoman Turks ruled lands that
included diverse ethnic groups. Nationalist’s feeling among these subject peoples contributed to
tensions building across Europe.
The Decline of Hapsburg Empire

In 1800, the Hapsburgs were the oldest ruling house in Europe. In addition to their
homeland of Austria, over centuries they had acquired the territories of Bohemia and Hungary,
as well as parts of Romania, Poland, Ukraine and northern Italy.
Since the Congress of Vienna, the Austrian Emperor Francis I and his foreign minister
Metternich had upheld conservative goals against liberal forces. “Rule and change nothing. “The
emperor told his son. Under Francis and Metternich, newspapers could not even use the word
constitution; much less discuss this key demand of liberals. The government also tried to limit
the industrial development which would threaten traditional ways of life.
Austria however, could not hold back the changes that were engulfing the rest of Europe. By the
1840s, factories were springing up. Soon, the Hapsburg found themselves facing the problems
industrial life that had long been familiar in Britain: the growth of cities, worker discontent and
the stirrings of socialism
A Multinational Empire
Equally disturbing to the old order were the urgent demands of nationalists. The
Hapsburg presided over a multinational Empire. Of its 50 million people at mid-century, fewer
than a quarter were German speaking Austrians. Almost half belonged to different Slavic groups
including Czechs, Slovaks, Poles Ukrainians, Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Often rival groups
shared the same region. The Empire also included large numbers of Hungarians and Italians. The
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Hapsburg ignored nationalist demands as long as they could. When nationalist revolts broke out,
in 1848, the government crushed them.
Francis Joseph Grants Limited Reforms
Amid the turmoil, 18-years old Francis Joseph inherited the Hapsburg throne. He would
rule until 1916, presiding over the Empire during its fading days into World War I. An early
challenge came when Austria suffered its humiliating defeat at the hands of France and Sardinia
in 1859. Francis Joseph realized he needed to strengthen the empire at home. Accordingly he
made some limited reforms. He granted a new constitution that set up a legislature. This body
however, was dominated by German speaking Austrians. The reforms thus satisfied none of the
other national groups that populated the empire. The Hungarians especially, were determined to
settle for nothing less than total self-government.
Formation of the Dual Monarchy

Austria’s disastrous defeat in the 1866 war with Prussia brought renewed pressure for change
from Hungarians within the empire. One year later, Ferenc Deak, a moderate Hungarian leader,
helped work out a compromise that created a new political power known as the Dual Monarchy
of Austria-Hungary.
The Austria-Hungary Government
Under the agreement, Austria and Hungary were separate states. Each had its own
constitution and parliament. Francis Joseph ruled both as emperor of Austria and king of
Hungary. The two states also shared ministries of finance, defense and foreign affairs but were
independent of each other in all other areas.
Although Hungarians welcomed the compromise, other subject peoples resented it. Restlessness
increased among various Slavic groups especially the Czechs in Bohemia. Some nationalist
leaders called on Slavs to unite, insisting that “only through liberty, equality and fraternal
solidarity” could Slavic peoples fulfill their “great mission in the history of mankind”. By the
early 1900s, nationalist unrest often left the government paralyzed in the face of pressing
political and social problems.
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Check-lists
Write () if you can explain the following terms!
1. The Tsars…………………………………………………………………
2. Emancipation…………………………………………………………….
3. Serfs …………………………………………………………………….
4. Duma…………………………………………………………………....
5. A program of Russification……………………………………………..
6. Zemstvos…………………………………………………………………
Self-Check Exercises
Part I: Write ‘True’ for the correct statements or ‘False’ for the incorrect one!
______1.Stolypin was assassinated in 1918.
_____2.Alexander II came to power during the Crimean war(1855)
_____3.Alexander II’s reforms did satisfy all Russians.
_____4.Russia entered the industrial age under Alexander III and his son Nicholas I
_____5.Francis Joseph ruled both as emperor of Austria and king of Hungary.
Part II: Provide necessary answers for the following according the nature of the questions!
6. Explain the causes and courses of “Bloody Sunday’
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
7. Discuss the causes, courses and consequences of the1905 Revolution.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________.
8. List some examples of the Slavic group peoples!____________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________.
9. List some of the focus of Nicholas’ government in economic development during 1890s!
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________.
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Chapter Three
3. Ottoman Empire and the Balkans
Who were the Ottomans?
The Ottomans were one of the two major groups of people known as the Turks. The other
group of the Turkish people was called the Seljuk. Originally the Turks lived in the Steppe of
central Asia, from where they migrated in small groups to the Middle East since the tenth
century. The Seljuk was the first Turkish group who invaded the Middle East and conquered
much of it, including Asia Minor. It was this pressure of the Seljuk Turks which formed an
immediate factor for the Crusades of the middle Ages which you have already studied in your
previous course.
Where and when did the Ottoman state emerge? __________________________________
The Ottoman Sultanate emerged in northwestern Asia Minor in 1280. The Sultanate was
named from the name of the founder of the dynasty Usman who was the leader of Turkish group.
The sultanate soon extended its territory over most of Asia Minor. In 1453, the Ottoman army
defeated the Byzantine force and occupied Constantinople. The Byzantine capital was renamed
Istanbul and became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. The Turks followed up their success by
further conquests in Asia Minor and the Balkan Peninsula, the two regions that were to form the
core of the new Ottoman state.
The Expansion of the Ottoman state
Having firmly established its base over the core territory, the Ottoman state launched
military campaigns in to two major directions. In the west, the Ottoman army crossed the
Danube River to Eastern Europe and occupied Rumania in 1481. But in this direction the
Ottomans could not proceed any further before the end of the century. In the eastward direction
the Ottoman army marched to Asia. But they did not register significant military conquest until
the reign of Sultan Selim I (1512-1520), when the Ottoman forces controlled Persian army. The
Ottomans extended their success to the continent of Africa where they conquered Egypt in 1517.
The Ottoman resumed their advance in to Europe during the reign of Suleiman I, commonly
known as Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566). The Ottoman launched a massive attack which
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resulted in the fall of Belgrade in 1521 and Rhodes in 1522. In 1529, the Ottoman armies
besieged Vienna, the oldest great city of Europe. The event created panic across the breadth and
width of the western Christendom. Fortunately, for the west European Christians the Ottomans’
line of communication were so stretched that the Sultan’s army was compelled to lift the siege
after two weeks. This setback hardly reduced the rapid pace of Ottomans’ expansion and their
conquests elsewhere. In North Africa the Ottomans annexed Algeria which was to remain the
Ottoman vassal state in the western Mediterranean right up to the nineteenth century. In Asia,
they conquered the remaining territories of Persia and annexed modern Iraq including Baghdad
itself. Indeed the Ottomans secured an outlet on the Persian Gulf from where they fought naval
wars against Portugal in the Persian Gulf and in the Indian Ocean subsequently.
Dear learners! You have seen earlier that the Ottoman army had lifted the siege of Vienna. But
that was not the end of Ottomans threat to the West European Christians. Immediately, after they
abandoned the Vienna siege, they resumed military pressure on Western Europe from different
directions. This time, the Ottomans success was not only militarily but they also won a
diplomatic victory. In 1536, a formal treaty was signed between France and the Ottoman Empire.
The treaty gave the French the right to conduct trade throughout the Turkish territories. The
French could also have resident consuls with civil and criminal jurisdiction over French men in
Turkey. In general, the treaty of 1536 had important repercussions with regard to both France
and Ottoman state. As for France, the treaty gave it a better position in the Ottoman Empire than
any other European state. But with regard to the Ottoman state, the treaty marked the initiation of
the Ottoman Empire in the diplomatic world of Western Europe.
The Decline of the Ottoman Empire
The decline of the Ottoman power began at the end of the reign of Suleiman the
Magnificent in 1566. This fact became evident in the dramatic event that happened only five
years after the end of the reign of sultan Suleiman. In 1571, the Christian states of Europe
namely Spain, Venice and the Papal states of Italy formed a league against the Turks whom they
defeated in the great naval battle of Lepanto, near the Greek coast. Although the Christian
League destroyed the Ottoman fleet on the Mediterranean, it did not follow up its victory with
assaults on the Ottoman forces elsewhere which in fact gave the Turks sufficient time to recover
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from the immediate shock of the shattering defeat. Yet the Ottoman power could no longer
regain its former strength and vitality. So in the subsequent centuries, the Ottomans lost their
hold over many of the territories to their adversaries. In this regard, the Austrians, the Poles, the
Venetians and Russians seized considerable territory from the Ottomans.
The decline of the Ottomans’ power dictated a fundamental change in the European policy
towards the Ottoman state. The European powers namely France, England and Austria began to
reconsider their respective national interests’ vis-a-vis the Ottoman Empire. By then the Ottoman
Empire had already ceased to become a threat to the interest of the European states listed above.
So they could gain nothing from the total downfall of the Ottoman state. In the contrary, the fall
of Ottomans could possibly affect their interest. This was because they feared the advent of new
power to overtake the Ottoman territories. The Russian state had already giver sufficient signs to
replace the Ottomans in the Balkan region. This was the case with the reforms of Peter the Great
and the military expansion launched towards the Black Sea during the reign of Catherine I.
Because of this, the European states wanted the preservation of the weaker Ottoman state
together with its territorial possessions. Hence, the Ottoman state was to continue as important
factor in the politics of Europe until the beginning of the 19th century.
During the last decades before it disappeared in 1922 the Ottoman Empire existed
without the European provinces that for centuries had been its heart and soul. In its last
days, but only then, it fairly could be called an Asiatic, Middle Eastern power.
In the end, the Great Powers and the Turkish nationalists agreed to terminate the
Ottoman Empire. The sultanate ceased to exist in 1922 while the Ottoman caliphate ended
in 1923.
The Ottoman were a group of Turkish people who migrated from the Steppe of Central
Asia set up their own state in Asia Minor toward the end of the 13 th century. The Ottoman
army launched vigorous military expansion which threatened the West European
Christians until their power began to decline since the beginning of 17th century.
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The Balkans
The Balkan Peninsula popularly referred to as the Balkans, is a geographical and cultural region of Southeast
Europe. The region has its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch from the east of Bulgaria to the very
east of Serbia. The region is inhabited by Slavic ethnic
grpups(Bosnians, Bulgarians, Bunjevci, Croats, Gorani, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Serbs, Slovenes), also
by Romanians, Greeks, Albanians, Turks and other ethnic groups which present minorities in certain countries
like Romani people (Gypsies),Aromanians, Ashkali, etc. The largest religion on the Balkans is Orthodox
Christianity, followed by Catholic Christianity and Sunni Islam.
The total area of the Balkans is 257,400 square miles (666,700 square km) and the total population is
59,297,000 (est. 2002). The Balkans meet the Adriatic Sea on the northwest, Ionian Sea on the southwest,
the Mediterranean and Aegean Sea on the south and southeast, and the Black Sea on the east and northeast. The
highest point of the Balkans is mount Musala 2,925 meters (9,596 ft) on the Rila mountain range in Bulgaria.
The Balkans have been inhabited since the Paleolithic and are the route by which farming from the Middle East
spread to Europe during the Neolithic (7th millennium BC). The Balkan is also the location of Europe's first
advanced civilizations, beginning with the Bronze Age in Greece around 3200 BC.
The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains in Bulgaria and Serbia. The term "Balkan" is generally
believed to come from Turkish Balkan, meaning "a chain of wooded mountains." Alternately, the name may
have derived from the Persian bālkāneh or bālākhāna, meaning "high, above, or proud house," and brought to
the region in the 11th and 12th centuries by Turkic tribes who applied it to the area. The name is still preserved
in Central Asia with the Balkan Mountains and the Balkan Province of Turkmenistan.
In classical antiquity (and until the Ottoman conquest), the region was referred to
in Greek and Roman sources as the "Peninsula of Haemus". The mountain range itself was known as the
"Haemus Mountains", the name itself being of possibly Thracian etymology.
On a larger scale, the mountains are only one part of a long continuous chain of mountains crossing the region
in the form of a reversed letter S, from the Carpathians south to the Balkan range proper, before marching away
east into Anatolian Turkey. The Balkan Mountains include the Stara Planina (Old Mountain) mountain range
in Bulgaria and part of Serbia. On the west coast, an offshoot of the Dinaric Alps follows the coast south
through Dalmatia and Albania, crosses Greece, and continues into the sea in the form of various islands.
Page 56
The first attested time the name "Balkan" was used in the West for the mountain range
in Bulgaria was in a letter sent in 1490 to Pope Innocent VIII by Buonaccorsi Callimaco, an Italian humanist,
writer and diplomat. English traveler John Morritt introduced this term into the English literature at the end of
the 18th century, and other authors started applying the name to the wider area between the Adriatic and the
Black Sea. The concept of the "Balkans" was created by the German geographer August Zeune in 1808. During
the 1820s, "Balkan became the preferred although not yet exclusive term alongside Haemus among British
travelers Among Russian travelers not so burdened by classical toponymy, Balkan was the preferred term."
As time passed, the term gradually acquired political connotations far from its initial geographic meaning,
arising from political changes from the late 19th century to the creation of post–World War
I Yugoslavia (initially the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes). Zeune's goal was to have a geographical
parallel term to the Italic and Iberian Peninsula, and seemingly nothing more. The gradually acquired political
connotations are newer, and, to a large extent, due to oscillating political circumstances.
After the dissolution of Yugoslavia beginning in June 1991, the term "Balkans" again received a negative
meaning, even in casual usage (see Balkanization). Over the last decade, in the wake of the former Yugoslav
split, many Slovenians and Croatians, as well as Serbs of Vojvodina (also Belgraders, western Serbs "Prečani"
and Serbs from other regions) have attempted to reject their label as Balkan nations.
Check-lists
Put () if you know the following terms!
1. The Seljuk Turks………………………………………………………………………….
2. Balkan Peninsula………………………………………………………………………….
3. The battle of Lepanto……………………………………………………………………..
4. Istanbul…………………………………………………………………………………….
5. Sultan Suleiman………………………………………………………………………….
6. Sultan Selim I…………………………………………………………………………….
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Self-Test Exercises
Direction: Provide necessary answers for the following questions!!
1. The term “Balkan “comes from_______________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________.
2. The Ottoman Empire began to decline during the reign of________________________ in ____________
3. Ottoman forces controlled Persian army during the reign of ____________________________.
4. List the names of European Countries that formed a League against Ottoman Turks_________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________.
5. Ottoman Empire was formed by a man called_______________________________________________.
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Chapter Four
4. Labour Movement
Introduction
Dear colleague! Welcome to this chapter. The Chapter introduces you with the Labour movement,
anarchism, Spanish Revolution and types of anarchism. You will also learn about various ideas regarding
the motive behind labour movement, the causes and consequences of Labour Movement.
Objectives:
At the completion of the Chapter, students will be able to:
State different causes that led to the labour movement
Elaborate the core idea of Bolshevik’s Revolution
 Discuss the Karl Heinrich Marx’s influences on the labour movement (his point of view)
Identify the differences and similarities among Social anarchism, individualist anarchism,
Collectivist anarchism, anarcho-communism and anarcho-syndicalism
The labor movement was one of many consequences of the “direct contact” with
humanity initiated by the Planetary Council after its centennial meeting in 1825. This
contact, which the Tibetan describes as “a great experiment,” caused “the growth of
understanding, the spread of idealism, and the purification of our educational systems and the
inauguration of reforms in every department of human life.”
The labor movement took different courses on the two sides of the Atlantic. In Europe it
became inextricably linked with the rise of socialism. Perhaps the labor movement could have
succeeded without wholesale change of the political system, but the power of the aristocracy
and moneyed classes was so entrenched that there may have been no alternative. In any event,
political confrontation and revolution lay ahead. It was not until the backlash in the mid-20th
century, that non socialist union, with or without religious affiliations, was formed in some
European countries.
Political economist Karl Heinrich Marx (1818-1883) had enormous influence on the
19th-century European labor movement. His early work was largely theoretical; he argued, with
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some justification that private property caused people to work only for themselves rather than
for the good of the group. But soon he was calling for violent overthrow of capitalism and
establishment of a communist society. In 1848 Marx and Friedrich Engels (1820-95), former
manager of a British textile plant, wrote The Communist Manifesto. The following year, in a
pamphlet entitled: “Wage-Labor and Capital,” Marx stated that every revolutionary uprising…
must of necessity fail until the revolutionary working class shall have conquered… Every social
reform must remain a Utopia until the proletarian revolution and the feudalistic counter-
revolution have been pitted against each other in a world-wide war.
In 1864 a group of workers and German émigrés in London was influenced by
Marx's ideas to establish the International Workingmen's Association, later known as the
First International. Three years later, Marx published the first of four volumes of Das
Kapital, the remaining volumes being published after his death.
Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (1870-1924, later known as Lenin, epitomized the political and
revolutionary aspects of Marx’s writings. Lenin was troubled that effective political action
did not arise spontaneously among Russian workers, as Marx had predicted. So he cultivated
radical consciousness through a well-organized revolutionary party. In 1903, Lenin founded
the Bolshevik wing of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party. After periods of exile, he
returned to Russia to lead the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. Marx, Engels, and even Lenin
may have been recruited by the English Master to further the labor movement. But the Soviet
Union’s descent into totalitarianism, and its repression of the very workers the labor
movement was intended to help, clearly signaled the withdrawal of Fifth-Kingdom support.
Elsewhere in Europe, the labor movement embraced socialism but worked within the
established political order. In Britain the Fabian Society was founded in 1884 by a group of
left-wing intellectuals. It promoted evolutionary, rather than revolutionary, socialism and
rejected the need for violent class warfare. The society gained widespread recognition for
publication of the Fabian Essays in 1889. At the turn of the century it worked with the Trades
Union Congress and others to found the British Labour Party.
An early champion of the British labor movement was Scotsman Keir James Hardie (1856-
1915). Hardie went down the mines at the age of seven and by early adulthood had become a
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spokesman in labor grievances. He suffered reprisals by the mine owners but was elected to
parliament in 1892 as the first representative of the working classes. Another Scotsman, James
Ramsey MacDonald (1866-1937), served as Britain's first Labour prime minister (1924, and
1929-31).
Not all Labour Party leaders came from the working classes. Scholar and barrister
Clement Richard Atlee (1883-1967) became prime minister at the conclusion of the World War
II, overseeing the implementation of far-reaching social changes, including nationalization of
many industries and establishment of the welfare state. In these changes in Britain, and similar
changes throughout Europe, we see evidence of the great cleansing effect that the war had
accomplished.
The Transport and General Workers Union was founded in 1922 by former dock
worker Ernest Bevin (1881-1951) who later served as Foreign Secretary in Atlee’s
government and helped found the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. The TGWU grew to
become the largest union in Britain and one of the biggest in Europe. Despite a significant
drop in membership because of the contraction of manufacturing industry over the last 15
years, it still retains close to a million members throughout Britain and Ireland. The formation
of popular organizations of any kind with seven-digit memberships was a momentous
development in human evolution. It reflected the stimulus brought about by the new energy
of Synthesis during the 20th century. First-ray Synthesis combined with second-ray
compassion and third-ray organization in a unique way in the labor movement.
On the continent of Europe, labor unions and socialist parties both remain strong. One
of the most interesting stories concerns the Polish Solidarity union, which played a key role in
the country’s liberation from Soviet domination. The union was organized, in defiance of the
Communist authorities, by Lech Walesa (1943- ), an electrician at the Lenin Shipyard in
Gdansk. Walesa was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1983, and in 1990 he became the first
popularly elected president of Poland. Among his first actions after taking office were the
legalization of Solidarity and its transformation into a political party.
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4.1. Anarchism
Anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates stateless societies often defined as self-
governed voluntary institutions, but that several authors have defined as more specific
institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations. Anarchism holds the state to be
undesirable, unnecessary, or harmful. While anti-statism is central, some argue that anarchism
entails opposing authority or hierarchical organization in the conduct of human relations,
including, but not limited to, the state system.
As a subtle and anti-dogmatic philosophy, anarchism draws on many currents of thought
and strategy. Anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular world
view, instead fluxing and flowing as a philosophy. There are many types and traditions of
anarchism, not all of which are mutually exclusive. Anarchist schools of thought can differ
fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism.
Strains of anarchism have often been divided into the categories of social and individualist
anarchism or similar dual classifications. Anarchism is often considered a radical left-wing
ideology, and much of anarchist economics and anarchist legal philosophy reflect anti-
authoritarian interpretations of communism, collectivism, syndicalism, mutualism,
or participatory economics.
Anarchism as a mass social movement has regularly endured fluctuations in popularity.
The central tendency of anarchism as a social movement has been represented by anarcho-
communism and anarcho-syndicalism, with individualist anarchism being primarily a literary
phenomenon which nevertheless did have an impact on the bigger currents and individualists
have also participated in large anarchist organizations. Many anarchists oppose all forms of
aggression, supporting self-defense or non-violence (anarcho-pacifism), while others have
supported the use of some coercive measures, including violent revolution and propaganda of the
deed, on the path to an anarchist society.
Etymology and terminology
The term anarchism is a compound word composed from the word anarchy and the
suffixism, themselves derived respectively from the Greek ἀναρχία, i.e. anarchy
(from ἄναρχος,anarchos, meaning "one without rulers"; from the privative prefix ἀν- (an-, i.e.
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"without") ἀρχός, archos, i.e. "leader", "ruler"; (cf. archon or ἀρχή, arkhē, i.e. "authority",

"sovereignty", "realm", "magistracy") and the suffix -ισμός or -ισμα (-ismos, -isma, from the
verbal infinitive suffix -ιζειν, -izein). The first known use of this word was in 1539. "Anarchists"
was the term adopted by Maximilien de Robespierre to attack those on the left whom he had
used for his own ends during the French Revolution but was determined to get rid of, though
among these "anarchists" there were few who exhibited the social revolt characteristics of later
anarchists. There would be many revolutionaries of the early nineteenth century who contributed
to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation, such as William Godwin and Wilhelm Weitling,
but they did not use the word "anarchist" or "anarchism" in describing themselves or their
beliefs. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon was the first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist,
making the formal birth of anarchism the mid-nineteenth century. Since the 1890s from
France, the term "libertarianism" has often been used as a synonym for anarchism and was used
almost exclusively in this sense until the 1950s in the United States; its use as a synonym is still
common outside the United States. On the other hand some use "libertarianism" to refer to
individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as "libertarian
anarchism".
William Godwin, "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of
anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work".
The earliest anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works
of Taoist philosopher Laozi, and in later centuries by Zhuangzi and Bao Jingyan. Zhuangzi's
philosophy has been described by various sources as anarchist. Zhuangzi wrote, "A petty thief is
put in jail. A great brigand becomes a ruler of a Nation." Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics,
their contemporary Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, also introduced similar topics. Jesus
is sometimes considered the first anarchist in the Christian anarchist tradition. Georges
Lechartier wrote that "The true founder of anarchy was Jesus Christ and ... the first anarchist
society was that of the apostles." Such a distinction reverberate subversive religious conceptions
like the aforementioned seemingly anarchistic Taoist teachings and that of other anti-
authoritarian religious traditions creating a complex relationship regarding the question as to
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whether or not anarchism and religion are compatible. This is exemplified when the glorification
of the state is viewed as a form of sinful idolatry.
The French renaissance political philosopher Étienne de La Boétie has been said to write
an important anarchist precedent in his most famous work the Discourse on Voluntary Servitude.
The radical Protestant Christian Gerrard Winstanley and his group the Diggers are cited by
various authors as proposing anarchist social measures in the 17th century in England. The term
"anarchist" first entered the English language in 1642, during the English Civil War, as a term of
abuse, used by Royalists against their Roundhead opponents. By the time of the French
Revolution some, such as the Enragés, began to use the term positively, in opposition
to Jacobin centralization of power, seeing "revolutionary government" as oxymoronic. By the
turn of the 19th century, the English word "anarchism" had lost its initial negative connotation.
Modern anarchism sprang from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment,
particularly Jean-Jacques Rousseau's arguments for the moral centrality of freedom. There were
a variety of anarchist currents during the French Revolution, with some revolutionaries using the
term "anarchiste" in a positive light as early as September 1793. The enragés opposed
revolutionary government as a contradiction in terms. Denouncing the Jacobin dictatorship, Jean
Varlet wrote in 1794 that "government and revolution are incompatible, unless the people wish
to set its constituted authorities in permanent insurrection against itself." During the French
Revolution, Sylvain Maréchal, in his Manifesto of the Equals (1796), demanded "the communal
enjoyment of the fruits of the earth" and looked forward to the disappearance of "the revolting
distinction of rich and poor, of great and small, of masters and valets, of governors and
governed." From this climate William Godwin developed what many consider the first
expression of modern anarchist thought. Godwin was, according to Peter Kropotkin, "the first to
formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give
that name to the ideas developed in his work",while Godwin attached his anarchist ideas to an
early Edmund Burke. Benjamin Tucker instead credits Josiah Warren, an American who
promoted stateless and voluntary communities where all goods and services were private, with
being "the first man to expound and formulate the doctrine now known as Anarchism." The first
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to describe himself as an anarchist was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, a French philosopher and

politician, which led some to call him the founder of modern anarchist theory.
The anarcho-communist Joseph Déjacque was the first person to describe himself as
"libertarian". Unlike Proudhon, he argued that, "it is not the product of his or her labor that the
worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature." In
1844 in Germany the post-Hegelian philosopher Max Sterner published the book Own which will
later be considered an influential early text of individualist anarchism. Anarchists active in
the 1848 Revolution in France included Anselme Bellegarrigue, Ernest Coeurderoy, Joseph
Déjacqueand Pierre Joseph Proudhon.
4.1.1. First International and the Paris Commune

Collectivist anarchist Mikhail Bakunin opposed the Marxist aim of dictatorship of the
proletariat in favour of universal rebellion, and allied himself with the federalists in the First
International before his expulsion by the Marxists.
In Europe, harsh reaction followed the revolutions of 1848, during which ten countries had
experienced brief or long-term social upheaval as groups carried out nationalist uprisings. After
most of these attempts at systematic change ended in failure, conservative elements took
advantage of the divided groups of socialists, anarchists, liberals, and nationalists, to prevent
further revolt. In 1864 the International Workingmen's Association(sometimes called the "First
International") united diverse revolutionary currents including French followers of Proudhon,
Blanquists, Philadelphes, English trade unionists, socialists and social democrats.
Due to its links to active workers' movements, the International became a significant
organization. Karl Marx became a leading figure in the International and a member of its General
Council. Proudhon's followers, the mutualists, opposed Marx's state socialism, advocating
political abstentionism and small property holdings.
In 1868, following their unsuccessful participation in the League of Peace and
Freedom (LPF), Russian revolutionary Mikhail Bakunin and his collectivist anarchist associates
joined the First International (which had decided not to get involved with the LPF). They allied
themselves with the federalist socialist sections of the International, who advocated the
revolutionary overthrow of the state and the collectivization of property.
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At first, the collectivists worked with the Marxists to push the First International in a more
revolutionary socialist direction. Subsequently, the International became polarized into two
camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads. Bakunin characterized Marx's
ideas as centralist and predicted that, if a Marxist party came to power; its leaders would simply
take the place of the ruling class they had fought against.
Anarchist historian George Woodcock reports that "The annual Congress of the International had
not taken place in 1870 owing to the outbreak of the Paris Commune, and in 1871 the General
Council called only a special conference in London. One delegate was able to attend from Spain
and none from Italy, while a technical excuse – that they had split away from the Fédération
Romande – was used to avoid inviting Bakunin's Swiss supporters. Thus only a tiny minority of
anarchists was present, and the General Council's resolutions passed almost unanimously. Most
of them were clearly directed against Bakunin and his followers." In 1872, the conflict climaxed
with a final split between the two groups at the Hague Congress, where Bakunin and James
Guillaume were expelled from the International and its headquarters were transferred to New
York. In response, the federalist sections formed their own International at the St. Imier
Congress, adopting a revolutionary anarchist program.
The Paris Commune was a government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more
formally, from 28 March) to 28 May 1871. The Commune was the result of an uprising in Paris
after France was defeated in the Franco-Prussian War. Anarchists participated actively in the
establishment of the Paris Commune. They included Louise Michel, the Reclus brothers,
and Eugene Varlin (the latter murdered in the repression afterwards). As for the reforms initiated
by the Commune, such as the re-opening of workplaces as co-operatives, anarchists can see their
ideas of associated labour beginning to be realized. Moreover, the Commune's ideas on
federation obviously reflected the influence of Proudhon on French radical ideas. Indeed, the
Commune's vision of a communal France based on a federation of delegates bound by imperative
mandates issued by their electors and subject to recall at any moment echoes Bakunin's and
Proudhon's ideas (Proudhon, like Bakunin, had argued in favour of the "implementation of the
binding mandate" in 1848 ... and for federation of communes). Thus both economically and
politically the Paris Commune was heavily influenced by anarchist ideas.
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George Woodcock manifests that a notable contribution to the activities of the Commune and
particularly to the organization of public services was made by members of various anarchist
factions, including the mutualists Courbet, Longuet, and Vermorel, the libertarian
collectivists Varlin, Malon, and Lefrangais, and the bakuninists Elie and Elisée Reclus and
Louise Michel.
4.1.2. Organized labour

The anti-authoritarian sections of the First International were the precursors of the
anarcho-syndicalists, seeking to "replace the privilege and authority of the State" with the "free
and spontaneous organization of labor." In 1886, the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor
Unions (FOTLU) of the United States and Canada unanimously set 1 May 1886, as the date by
which the eight-hour work day would become standard.
In response, unions across the United States prepared a general strike in support of the event. On
3 May, in Chicago, a fight broke out when strikebreakers attempted to cross the picket line, and
two workers died when police opened fire upon the crowd. The next day, 4 May, anarchists
staged a rally at Chicago's Haymarket Square. A bomb was thrown by an unknown party near the
conclusion of the rally, killing an officer. In the ensuing panic, police opened fire on the crowd
and each other. Seven police officers and at least four workers were killed. Eight anarchists
directly and indirectly related to the organizers of the rally were arrested and charged with the
murder of the deceased officer. The men became international political celebrities among the
labour movement. Four of the men were executed and a fifth committed suicide prior to his own
execution. The incident became known as the Haymarket affair, and was a setback for the labour
movement and the struggle for the eight-hour day. In 1890 a second attempt, this time
international in scope to organize for the eight-hour day was made. The event also had the
secondary purpose of memorializing workers killed as a result of the Haymarket affair. Although
it had initially been conceived as a once-off event, by the following year the celebration
of International Workers' Day on May Day had become firmly established as an international
worker's holiday.
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In 1907, the International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam gathered delegates from 14

different countries, among which important figures of the anarchist movement, including Errico
Malatesta, Pierre Monatte, Luigi Fabbri, Benoît Broutchoux, Emma Goldman, Rudolf Rocker,
and Christian Cornelissen. Various themes were treated during the Congress, in particular
concerning the organization of the anarchist movement, popular education issues, the general
strike or antimilitarism. A central debate concerned the relation between anarchism
and syndicalism (or trade unionism). Malatesta and Monatte were in particular disagreement
themselves on this issue, as the latter thought that syndicalism was revolutionary and would
create the conditions of a social revolution, while Malatesta did not consider syndicalism by
itself sufficient. He thought that the trade-union movement was reformist and even conservative,
citing as essentially bourgeois and anti-worker the phenomenon of professional union officials.
Malatesta warned that the syndicalists aims were in perpetuating syndicalism itself, whereas
anarchists must always have anarchy as their end and consequently refrain from committing to
any particular method of achieving it.
The Spanish Workers Federation in 1881 was the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement;
anarchist trade union federations were of special importance in Spain. The most successful was
the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (National Confederation of Labour: CNT), founded in
1910. Before the 1940s, the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class politics,
attracting 1.58 million members at one point and playing a major role in the Spanish Civil War.
The CNT was affiliated with the International Workers Association, a federation of anarcho-
syndicalist trade unions founded in 1922, with delegates representing two million workers from
15 countries in Europe and Latin America. In Latin America in particular "The anarchists
quickly became active in organizing craft and industrial workers throughout South and Central
America, and until the early 1920s most of the trade unions in Mexico, Brazil, Peru, Chile, and
Argentina were anarcho-syndicalist in general outlook; the prestige of the Spanish C.N.T. as a
revolutionary organization was undoubtedly to a great extent responsible for this situation. The
largest and most militant of these organizations was the Federación Obrera Regional
Argentina ... it grew quickly to a membership of nearly a quarter of a million, which dwarfed the
rival social democratic unions."
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4.1.3. Propaganda of the deed and illegalism

Italian-American anarchist Luigi Galleani: His followers, known as Galleanists, carried
out a series of bombings and assassination attempts from 1914 to 1932 in what they saw as
attacks on 'tyrants' and 'enemies of the people'. Some anarchists, such as Johann Most, advocated
publicizing violent acts of retaliation against counter-revolutionaries because "we preach not
only action in and for itself, but also action as propaganda." By the 1880s, people inside and
outside the anarchist movement began to use the slogan, "propaganda of the deed" to refer to
individual bombings, regicides, and tyrannicides. From 1905 onwards, the Russian counterparts
of these anti-syndicalist anarchist-communists become partisans of economic terrorism and
illegal 'expropriations'." Illegalism as a practice emerged and within it "The acts of the anarchist
bombers and assassins ("propaganda by the deed") and the anarchist burglars ("individual re-
appropriation") expressed their desperation and their personal, violent rejection of an intolerable
society. Moreover, they were clearly meant to be exemplary invitations to revolt.".
France's Bonnot Gang was the most famous group to embrace illegalism.
However, as soon as 1887, important figures in the anarchist movement distanced themselves
from such individual acts. Peter Kropotkin thus wrote that year in Le Révolté that "a structure
based on centuries of history cannot be destroyed with a few kilos of dynamite". A variety of
anarchists advocated the abandonment of these sorts of tactics in favor of collective
revolutionary action, for example through the trade union movement. The anarcho-
syndicalist, Fernand Pelloutier, argued in 1895 for renewed anarchist involvement in the labor
movement on the basis that anarchism could do very well without "the individual dynamiter."
State repression (including the infamous 1894 French lois scélérates) of the anarchist and labor
movements following the few successful bombings and assassinations may have contributed to
the abandonment of these kinds of tactics, although reciprocally state repression, in the first
place, may have played a role in these isolated acts. The dismemberment of the French socialist
movement, into many groups and, following the suppression of the 1871 Paris Commune, the
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execution and exile of many communards to penal colonies, favored individualist political

expression and acts.
Numerous heads of state were assassinated between 1881 and 1914 by members of the
anarchist movement. For example, U.S. President McKinley's assassin Leon Czolgosz claimed to
have been influenced by anarchist and feminist Emma Goldman. Bombings were associated in
the media with anarchists because international terrorism arose during this time period with the
widespread distribution of dynamite. This image remains to this day.
Propaganda of the deed was abandoned by the vast majority of the anarchist movement after
World War I (1914–1918) and the 1917 October Revolution.
4.1.4. Russian Revolution and other uprisings of the 1910s

Anarchists participated alongside the Bolsheviks in both February and October
revolutions, and were initially enthusiastic about the Bolshevik revolution. However, following a
political falling out with the Bolsheviks by the anarchists and other left-wing opposition, the
conflict culminated in the 1921 Kronstadt rebellion, which the new government repressed.
Anarchists in central Russia were imprisoned, driven underground or joined the victorious
Bolsheviks; the anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to the Ukraine. There, in the Free
Territory, they fought in the civil war against the Whites (a grouping of monarchists and other
opponents of the October Revolution) and then the Bolsheviks as part of the Revolutionary
Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine led by Nestor Makhno, who established an anarchist society in
the region for a number of months.
Expelled American anarchists Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman were amongst
those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the Kronstadt uprising,
before they left Russia. Both wrote accounts of their experiences in Russia, criticizing the
amount of control the Bolsheviks exercised. For them, Bakunin's predictions about the
consequences of Marxist rule that the rulers of the new "socialist" Marxist state would become
new elite had proved all too true.
The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did
serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw
Bolshevik success as setting an example; Communist parties grew at the expense of anarchism
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and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, for example, members of the
major syndicalist movements of the CGT and IWW left the organizations and joined
the Communist International.
The revolutionary wave of 1917–23 saw the active participation of anarchists in varying
degrees of protagonism. In the German uprising known as the German Revolution of 1918–
1919 which established the Bavarian Soviet Republic the anarchists Gustav Landauer, Silvio
Gesell and Erich Mühsam had important leadership positions within the
revolutionary councils’ structures. In the Italian events known as the biennio rosso the anarcho-
syndicalist trade union Unione Sindacale Italiana "grew to 800,000 members and the influence of
the Italian Anarchist Union (20,000 members plus Umanita Nova, its daily paper) grew
accordingly ... Anarchists were the first to suggest occupying workplaces. In the Mexican
Revolution the Mexican Liberal Party was established and during the early 1910s it lead a series
of military offensives leading to the conquest and occupation of certain towns and districts
in Baja California with the leadership of anarcho-communist Ricardo Flores Magón.
In Paris, the Dielo Truda group of Russian anarchist exiles, which included Nestor Makhno,
concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organization in response to the
structures of Bolshevism. Their 1926 manifesto, called the Organizational Platform of the
General Union of Anarchists (Draft), was supported. Platformist groups active today include
the Workers Solidarity Movement in Ireland and the North Eastern Federation of Anarchist
Communists of North America. Synthesis anarchism emerged as an organizational alternative to
platformism that tries to join anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of anarchism
without adjectives. In the 1920s this form found as its main proponents Volin and Sebastien
Faure. It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary
global International of Anarchist Federations.
4.1.5. Conflicts with European fascist regimes

In the 1920s and 1930s, the rise of fascism in Europe transformed anarchism's conflict
with the state. Italy saw the first struggles between anarchists and fascists. Italian
anarchists played a key role in the anti-fascist organisation Arditi del Popolo, which was
strongest in areas with anarchist traditions, and achieved some success in their activism, such as
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repelling Blackshirts in the anarchist stronghold of Parma in August 1922. The veteran Italian

anarchist, Luigi Fabbri, was one of the first critical theorists of fascism, describing it as "the
preventive counter-revolution." In France, where the far right leagues came close to insurrection
in the February 1934 riots, anarchists divided over a united front policy.
Anarchists in France and Italy were active in the Resistance during World War II. In
Germany the anarchist Erich Mühsam was arrested on charges unknown in the early morning
hours of 28 February 1933, within a few hours after the Reichstag fire in Berlin. Joseph
Goebbels, the Nazi propaganda minister, labeled him as one of "those Jewish subversives." Over
the next seventeen months, he would be imprisoned in the concentration camps at Sonnenburg,
Brandenburg and finally, Oranienburg. On 2 February 1934, Mühsam was transferred to
the concentration camp at Oranienburg when finally on the night of 9 July 1934, Mühsam was
tortured and murdered by the guards, his battered corpse found hanging in a latrine the next
morning.
4.1.6. Spanish Revolution

In Spain, the national anarcho-syndicalist trade union Confederación Nacional del
Trabajo initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by CNT
supporters led to a right wing election victory. But in 1936, the CNT changed its policy and
anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the former ruling
class responded with an attempted coup causing the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). In response
to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by
armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain where
they collectivized the land. But even before the fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing
ground in a bitter struggle with the Stalinists, who controlled the distribution of military aid to
the Republican cause from the Soviet Union. The events known as the Spanish Revolution was a
workers' social revolution that began during the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 and
resulted in the widespread implementation of anarchist and more broadly libertarian
socialist organizational principles throughout various portions of the country for two to three
years, primarily Catalonia, Aragon,Andalusia, and parts of the Levante. Much of Spain's
economy was put under worker control; in anarchist strongholds like Catalonia, the figure was as
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high as 75%, but lower in areas with heavy Communist Party of Spain influence, as the Soviet-
allied party actively resisted attempts at collectivization enactment. Factories were run through
worker committees; agrarian areas became collectivized and run as libertarian communes.
Anarchist historian Sam Dolgoff estimated that about eight million people participated directly
or at least indirectly in the Spanish Revolution, which he claimed "came closer to realizing the
ideal of the free stateless society on a vast scale than any other revolution in history."
Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted both dissident Marxists and
anarchists. The prominent Italian anarchist Camillo Berneri, who volunteered to fight against
Franco was killed instead in Spain by gunmen associated with the Spanish Communist Party.
4.1.7. Post-war years

Anarchism sought to reorganize itself after the war. The Mexican Anarchist
Federation was established in 1945 after the Anarchist Federation of the Center united with the
Anarchist Federation of the Federal District. In the early 1940s, the Antifascist International
Solidarity and the Federation of Anarchist Groups of Cuba merged into the large national
organization Asociación Libertaria de Cuba (Cuban Libertarian Association). From 1944 to
1947, the Bulgarian Anarchist Communist Federation reemerged as part of a factory and
workplace committee movement, but was repressed by the new Communist regime. In 1945
in France the Fédération Anarchiste was established and the also synthesist Federazione
Anarchica Italiana was founded in Italy. Korean anarchists formed the League of Free Social
Constructors in September 1945 and in 1946 the Japanese Anarchist Federation was founded. An
International Anarchist Congress with delegates from across Europe was held in Paris in May
1948. After World War II, an appeal in the Fraye Arbeter Shtime detailing the plight of German
anarchists and called for Americans to support them. By February 1946, the sending of aid
parcels to anarchists in Germany was a large-scale operation. The Federation of Libertarian
Socialists was founded in Germany in 1947 and Rudolf Rocker wrote for its organ, Die Freie
Gesellschaft, which survived until 1953. In 1956 the Uruguayan Anarchist Federation was
founded. In 1955 the Anarcho-Communist Federation of Argentina renamed itself as
the Argentine Libertarian Federation. The organizational debate between synthesis
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anarchism and platformism took importance once again especially in the anarchist movements of

Italy and France. The Syndicalist Workers' Federation was a syndicalist group in active in post-
war Britain, and one of Solidarity Federation's earliest predecessors. It was formed in 1950 by
members of the dissolved Anarchist Federation of Britain. Unlike the AFB, which was
influenced by anarcho-syndicalist ideas but ultimately not syndicalist itself the SWF decided to
pursue a more definitely syndicalist, worker-centered strategy from the outset.
Anarchism continued to influence important literary and intellectual personalities of the time,
such as Albert Camus, Herbert Read, Paul Goodman,Dwight Macdonald, Allen
Ginsberg, George Woodcock, Leopold Kohr, Julian Beck, John Cage and the
French Surrealist group led byAndré Breton, which now openly embraced anarchism and
collaborated in the Fédération Anarchiste.
Anarcho-pacifism became influential in the Anti-nuclear movement and anti war
movements of the time as can be seen in the activism and writings of the English anarchist
member of Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament Alex Comfort or the similar activism of the
American catholic anarcho-pacifists Ammon Hennacy and Dorothy Day. Anarcho-pacifism
became a "basis for a critique of militarism on both sides of the Cold War." The resurgence of
anarchist ideas during this period is well documented in Robert Graham'sAnarchism: A
Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism
(1939–1977).
Anarchist schools of Thought
Proudhon was the primary proponent of anarchist mutualism, and influenced many
later individualist anarchist and social anarchist thinkers.
Anarchist schools of thought had been generally grouped in two main historical
traditions, individualist anarchism and social anarchism, which have some different origins,
values and evolution. The individualist wing of anarchism emphasizes negative liberty, i.e.
opposition to state or social control over the individual, while those in the social wing
emphasize positive liberty to achieve one's potential and argue that humans have needs that
society ought to fulfill, "recognizing equality of entitlement". In a chronological and theoretical
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sense, there are classical – those created throughout the 19th century – and post-classical
anarchist schools – those created since the mid-20th century and after.
Beyond the specific factions of anarchist thought is philosophical anarchism, which embodies
the theoretical stance that the state lacks moral legitimacy without accepting the imperative of
revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism philosophical
anarchism may accept the existence of a minimal state as unfortunate, and usually temporary,
"necessary evil" but argue that citizens do not have amoral obligation to obey the state when its
laws conflict with individual autonomy. One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist
milieu was "anarchism without adjectives", a call for toleration first adopted by Fernando Tarrida
del Mármol in 1889 in response to the "bitter debates" of anarchist theory at the time. [165] In
abandoning the hyphenated anarchisms (i.e. collectivist, communist, mutualist and individualist-
anarchism), it sought to emphasise the anti-authoritarian beliefs common to all anarchist schools
of thought.
4.1.8. Classical anarchist schools of thought Mutualism

Mutualism began in 18th-century English and French labour movements before taking an
anarchist form associated with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in France and others in the United States.
Proudhon proposed spontaneous order, whereby organization emerges without central authority,
a "positive anarchy" where order arises when everybody does "what he wishes and only what he
wishes" and where "business transactions alone produce the social order." It is important to
recognize that Proudhon distinguished between ideal political possibilities and practical
governance. For this reason, much in contrast to some of his theoretical statements concerning
ultimate spontaneous self-governance, Proudhon was heavily involved in French parliamentary
politics and allied himself not with Anarchist but Socialist factions of workers movements and,
in addition to advocating state-protected charters for worker-owned cooperatives, promoted
certain nationalization schemes during his life of public service.
Mutualist anarchism is concerned with reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract,
federation, and credit and currency reform. According to the American mutualist William
Batchelder Greene, each worker in the mutualist system would receive "just and exact pay for his
work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without
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profit or discount." Mutualism has been retrospectively characterized as ideologically situated

between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. Proudhon first characterized his goal
as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property."
Individualist anarchism
Individualist anarchism refers to several traditions of thought within the anarchist
movement that emphasize the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants
such as groups, society, traditions, and ideological systems. Individualist anarchism is not a
single philosophy but refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in
conflict.
In 1793, William Godwin, who has often been cited as the first anarchist, wrote Political Justice,
which some consider the first expression of anarchism. Godwin, a philosophical anarchist, from
a rationalist and utilitarian basis opposed revolutionary action and saw a minimal state as a
present "necessary evil" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual
spread of knowledge. Godwin advocated individualism, proposing that all cooperation in labour
be eliminated on the premise that this would be most conducive with the general good.
19th-century philosopher Max Stirner, usually considered a prominent early individualist
anarchist (sketch by Friedrich Engels).
An influential form of individualist anarchism, called "egoism," or egoist anarchism, was
expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, the
German Max Stirner. Stirner's The Ego and Its Own, published in 1844, is a founding text of the
philosophy. According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power
to obtain what they desire, without regard for God, state, or morality. To Stirner, rights
were spooks in the mind, and he held that society does not exist but "the individuals are its
reality". Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw unions of egoists, non-systematic
associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will, which Stirner
proposed as a form of organization in place of the state. Egoist anarchists argue that egoism will
foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals. "Egoism" has inspired many
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interpretations of Stirner's philosophy. It was re-discovered and promoted by German

philosophical anarchist and LGBT activist John Henry Mackay.
Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist, and the four-page weekly
paper he edited during 1833, The Peaceful Revolutionist, was the first anarchist periodical
published. For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster "It is apparent ...
that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and
that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Warren and Stephen
Pearl Andrews ... William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and
most systematic form.". Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) was an important early influence in
individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. Thoreau was an American
author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher, and
leading transcendentalist. He is best known for his books Walden, a reflection upon simple
living in natural surroundings, and his essay, Civil Disobedience, an argument for individual
resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state. Later Benjamin
Tucker fused Stirner's egoism with the economics of Warren and Proudhon in his eclectic
influential publication Liberty.
From these early influences individualist anarchism in different countries attracted a
small but diverse following of bohemian artists and intellectuals, [190] free love and birth
control advocates individualist naturists nudists freethought and anti-clearical activists as well as
young anarchist outlaws in what became known as illegalism and reclamation. These authors and
activists included Oscar Wilde, Emile Armand, Han Ryner, Henri Zisly, Renzo
Novatore, Miguel Gimenez Igualada, Adolf Brand and Lev Chernyi among others.
Social anarchism
Social anarchism calls for a system with common ownership of means of production and
democratic control of all organizations, without any government authority or coercion. It is the
largest school of thought in anarchism. Social anarchism rejects private property, seeing it as a
source of social inequality (while retaining respect for personal property),[201] and emphasizes
cooperation and mutual aid.
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Collectivist anarchism
Collectivist anarchism, also referred to as "revolutionary socialism" or a form of such, is a
revolutionary form of anarchism, commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin and Johann Most.
Collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, instead
advocating that ownership be collectivized. This was to be achieved through violent revolution,
first starting with a small cohesive group through acts of violence, or propaganda by the deed,
which would inspire the workers as a whole to revolt and forcibly collectivize the means of
production.
However, collectivization was not to be extended to the distribution of income, as
workers would be paid according to time worked, rather than receiving goods being distributed
"according to need" as in anarcho-communism. This position was criticized by anarchist
communists as effectively "upholding the wages system". Collectivist anarchism arose
contemporaneously with Marxism but opposed the Marxist dictatorship of the proletariat, despite
the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society. Anarchist, communist and collectivist
ideas are not mutually exclusive; although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for
labour, some held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of
distribution according to need.
Anarcho-communism
Anarchist communism (also known as anarcho-communism, libertarian communism and
occasionally as free communism) is a theory of anarchism that advocates abolition of
the state, markets, money, private property (while retaining respect for personal property), and
capitalism in favor of common ownership of the means of production, direct democracy and a
horizontal network of voluntary associations and workers' councils with production and
consumption based on the guiding principle: "from each according to his ability, to each
according to his need".
Some forms of anarchist communism such as insurrectionary anarchism are strongly
influenced by egoism and radical individualism, believing anarcho-communism is the best social
system for the realization of individual freedom. Most anarcho-communists view anarcho-
communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society.
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Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French revolution but
was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First. The theoretical work of Peter
Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organizationalist
and insurrectionary anti-organizationalist sections. To date, the best known examples of an
anarchist communist society (i.e., established around the ideas as they exist today and achieving
worldwide attention and knowledge in the historical canon), are the anarchist territories during
the Spanish Revolution and the Free Territory during the Russian Revolution. Through the
efforts and influence of the Spanish Anarchists during the Spanish Revolution within the Spanish
Civil War, starting in 1936 anarchist communism existed in most of Aragon, parts of the Levante
and Andalusia, as well as in the stronghold of Anarchist Catalonia before being crushed by the
combined forces of the regime that won the war, Hitler, Mussolini, Spanish Communist Party
repression (backed by the USSR) as well as economic and armaments blockades from the
capitalist countries and the Spanish Republic itself. During the Russian Revolution, anarchists
such as Nestor Makhno worked to create and defend – through the Revolutionary Insurrectionary
Army of Ukraine – anarchist communism in the Free Territory of the Ukraine from 1919 before
being conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1921.
Anarcho-syndicalism
Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that focuses on the labor
movement. Anarcho-syndicalists view labor unions as a potential force for revolutionary social
change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically self-managed by
workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are: Workers' solidarity, Direct
action and Workers' self-management
Anarcho-syndicalists believe that only direct action – that is, action concentrated on directly
attaining a goal, as opposed to indirect action, such as electing a representative to a government
position – will allow workers to liberate themselves. Moreover, anarcho-syndicalists believe that
workers' organizations (the organizations that struggle against the wage system, which, in
anarcho-syndicalist theory, will eventually form the basis of a new society) should be self-
managing. They should not have bosses or "business agents"; rather, the workers should be able
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to make all the decisions that affect them themselves. Rudolf Rocker was one of the most
popular voices in the anarcho-syndicalist movement. He outlined a view of the origins of the
movement, what it sought, and why it was important to the future of labor in his 1938 pamphlet
Anarcho-Syndicalism.The International Workers Association is an international anarcho-
syndicalist federation of various labor unions from different countries. The
Spanish Confederation Nacional del Trabajo played and still plays a major role in the
Spanish labor movement. It was also an important force in the Spanish Civil War.
4.1.9. Post-classical schools of thought

Lawrence Jarach (left) and John Zerzan(right), two prominent contemporary anarchist
authors. Zerzan is known as prominent voice within anarcho-primitivism, while Jarach is a noted
advocate of post-left anarchy.
Anarchism continues to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing
upon various sources, and syncretic, combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical
approaches. Green anarchism (or eco-anarchism) is a school of thought within anarchism that
emphasizes environmental issues, with an important precedent in anarcho-naturism, and whose
main contemporary currents are anarcho-primitivism and social ecology.
Anarcha-feminism (also called anarchist feminism and anarcho-feminism) combines anarchism
with feminism. It generally views patriarchy as a manifestation of involuntary coercive hierarchy
that should be replaced by decentralized free association. Anarcha-feminists believe that the
struggle against patriarchy is an essential part of class struggle, and the anarchist struggle against
the state. In essence, the philosophy sees anarchist struggle as a necessary component of feminist
struggle and vice-versa. L. Susan Brown claims that "as anarchism is a political philosophy that
opposes all relationships of power, it is inherently feminist". Anarcha-feminism began with the
late 19th century writings of early feminist anarchists such as Emma Goldman and Voltairine de
Cleyre.
Anarcho-pacifism is a tendency that rejects violence in the struggle for social change
(see non-violence). It developed "mostly in the Netherlands, Britain, and the United States,
before and during the Second World War".Christian anarchism is a movement in political
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theology that combines anarchism and Christianity. Its main proponents included Leo

Tolstoy, Dorothy Day, Ammon Hennacy, and Jacques Ellul.
Platformism is a tendency within the wider anarchist movement based on the organizational
theories in the tradition of Dielo Truda's Organizational Platform of the General Union of
Anarchists (Draft). The document was based on the experiences of Russian anarchists in the
1917 October Revolution, which led eventually to the victory of the Bolsheviks over the
anarchists and other groups. The Platform attempted to address and explain the anarchist
movement's failures during the Russian Revolution.
Synthesis anarchism is a form of anarchist organization that tries to join anarchists of different
tendencies under the principles of anarchism without adjectives. In the 1920s, this form found as
its main proponents the anarcho-communists Voline and Sébastien Faure. It is the main principle
behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary global International of
Anarchist Federations.
Post-left anarchy is a recent current in anarchist thought that promotes a critique of
anarchism's relationship to traditional Left-wing politics. Some post-leftists seek to escape the
confines of ideology in general also presenting a critique of organizations
and morality. Influenced by the work of Max Sterner and by the Marxist Situationist
International, post-left anarchy is marked by a focus on social insurrection and a rejection of
leftist social organization.
Insurrectionary anarchism is a revolutionary theory, practice, and tendency within
the anarchist movement which emphasizes insurrection within anarchist practice. It is critical of
formal organizations such as labor unions and federations that are based on a political program
and periodic congresses. Instead, insurrectionary anarchists advocate informal organization and
small affinity group based organization. Insurrectionary anarchists put value in attack,
permanent class conflict, and a refusal to negotiate or compromise with class enemies.
Post-anarchism is a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory
and poststructuralist thought, drawing from diverse ideas including post-modernism, autonomist
Marxism, post-left anarchy, situationism, and post colonialism.
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Anarcho-capitalism advocates the elimination of the state in favor of individual sovereignty in

a free market. Anarcho-capitalism developed from radical anti-
state libertarianism and individualist anarchism, drawing from Austrian School economics, study
of law and economics, and public choice theory. There is a strong current within anarchism
which does not consider that anarcho-capitalism can be considered a part of the anarchist
movement due to the fact that anarchism has historically been an anti-capitalist movement and
for definitional reasons which see anarchism incompatible with capitalist forms.
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Check-lists
Put () if you can explain the following terms!
1. Anarcho-pacifism…………………………………………………………….………..
2. Anarcha-feminism ………………………………………………………………..……
3. Anarcho-communism…………………………………………………………………..
4. The Paris Commune ……………………………………………………………………
5. Anarchism…………………………………………………………………………........
6. Clement Richard Atlee (1883-1967) ……………………………………………………
7. Labour Movement……………………………………………………………………….
8. Das Kapital………………………………………………………………………………………
Part I: Write “True” if the statement is correct or “False” if not!
_______1.Social anarchism calls for a system with common ownership of means of production
and democratic control of all organizations, without any government authority or coercion.
______2.Mutualist anarchism is concerned with reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract,
federation, and credit and currency reform.
______3.The Mexican Anarchist Federation was established in 1935.
______4.The Fabian Society was founded in 1884 in France.
_______5.The Spanish Workers Federation in (1881) was the first major anarcho-syndicalist
movement.
Part II: Short Essays!
6. Explain briefly about anarcha-feminism (Try to use your own way of expression!)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________.
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7. Discuss briefly (about the Paris Commune, how it was formed and who formed ).
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________.
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Chapter Five
5. The First World War (WWI)
Dear students! Welcome to the discussion of this unit. You may know the world had hosted
wars and conflicts of different interests. Of these you are going to study one such armed
confrontations conducted globally. WWI was a result of the European divergent interests and
attitudes which they became unable to settle peacefully. When hostilities culminated in to a war,
they spread into other continents mainly for a search of allies and resources. Hence you are going
to learn a war whose magnitude was ever larger than before.
The unit has three sections. The first of these deals with circumstance that brought about
hostilities and finally the war. You will study basic and immediate causes of the war. The second
section discusses the fronts of the war. Besides you will distinguish the belligerent states into the
war as it spread and took time. The third section is devoted to the outcome of the war. The war
was destructive of ever-fought wars and had immense causalities. When the war ended, nations
sought a means to avert such ruining wars from coming. Hence,you will study the measures
taken by the victors.
Objectives of the chapter:
After the end of this chapter you will be able to:
 State different interests of the Europeans that brought them into antagonism
Elaborate factors of disputes in the Balkans
 Discuss the war in relation to the major fronts
Identify the causalities of the war
Section 1: Causes of WWI
The First World War which was fought from 1914 to 1918 had its roots in the Europe. At
the turn of the 20th century, Europe had come to know prosperity. Economically, Europe
advanced into the capitalist system and came to rivalry competitions on raw materials and market
places. Europe’s decision to get them in Africa finally forced the conflict to fall under
colonialism. When Africa was under colonial partition, the Europeans had despite the Berlin
conference of 1884-1885 resolutions, tensions and reflected them in actual divisions. For
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instance, Egypt became a battle ground between Britain and France. Likewise, Italy and France
disputed over Tunis. In Asia, Japan and China spent years of confrontations. The Russo-Japanese
war was fought in 1904.
Adding fuel to these quarrels were the developments nationalism and the campaign to seek allies
to establish strong blocs. Therefore, the causes for the WWI were divergent interests of the
Europeans.
Objectives:
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
Describe the causes of nationalism in Balkans
Explain causes of rivalries between the European major states
Discuss the alliance system
5.1. Europe at the eve of WWI

The competition in Europe for armament manufacturing which was conducted day and
night in the period under discussion demanded the conscripting and training of troops. This in
turn showed who in Europe was superior in armament and in solving conflicts by military might.
Hence, militaristic objectives became basic affairs of thought in Europe and brought two hostile
camps. On one hand, stood the Triple Alliance on Central powers made of Germany, Austro-
Hungary and Italy on the other side, the triple Entente or Allied powers composed of Britain,
France and Russia. The division into two blocs of continental Europe suggested possibilities of
future war. The absence of any peace making organization or device trying to prevent wars from
happening aggravated the European situation. The mechanism to settle any kind of disputes on
negotiation was unthinkable. Hence, warring nations could not be forced to settle disputes in
arbitration.
5.1.1. The Immediate Causes of the WWI
From 1905 to 1911, conflicts arose between France and Germany over Morocco. William
Kaiser of Germany began deliberately to provoke quarrels by inciting the Moroccans against the
presence of the French. As a result, the latter felt angry and sought of an action. When the affair
was brought to international arbitration at Algiers, the result became disappointing to Germany
because the French claim over Morocco was assured.
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In 1911, the French extended their territorial occupation over Morocco. Germany which
protested as invasion not only demanded compensation but also decided to send warships to
Agadier, Morocco. The show of force at the sea annoyed Britain and taking as a serious threat
moved to the French a military aid. In addition, the British government warned Germany if she
or her allies were aspiring to show might. William found himself confronting more danger and
agreed to French supremacy over Morocco in return for French Congo.
Apart these problems above the other great criticism in the continent of Europe were the Balkan
problems. The Balkans had been for years under the Ottoman Empire. First, they seemed as if
united in a determination to come out of Turkish influence, but later created their own sources of
conflicts.
Who are the Balkans?
The Balkans are the south eastern ends of Europe at present consisting countries like
Greece, Algeria, Yugoslavia , Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro etc. These states of the Balkans
formed a Balkan League and declared war on Turkey. The central aim of the League was to end
up the power of the Ottoman Turkey over the region. In October 1912, the Balkans attacked
Turkey from both inland and sea and then began the first Balkan war. The Ottoman went into
disintegration and as a result, were driven out of the Balkans. The Ottoman controlled Balkan
land then was between Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece at the London agreement of 1913. However,
every government felt that dissatisfied with the territorial gains and soon the League fell apart.
In June 1913, Bulgaria declared war on her former ally and member of the League, Serbia, and
beginning from the second Balkan war. However, Greece, Rumania and Turkey all declared war
on Bulgaria and the latter was shortly defeated. Again the great powers intervened for a second
time and treaty was concluded at Bucharest (August 1913). In the agreement, Serbia lost her
claim on cost of Adriatic Port and gained Macedonia.
As a result of the Balkan wars, the Ottoman Turkey rule was brought to an end. Serbia became
readily to support nationalist feelings. The wars also brought Russia and Serbia to a close
friendship versus the alliance of Austro-Hungary and Germany.
The final crisis in Europe which led to the outbreak of the WWI came again in Balkan
region. The Serbs both in Serbia and Austria turned to violent actions by caring out life attempts
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against Austrian officials. The starting point of what came to be the “July crisis” was the
assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (the heir to the Austrian throne and his wife Sophia
Chotek), by Serbian nationalist fighter, Gavrilo Princip on 28, June, 1914.
In Austro-Hungary, everybody expected an immediate revenge for the bloodshed, possibly an
annexation of Serbia. Franz Joseph I if Austro-Hungary feared the possible intervention of
Russia in any war with Serbia and approached Germany as a counterpart. The German Kaisar
promised unelaborated support, rather known as the “Blank Cheque” on 23, July, the Habsburg
government submitted to Serbia an ultimatum presenting a list of demands. Serbia was requested
to allow the Austrian police to enter Serbia with the aim of crushing the anti-Austrian
movements. Serbia was also demanded to punish those participated in the murder act and to stop
anti-Austrian propagation. The demands contained in the ultimatum were never accepted by an
independent state. However, Serbia unready to war accepted all but refused to let Austrians to
enter her territory. She also requested an international conference to settle on basic issues.
Austro-Hungary took this a pretext to fully declare war, which she effected on 28, July, 1914.
Immediately, Tsar declared a mobilization.
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Checklist
Put if you have understood
1. European rivalries at the beginning of the 20th century ………………………………
2. The triple Alliance……………………………………………………………………..
3. The Triple Entente………………………………………………………………..........
4The Algerirs International arbitration…………………………………………………….
5. The Agadir crisis……………………………………………………………………….
6. The Balkan crisis……………………………………………………………………….
7. The assassination of Franz Ferdinand………………………………………………….
8. Austrian ultimatum to Serbia…………………………………………………………..
9. The Balkan cheque…………………………………………………………………….
Self check exercise

Part I: Multiple choices
Direction: Choose the best answer from the following alternatives and provide your
answer on the provided spaces!
1. The Triple Entente was composed of
A. Britain, Italy, Russia B. Britain, France, Russia
C. France, Italy, Germany C. France, Italy, Austro-Hungary
2. The result of arbitration conference at Algeciras went in favor of:
A. the Moroccans B. The French C. Germany D. none of them
3. The aim of the Balkan League was:
A. Against the presence of Austro-Hungary in the Balkans
B. Restoration of Turkey rule
C. To stop civil wars
D. Against Turkish control of the region
4. Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in:
A. Serbia B. Austro-Hungary C. Bosnia D. Sophia, capital of Bulgaria
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5. The ultimatum of Austria Hungary to Serbia:

A. Was not fully accepted
B. became a factor for the death of Franz Ferdinand
C. reflected the interest of Serbia in any dispute with Austria-Hungary
D. Delayed the First World War.
Section two: Courses of the First World War

The alliance system, the departure from mutual understanding due to the rivalries and the
tension developed for decades witnessed that a war was inevitable. Hence, it had encouraged
military planners to spend time in drawing plans for wars. The brewed and developed in such
a way became not only a war in that continent but also escalated into world war. It assumed a
global dimension. Instead of peaceful approaches to differences in aspirations, the Europeans
turned into armed confrontations. The swift implementation of military planners did not work
and the war became ever lengthy. If inflicted externally huge devastation.
Objectives
After completing this section you will be able to:
Elaborate the Schlieffen plan
Identify belligerent states
 Distinguish the military aspects
State the major theaters of the war
 Describe factors for the defeat of the Triple alliance
5.1.2. Outbreak of the war

Following Russian’s mobilization, Germany declared war on Russia and France on 1st
and 3rd August respectively. Britain entered into the campaign on the pretext German’s
invasion of Belgium. Both the triple Alliance and the triple Entente now became ready to
confront war.
Prior to the war, Germany had a war plan designed by her general Alfred Von Schlieffen
in 1905. The aim was to avoid a war on two fronts concurrently and fighting lightening war
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on France first before Russia attacked Germany from the east. Accordingly, the military
powers expected a German military attack against France and turn the bulk of German
military power to Russia. However, the Russians had a quick mobilization and invaded East
Prussia before Germany could complete her invasion on France. This forced Germany to
second division of regiment into Russia front and fight in two fronts. Hence, the Schlieffen
plan was failed. It became clear now that the war was of multi-fronts, not one and an
elongated one in which victory would come only by military superiority.
As others joined the warring nations the spread of the war beyond Europe became only a
matter of waiting time. Turkey in 1914 and Bulgaria in 1915 joined the German bloc. The
Triple Entente was joined by a number of nations because the central powers were regarded
ad aggressors and provocative. The British Empire, France, Italy (since 1915), Russia,
Belgium, and Serbia were in the bloc. The Americans who remained neutral at the World war
marked a turning point. The Entente gained a joint power as an ally and tied the fate of the
battle in favour of the bloc. It also heralded a period of America’s emergence as a World
power and eventual world leadership.
5.1.3. The Military aspects of the War
Worldwide dimension: For the first time in the history of mankind, the WWI affected all
nations of the world. The impact of the war was felt in every corner because the continents
contributed both in terms of manpower and material to the warfronts.
Employment of the newly invented weapons:
The following were for the first time used in the campaign: dirigibles, giant artilleries, tanks
and poison gas. Airplane was used for combing and attacking purposes. The British naval
forces, aided by the French and the American navies engaged in dramatic battles. Germany
never became successful in attacking British ships .The German submarine danger in
Atlantic was overcome.
5.1.4. Major Fronts of WWI

A. The Western Front: This was the front which Germany was expecting swift victory by
conducting attack on France first and Russia next. The Schlieffen plan put into effect seemed
successful when Germany over run Belgium and proceeded into France. However, this quick
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assault was halted at Monism in August 1914 and at the battle of Marne in September 1914 when
the British supported the desperate French.
By the end of September 1914 Germany had began to confront war on more than one front. The
soldiers on both sides dug trench each separated by ‘a bar bed wire ‘ . Hence, the front became
dead lock and it was in attempts to break these deadlocks that in 1916 the fight in the front
assumed bloody character. Two bloodiest battles fought were at Verdun and Somme where both
the Entente and the central the central powers had high death full but little territorial gains. The
other battles having such immense causalities were that of Ypres in 1917. Although attempts
such as naval blockade were made to break the deadlock no resounding victory could be scored
on both sides fill USA entered into the war. The entrance of USA in April 1917 on the side of the
Allies gave fresh impetus as subsidies in finance; military and contribution of troops were to
become decisive factors in the later engagements.
The Eastern Front:

This was the front where Germany had planned to launch attack on Russia. In early battle
confrontations of September 1914 at Tannenbarg and Masuria lakes the Germans inflicted heavy
damages on Russia. In 1915, Germany went on success as they overrun and captured Poland.
The Russian performance seemed incapable on Germany but launched successive offensive
against the weaker Austro-Hungary. From July 1917 onwards, the Russian troops badly armed
and badly led went into mating and joined the revolutionary movements against the Tsar
government. Russia which experienced two revolutions in the year, opened new negotiations
with the central powers and signed the Breast-Litovsk Treaty that had severely harsh terms to
the Country. The Germans had no victories but Russia’s withdrawal and peace conclusion
unquestionably was advantageous.
Southern Front:
Britain and France approached Italy promising territory after if she fought with them. In
1915, Italy signed the Treaty of London with Britain, France and Russia that made her enter into
the war. The Italians fought against Austria, but they were beaten and had heavy causalities. The
case was so serious that the situation forced Russia and Britain had to support Italy. Finally the
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combined forces of Russia and Italy broke the Austrian defense and compelled Austria to
surrender. This convinced Rumania to side with the British bloc, which she joined later. By
1917, the central powers had controlled largest part of the Balkans. However, they did not score
major victories over Italy. In 1918, much of the Balkans was lost to Allied powers and Italian
offensive forced Austria-Hungary to capitulate.
5.1.5. The End of the War

The Allies finally defeated the German army that launched the war at the beginning in
victories. Germany fought a protected war, despite her military plan on two fronts which steadily
and gradually weakened her economic and military resources. Shortage in food supplies made
strikes common. Agitation to the end of the war became pressing issue in 1917 and 1918 not
only Germany but also in the whole Europe. Revolutions started to breakout. In Russia the
Bolsheviks came to power and pulled themselves out of the war fronts.
The German army commanders decided to continue the war despite opposition. However, the
allied, the French commander (Marshal Foch) decisively contacted a counter attack in August
1918. The central power bloc began to disintegrate when member governments appealed for
peace and surrendered. In 1918, September, Austria-Hungary sued for peace followed by the
Bulgarians.
The USA’s involvement of the war gave a mighty ally to the side of Britain and France.
The economic and military power of Germany never matched that of the Allies. As the war
overstretched, highly consumed what the Germans had as reinforcement and supplies. The initial
superior military strength of Germany went on diminishing.
The leading German military commanders like Erich Ludendorff and Paul Von Hindern burg
rightly came to understand that the war was over against Germany. The common people had
enough of war. A revolution that followed toppled the Hohenzollern dynasty. Germany was
declared a Republic. The new Republican government asked the American president Wilson for
peace. The armistice signed on 11, November, 1918 ended up the hostilities with allied and
ended up the WWI.
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Check-list
Put if you know the following terms!
1. The Schlieffen Plan…………………………………………………………………………
2. The Triple Entente ( the Allied)……………………………………………………………… 
3. The Triple Alliance (central power)……………………………………………………… …..
4. The Western front …………………………………………………………………………….
5. The Eastern front……………………………………………………………………………..
6. The Southern front……………………………………………………………………………
7. The Treaty of London………………………………………………………………………..
8. The Hohenzollern……………………………………………………………………………..
Self-Check Exercise
Part I: Multiple Choices.
Choose the best answer from the given alternatives!
1. Britain entered into WWI when Germany invaded
A. France B. Belgium C. Poland D. Austria
2. The idea of the Schlieffen plan was to:
A. Fight a decisive war on one front and mobilize into the other next
B. Fight war on two fronts
C. Declare war on Russia only
D. was a war plan designed only to invade France
3. Of the following one could be a basic reason for the WWI:
A. The assassination of Archduke Ferdinand
B. The Austrian ultimatum
C. The antagonistic economic, national and political interests of the Europeans
D .A result of colonial dissatisfaction
4. Identify the Country less affected by the causalities of WWI!
A. Germany B. France C. USA D. Italy
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5. Identify the battle field from the Eastern front!

A. Marne B. Masurian C. Ypres D. Verdun
Section 3: Consequences of the WWI

Dear colleague! In this third section you will learn the consequences of WWI. Defeat,
Causalities and peace Treaties had brought chaos to Europe in general and the central powers in
particular. The peace Treaties produced bitterness and disorders. Attempts made by the winners
to dictate in peace making and to regain reparations of war created a long lasting effect of
dichotomy. Particularly, Versailles Treaty became a document to dominate the post-war
international relations. As agricultural and Industrial sectors were destroyed, the economic
situation went out of control and inflation became common. Europe became a ground for mass
uprisings.
5.1.6. Immediate Consequences

The WWI had far reaching consequences. At the end four years, the overall damages of it
proved never met in the world before. Politically the old empires in power for years like
Hohenzollern (Germany), Habsburg (Austria-Hungary) and Ottoman Turkey were destroyed.
The disintegrated Habsburg Empire gave birth to new independent states of Czechoslovakia,
Yugoslavia, Poland, Austria and Hungary. After the October revolution in Russia the capitalist
system ceased to be dominant social order in the world. The revolution created two antagonistic
blocs whose conflicts were intense in the following decades of the century.
The cost of the war in loss of life was also high. Over 8.5 million were died in the battles. About
22 million were either wounded or left as disabled or handicapped. Widows and orphans were
seen in large numbers. The most affected in the war was the young generation.
The disaster of the war economically was immense. Chaos reigned in agriculture and industry
negatively affecting trade and employment. The shift in production to the war materials resulted
in unemployment and increase in the price of consumer goods. The war incurred Europe into
dept particularly to USA and this in turn made the latter appear into the economic domination of
the world terminating the centuries previous position of the former.
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5.1.7. Motives of the Big Three

The WWI had made the victor states busy in devising mechanisms to avoid the coming of
another war in future in reflecting different views about what should happen next. The architects
in peace design were the leaders of the “Big Three”, George Clemenceau of France, Woodrow
Wilson of USA and David Loyd George of Britain. The prime Minister of Italy, Vittorio Orlando
joined these powers lately. Differences existed during the war but were not leaked out. When the
American president for example approached the Allies with his provision of the 14 points long
before the war ended up, the latter did not have agreement but had to remain silent because the
Americans should not be annoyed and missed in the war as an ally.
Woodrow Wilson regarded the war a result of European selfish interests in diplomacy and
ignorance for self-determination. Hence, he became a great believer in the idea of self-
determination.
Self-determination is the right of people to choose elections and governments free of
interference.
Britain reflected her wishes of placement in Europe’s affairs and limited war reparations
on Germany because her military and colonial threats were over. Complaining a possibility of
future assault of Germany on the long frontiers of France, George Clemenceau and suggested
harsh measures. Because they had a long history in overseas control, the idea of self-
determination was unthinkable on both the British and French sides. Besides while USA was
against any payment of reparations, the Europeans persistently continued to advocate.
 Reparations are the payment of compensation for the damage and injury caused as a result of
aggression.
The Fourteen Points
The idea of Woodrow Wilson was explained in his fourteen points. The following were the
summary of these points stated by Wilson in January 1918. But they were not all accepted by the
British and French governments.
1. Open Treaties or deals between States
2. Free Movements of ships from Countries to Countries
3. Uncontrolled (free) trade between countries
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4. Keep the future interest of people under colonial rule

5. Reduction in armament
6. Integrity of Russia’s territory
7. Free Belgium from Germany
8. The return of Alsace and Lorrain to France
9. Italian speakers under Italy
10. Freedom for the peoples under Austria-Hungary
11. Free Balkan states
12. Freedom of non-Turkish people under Turkish Empire
13. A free and sovereign Poland
14. Establishment of the peace keeping league of nations
5.1.8. The Peace Conference at Paris and the treaty of Versailles

After the end of the war, the Allies debated on the task of the future peace settlement. In
January 1919, delegates of the victor nations met in Paris where they talked on the first session
of the Paris peace conference. The Big Three representatives dominated it. The conference
representatives agreed to draft terms of treaties among themselves. They also decided that each
defeated power should conclude a separate peace treaty with the victors. The defeated powers
would accept and implement the terms of treaties with no little alteration.
The peace treaty of Versailles signed on June 28, 1919 was a peace settlement between Germany
and victorious nations. The total number of nations participated in the peace dictation at
Versailles was thirty-two. Neither the newly socialist state, Soviet Union which was member of
the Allied during the war, nor Germany a victim and concerned nation in the Treaty was invited
to send representatives.
Each of the Three Big agreed on the return of Alsace and Lorrain to France. The French
also got the Soar coal mines territory. Germany ceded Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium, Pozzen ,
Silsesia and Pomerania to Poland. Denmark annexed Northern Schleswig. Danzig city came
under the administration of the League. The Rhineland cut-off Germany became demilitarized
zone. The Coal-rich Sear Land was decided to be under the League of Nations. Germany was
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deprived of all her colonial possessions and all in all lost about 13 percent of her former territory.
Poland, Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia became independent states.
Who were called the Big Three?
Georges, Clemenceau (France), Woodrow Wilson (USA), Lloyd George (Britain)
Germany’s military power regarded as a chief cause of the war was argued a lot and faced
limitations. The number of army was agreed not to exceed 1000 men. Conscription was
forbidden and the use of tanks and armored cars banned. There was to be no German air force.
The navy was diminished to 36 vessels. The Versailles Treaty also requested the Germans a total
of 6600 million dollars as war compensations.
The Germans regarded the Versailles Treaty as dictated one and “Slave” treaty. The
German authorities signed it were declared betrayals and the “criminals of 1919’. The German
people saw the treaty as harsh and painful to accept. Later, this proved to be a corner stone for
the revival of German nationalism. There were four other treaties decided at Paris dictated on the
other defeated countries Austria, Bulgaria and Turkey in 1919 and 1920. The peace settlement
repeated the Versailles pattern and the idea of national self-determination were dealt at large.
The principle of self-determination created new states like Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia but
did not end traditional ethnic rivalries and conflicts by promoting lasting peace in Eastern
Europe.
The League of Nations
The setting up of an international organization to create a new framework of relations
was one important agenda of the Big nations at Versailles Treaty. It was from this point of view
that the first world organization, the League of Nations designed to establish new international
relations was formed. The League officially began its work in January 1920. It had rules known
as the League Covenant, proclaiming lofting and noble aims such as:
1. Guarantee of international peace and security
2. Cultivation of friendly relations
3. Solving problems through peaceful and international arbitration
4. The use of sanctions and if this failed collective military action against states seeking
aggression.
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Structurally, the League consisted of an assembly which met yearly, a council that met
regularly four permanent and four contemporary seats, both seats raised later. Real power in the
League went to the Council that was dominated by the permanent members. The day to day
activities of the League was carried out by the Secretariat. Other commissions and committees to
delegate power on issues like disarmament were formed.
However, the league had series of difficult problems in exercising its power. Defeated nations
and the Soviet Union were denied of entry. Many regarded the league as victors and capitalist
club because the few rich and powerful permanent members dominated the whole
administration. The decision of the US senate to no entry of America deprived the league of
powerful ally.
In its subsequent activities the league proved that it was not instrument to strengthening
peace and developing global co-operation. The Soviet Union became the League’s important
centre of diplomatic war for her ideological outlook. The other drawback of the league was its
support of colonialism and decision to govern the former colonies of defeated powers through
the mandate system. As a result of the Versailles treaty, the contradictions between victor and
victim powers provoked deep resentment and the league became source of tension. Sharp
differences appeared between Italy and the Entente powers, because Italy bargained and accused
of the Entente cheating her share on colonial gains. Italy’s wish to gain territory on the port of
Fiume was given deaf ears. The biggest problem of the league, apart from mentioned above was
its total failure in disarmament.
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Check-list
Put a tick () if you know the following terms!
1. The Big Three……………………………………………………………………….
2. Self-determination…………………………………………………………………….
3. The Hohenzollern……………………………………………………………………..
4. The Hapsburg Empire………………………………………………………………….
5. Ottoman Turkey………………………………………………………………………..
6. The fourteen points…………………………………………………………………….
7. The Treaty of Versailles…………………………………………………………………
8. The League of Nations…………………………………………………………………
9. War reparations ……………………………………………………………………….
10. The covenant…………………………………………………………………………...
Self-Check exercises
Direction: Fill in the Blank Spaces!!
1. The Three leaders dominating in making peace settlement were __________,________ and
_______________
2. The body of the League which exercised actual power was ____________________________
3. The Three countries that allied with Germany and concerned the 1919-1920 Treaties were
_____________, _____________________ and ___________________________________.
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Chapter Six
6. The Interwar Developments
Introduction
Dear colleague! In this unit you are going to deal with the historical happenings between the two
world wars, 1918-1939, the Russian revolution, the economic Depression and Development of
fascism, Nazism and Militarism.
After the death of Alexander III in 1894, his son Tsar Nicholas II (1894-1917) had ruled
the Russians. Under the Tsar, Russia had autocratic and bureaucratic government with unlimited
powers. But this government was inefficient, weak and had little confidence. Because of this the
country experienced revolutionary movements in 1905 and 1917. The second section deals with
great economic crisis that followed the First World War and lasted until the beginning of WWII.
The impact of depression was felt in Europe in general and in Germany in particular. The
impoverishment in Germany and in Italy made people no more confident in their governments
and the fascist appeals got admirers that brought them under the rule of dictators. The dictators
sought allies to establish a coalition of the fascist bloc that with the initiative of Germany
prepared for another aggression. This will be dealt in the last section of this unit.
Objectives:
At the end of this Unit, you will be able to:
Describe the major causes of the Russian revolution
Explain the causes and consequences of the economic depression
Identify fascism, Nazism and militarism
Elaborate fascist aggressions
Section 1: The Russian revolutions

At the turn of the 19th century Russia, the largest state in Europe was both economically
and politically backward when compared to west Europe. The majority of the Russians were
poor peasants living in the countryside. The town inhabitants dependent on the mine and
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factories for their livelihood were small portion of the total administration in the government.
The 1904-1905 Russo-Japanese war witnessed the incapability and corruptive nature of the Tsar
and enhanced the discontent of the people. Workers staged strikes and Russia entered into
revolutionary upheavals that culminated in the fall of the tsar government. This will be a focal
point of discussion in this section.
Objectives:
At the end of this section students will be able to:
Identify the causes of Russian revolution
Distinguish the political lines of the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks
Discuss the incident of the bloody sun day
State the political lines of underground movements in Russia.
Describe the February 1917 revolution
 Explain reasons that brought the Bolshevik into power.
6.1. Causes of the Russian revolutions

a) The Autocratic rule of the tsar:
In the first years of the 20th century, Russia had series of problems which culminated in
revolutions and downfall of the Tsar regime. The Tsar who exercised absolute power in politics
and religion ruled Russia. The Russian nobles permitted the Tsar absolute power that in turn
allowed to them to exercise much power over the peasantry. The tsar administration had in fact
relationship with Russian Church. The regime had well established and controlled military and
security forces to suppress liberal demands. Censorship was largely used to disrupt any attempts
on change and freedom. The Tsar believed state education would create revolutionary strikes and
no effort was made to embrace the lower mass in education.
b) Industrial expansion:
The tsar regime was feudalistic in character which never at all entertained industrial
developments. The landlords who were the governing elite held the largest portion of the Russian
land. The landlords used their political and economic positions to exploit and oppress the
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peasants. However, the major change in the Russian economy began to occur in the 1890s when
Sergei Witt, finance minister believed that Europe could be competed economically with only
industrial progress. Industrial expansion in the period took place mainly in railways and industry
and the government ran the whole process, not by private entrepreneurs.
The execution of industrialization by the central government however brought Russia in to
bankruptcy. The embarkation of Russia into the industry system was not supported by strong
agricultural base to provide raw materials and investment. Hence, Russia was forced to import
resources from overseas which were paid by high tax increase on peasants. This move
aggravated the life situation of peasantry as peasants were forced to sell their produce to pay
increased taxes. Food riots became wide spread, unemployment increased and revolutionary
upheavals continued to change the state machinery.
c) Political Movements:
The resentment of tsarist regime by the peasants witnessed the coming of the workers to
the same cause. While the peasants demanded right over the land, the workers who were
suffering from oppression and exploitation had requests on better wages and reduction in
working hours.
Underground political parties, committees and groups were scattered all over the country to
propagate and advocate political reforms. From these issues the majors were the following:
i) The Liberals: The intellectual and professional groups who advocated for a democratic
constitutional government. The liberals established the Union of liberation which promised a call
of all people to have a democratic government.
ii) The Social revolutionaries (sRs): It was a movement which requested immediate revolution
to bring change on the land system and social reform. However as it went on terrorist actions,
caused the Tsar regime to be more respective.
iii) The Social democrats: attracted by Marxism, this group contained the working class in the
factories and advocated for socialist principles. In 1903 split in the party was conducted. The
major Bolsheviks (the majority) was led by Vladimir Ilych Lenin and believed in the
establishment of a tightly disciplined elite party to achieve communism. The Mensheviks (the
minority) under the leadership of Yuly Martov thought of creating working class party that
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would enable workers to rule themselves. The other important personality in the revolutionary
groups was Leon Trotky who opposed Lenin for advocating an idea of elite party dictatorship.
From 1903-1917, Lenin, Trotsky and other revolutionary leaders were forced to lead exile life.
However, their political influence remained strong in the underground movements and
publications. The Marxist group began to publish a newspaper called Iskra(spark) since 1900
from abroad to disseminate revolutionary agitation. Iskra was underground publication and
copiers were smuggled into Russia through neighboring countries like Germany.
d)Nationality contradictions: The pre-revolutionary Russia was home of national suppression.
Minor nationalities like poles, Finns, Jews, Latvians etc were forced to adopt Russian language
and culture. The minorities who opposed such impositions and chauvinistic complexes of
Russians became ready to welcome movements for a change of government.
6.2. The First Russian revolution of 1905

From February 1904-September 1905, Japan and Russia went to war to get control of
Manchuria, a Chinese territory. Despite its underestimation to the military power of Japan, the
Tsar regime ended up in humiliating defeat. To the Russians and others Japan was backward
oriented country of the time and all expected easy Russians victory. However, Japan won the war
and this ensured the incapability of Nicholas II. The Tsar government ordered peasants from
rural areas to draft food items into the war front to the army. This resulted in severe shortage of
food and in disrupting communication lines paralyzing the popularity of government.
Dissatisfaction spread everywhere and the Russian people demanded reforms in a series of
demonstrations and riots.
In January 1905 workers strikes broke out. The leading head in such strikes of St.
Petersburg was George Gapon. On 9 January 1905 about 200,000 of the demonstrators marched
to the winter palace where they could present a petition. However, the Tsar troops in the Palace
and the police force opened fire on the demonstrators in which thousands were killed and
wounded. It became a horrifying event and the day came to be known as in history the Bloody
Sunday. It brought more and more discontent to the Tsar regime. Everybody believed the tsar
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was no more the “father” but bitter enemy of the mass. The unrest both in the major cities and
countryside was followed by mutinies in the army that resulted into revolution known as the
Revolution of 1905. The Workers in the cities began to elect especial council called the Soviet as
representatives.
 The Soviets were the first deputies that became the leading heads in the later revolutionary
movements in Russia.
After hesitation Nicholas II came to realize, with the urge and advice of liberal authorizes that to
crush the growing revolutionary movements repression was no more means and accepted the
idea of concessions and decided to introduce democratic reforms. On 17 October 1905, the tsar
issued the October manifesto that promised the people freedom of speech, the press, assembly
and an elected duma (parliament) and trial before charge. According to the manifesto it was
declared that members of Duma would be elected by universal suffrage. However, the
revolutionary movements heads continued to expose the true nature of the tsar regime by
propagating the tsar attempts on concessions were only to deceive the people.
6.3. The 1917 Russian Revolutions

A) The March 1917 revolution: The tsar’s decision to involve in the First World War became
disastrous to the regime. The Russian military force mobilized to the war against Germany was
unprepared and ill armed. As a result the casualties were high and series of defeats counted
moral deterioration. Besides, the military force was poorly supplied in reinforcement. As
factories produced war materials shortages in basic necessities brought riots. The living
standards in the cities and the peasants in the countryside fell down. Prices, especially food
prices rose and hunger was widespread. Nicholas II became detached from the people and could
not cope with these problems. By the end of 1916 Russia was nearly going to military defeats in
the war. The army units mutinied and refused to fire on demonstrators. In February 1917 the
leading ministers of the tsar were arrested.
On 2 March 1917, the Revolutionary movements put to an end the tsar’s rule in Russia for good.
The ineffective leadership of the tsar and the ruling Romanov Dynasty in Russia collapsed with
this. All opposing groups and the majority of the population enjoyed it.
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i) The Provisional Government: The march 1917 Revolution formed a provisional government
of the bourgeoisie and the Soviets in the Duma. Alexander Kerensky headed this government
first by George Lvov and later. It was a government of dual power for political power was shared
between the bourgeoisie, and the workers and peasant’s deputies, the Soviets who exercised
authorities in uneasy manners. Most of the leading figures of the bourgeoisie representatives in
the government like the nobility and the large landowners became reluctant to a democratic
government. The Mensheviks also inclined to the idea of the bourgeoisie in the provisional
government. The Soviets demanded freedom of the press, speech, assembly and an eight hpur
working day. They also requested the release of political prisoners. Hence, the situation of the
dual power was unstable.
ii) The Impact of Lenin’s return to Russia: Contrary to the interest of the majority Russians
wishing end of hostilities in World War One, the Provisional government decided to continue. It
also delayed the expectations of the peasants to land reforms. No attempt was made for a call to
elections to the constituent assembly. It was in such a confused period that the Bolshevik leader,
Lenin decided to return to Russia from exile. The departure of Lenin fro Zurich to Russia on 3
April, 1917 was done secretly by a train. Lenin returned to Russia through Germany with the
help of its government because the German government believed that in return Lenin would
cause a revolution which would take Russia out of the war.
Lenin decisively led the Bolsheviks to oppose the war declaring it as imperialist war. He
also advocated for no-support policy to the provisional government. In his proposal known as the
April Thesis, Lenin proposed the end of the war and peace treaty with Germany. He declared all
power should be handed over to the Soviets. Lenin’s views of the Bolsheviks stand revolved on
‘peace, bread and land’ and seemed to address the very sentiment of the ordinary people.
In the early days of July the Bolsheviks demonstrated strikes demanding the collapse of the war.
The Kerensky headed provisional government accused Lenin of German agent. This forced
many of the Bolsheviks including Lenin to exile. Other Bolshevik who remained in Russia
continued to discredit and weaken the authority of existing government. The Bolsheviks came to
realize that only armed struggle to be made in the name of Soviets would result in political
power. Meanwhile the provisional government lost support from the workers, peasants and
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soldiers. As laws and orders became out of control of the government everybody came to
understand that only time could be waited to see the transfer of power into the Bolsheviks.
B) The October 1917 Socialist Revolution: As the power of the provisional government
dwindled, the political stand of Lenin and his Bolshevik party gathered momentum. The slogan
“bread, land, peace” expressed the wishes of workers, peasants and soldiers who actively
supported the Bolshevik party. The party took control of the Petrograd and Moscow soviets and
established workers’ militia called the Red Guard. In the army Bolsheviks idea was spreading.
On the night of October 25-26, 1917, the Bolsheviks announced the overthrow of the provisional
government at the same time capturing key buildings and key points in the capital.
Ministers and leading figures in the provisional government were arrested except Kerensky who
escaped and fled the country. The winter palace was easily controlled. These events coincided
with the return of Lenin from his exile to assume his leadership position. In the congress of the
soviets announcement was disclosing that the Bolsheviks had taken state power under Lenin. The
Mensheviks and other revolutionary leaders who opposed the seizure of power walked out of the
congress. Lenin’s new Socialist government took Russia out of the war by signing the sever
terms in the Brest-Litovsk treaty which took 25%of Russia’s territory out of Finland, Estonia ,
Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine and Poland.
Check-list
Put () for the terms you understood!

1. The Social democrats……………………………………………………………………….
2. Sergi Witt and industrial expansion in Russia……………………………………………….
3. The Social revolutionaries………………………………………………………………….
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4. The absolute power of the tsar………………………………………………………………

5. The Liberals…………………………………………………………………………………
6. Vladimir Ilych……………………………………………………………………………….
5. The Bolsheviks……………………………………………………………………………...
6. Mensheviks………………………………………………………………………………….
7. Leon Trotsky………………………………………………………………………………..
8. Iskra…………………………………………………………………………………………..
9. The First Russian revolution of 1905…………………………………………………………
10. The Bloody Sun day………………………………………………………………………….
11. The Soviets…………………………………………………………………………………...
12. The October manifesto……………………………………………………………………….
13. The March and October 1917 revolutions……………………………………………………
Direction: Choose the best answers for the following Questions!
____1.All are drawbacks of Tsarist Russians industrialization policies except:
A. It was run by the government not inviting private entrepreneur
B. It was not supported by internal resources of raw materials
C. Attempt at industrialization had improved the economic situation
D. Forced the government and the peasantry to go into bankruptcy
_____2.The Union of liberation was found by the:
A.Social revolutionaries
B.Mensheviks
C.Liberal groups
D. Social democrats
______3. Of the following one is not true about the Russian tsarists:
A. The ruling elite below the tsar also had much power to exercise
B. economically the country was backward
C. the tsar had autocratic power
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D. had a political system which practiced maladministration

______4.Of the following one was the result of the 1905 revolution:
A. The October manifesto which promised democratic rights
B. The dictatorship of the bourgeoisie
C. The coming to power of Lenin
D. Russia declared socialism as a system
______5.The leading figure in the 1905 St. Petersburg anti-tsar government movement was:
A. Lenin
B. George Gapon
C. Stalin
D. Trotsky
_______6.Iskra was :
A.A newspaper of the Marxists
B.A manifesto issued by the Bourgeoisie government to introduce concessions
C.A magazine prepared monthly for Bourgeoisie propaganda
D.A newspaper of the tsar government
______7.In his April Thesis Lenin advocated:
A. The end of alliance between the workers and the peasants
B.The withdrawal of Russia from WWI
C. The continuation of friendship with allied powers
D. The alliance of Mensheviks with the Bolsheviks
_______8.Lenin entered Russia secretly through:
A. Britain B. Austria C. Germany D. France
Section two: The Economic Depression

Dear colleague! The first two decades of the post war period was characterized by intense
economic crisis and the emergence of fascist dictators. Accordingly in this section you will see
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the major economic and political crisis which the capitalist world encountered in the 1920s and
1930s.
Section’s objectives:
After the end of this section you will be able to:
Identify the major divisions of the periods with their respective historical occurrences
Discuss the reasons of stabilization
Explain the Dawes plan
6.4. The Political unrest and the Depression

The mass upsurges and the economic depression which took place as a result of the First World
War are regarded as a first crisis of capitalism. This crisis which lasted till the beginning of the
WWII in 1939 could be discussed broken down into three distinctive periods.
6.4.1. The First period (1917-1923)

This was a period where revolutionary movements throughout the world became
widespread. The scope of the revolutionary strikes exceeded any movement in the past in the
Western Europe and Asian countries. The formation of the First Socialist in Russia, the largest
European Country, rocked the foundation of the capitalist system and Countries like USA,
Britain, France and Japan were forced to be centers to host demonstrations. As you have learnt,
the upsurges in Germany and Austria-Hungary dismissed the long existed dynasties. The biggest
European powers secured the re-division of the world as per the treaty of Versailles which
dominated the post-war international relations. The Versailles treaty consolidated the power of
the winners by legalizing the division.
6.4.2. The Second Period (1924-1929)

It was characterized by temporary and partial stabilization of both political and economic
systems of the capitalist world. In Europe production was accelerated and enabled affected
countries to overcome the post war economic crisis by increasing their over production. There
was also stability in the political situation.
Despite some attempts towards the establishment of relations with Soviet Union, the capitalist
world did not give up to organize anti-soviet movements. The colonial world actively began to
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draw itself to the national liberation movements. America showed interest to assist the
Europeans in economy and finance through the Dawes plan, financial expert in America. The
reasons why USA wanted to extend such aid was to compensate her war period loans by
investing in Europe and to create close attachment against the spread of communism. In October
1925, the capitalist countries signed a treaty at Locarno, Switzerland, to divert Germany’s
relation with Russia into the west. The Locarno treaty partially solved the disputes between
Germany and her neighbors, France and Belgium.
6.4.3. The Third Period

The destructive world economic crisis of 1929-1933 reversed the temporary stability of
the second period. In many of the European countries revolutionary movements evolved again. A
national revolutionary war took place in Europe. Fascist regimes came to power in Germany,
Italy and Japan to prepare the way to start a new World war. The fascist bloc broke the Versailles
Treaty system of the Post-war period and pursued aggressive policies. The policy of
appeasement followed by the super powers towards aggression encountered the bloc to defile the
very principles of the League of Nations.
The Policy of Appeasement
It was a diplomatic policy that western European powers followed towards fascism in second
half of the 1930s by trying to satisfy the interest of the fascist powers.
Check-list
Put () if you have understood the following!
1. The first crisis of capitalism …………………………………………………………...
2. The idea of stabilization………………………………………………………………..
3. The Dawes plan………………………………………………………………………...
4. The Locarno Treaty………………………………………………………………….....
5. The fascist bloc…………………………………………………………………………
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6. The policy of appeasement…………………………………………………………......
Section Three: The Emergence of Fascism and Militarism

Dear colleague, you have seen that the WWI had brought death, suffering and destruction to the
people of Europe. It had also caused special problems to the people of Italy and Germany. Both
nations were devastated by the war and when the war ended up people put no confidence in their
governments. Finally, the rise of nationalist groups in both Italy and Germany resulted dictators.
The word fascism is applied not only to Italy and Germany that had Benito Mussolini and Hitler
as fascist leaders in 1922 and 1933 respectively but also to Spain under Francisco Franco and
Japan which collaborated with them to pursue aggression in the late 1930s. Fascist regimes
differed in their policies from country to country but also had similarities. The strong emphasis
under fascism is dictatorship and nationalism. Under fascists government’s individuals who
aspired absolute power controlled state power. The political, economic and religious rights of
citizens fell under few nationalists. Such regimes had dictators as leaders with no party in
opposition. They stood against any movements on socialism.
Objectives:
Dear colleague, after the end of this section, you will be able to:
Describe how fascism evolved in Europe
Identify reasons which helped fascists to power
Explain the Chinese –Japanese conflict over Manchuria
Discuss the Lithon Commission mission
Describe the fascists’ coalition formations
State fascist defiance of the League of Nations
6.5. Fascism in Italy and Germany

Mussolini who had not previously been important in Italian politics founded the fascist
movement in Italy in 1919. The Italian state since unification in 1871 had unstable coalition
government composed of liberals and conservatives hardly had consensus on crucial issues. The
difference in development between the north and the poverty stricken south was one source of
instability. There were strong political differences between nationalist right and socialist
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movements. At the beginning of WWI the Italian government had a neutral policy in any
conflict of the Europeans. Later this policy was changed and Italy joined the Entente powers
hoping that she would have territorial gains. However, the overall causalities she had did not
match to the territorial concessions of the |Paris peace conference. Contrary like most of Europe,
Italy faced unemployment and inflation. Prices rose higher and higher. Millions of the Italians
became out of work. As a result of all this, living standards fell down.
Demonstrations and strikes forced production in the factories and agriculture to stand still
because workers and peasants involving in them interrupted day to day activities. In the
immediate post war period, Italy was on the verge of revolution. The industrial owners, the
bankers, the army leaders and other property holders called for a government strong enough to
curb chaos.
6.5.1. The Rise of Mussolini to Power:

It was from these political and economic disorder atmospheres that fascism in Italy had
planted root. Benito Mussolini who was conscripted in the army in war-period opposed Italian
involvement and organized a new party called the fascist party approaching the nationalist
groups. The followers of Mussolini were ex-soldiers identified by the black shirts they wore.
Promising Italy to return to the ancient glory of Rome the black shirts involved in violate actions
against socialist movements and their opponents. In 1921, Mussolini made fascism official
political party gaining thirty-five seats in parliament. Mussolini’s attacks on the Italian
government attracted the attention of the big business men and the church, which liked fascism
for its stand against communism. Mussolini was applauded as a guarantee of peace and order
among members of the army, ex-soldiers and students.
The August 1922 call of Socialists for a general strike against the Italian government
paved the way to Mussolini to come to power. When the fascist were called by the government
to crush the strike, Mussolini obtained the opportunity to portray his party as the only one to
stand against socialism and to demand a coalition in the government. In October the Italian king,
Emmanuel III called Mussolini to Rome to form a coalition government with the membership
name the National Bloc. Then, Mussolini called on his Black shirts and marched to Rome by
train. On arrival, Mussolini was invited to establish a fascist government. The king Emmanuel
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III, fear of communism and instability allowed the fascist to assume power by making Mussolini
prime Minister in 1922.
6.5.2. Mussolini in Power:

From 1922-1924, Mussolini was prime Minister of Italy’s coalition government
composed of the fascist, internationalists and conservative groups. In 1924, the fascist party
gained 665 of parliament seats. In January 1925, Mussolini accepted the approval of Emmanuel
III to enact law without parliament. This made fascism the only legal party in parliament. Other
parties were dissolved; the press and the trade unions were all banned or put under the fascist
control. The army and the police force were increased in number in order to put down opponents.
The high positions in the administrative posts were distributed to fascist party officials. In 1928,
fascism became the only party to have candidates in election. Hence, Italy became a single party
state under Mussolini who adopted the title “I Duce”, the leader. The fascist party established
close links with the Catholic Church by signing the concordat with its pop in February 1929. The
agreement made Catholicism official religion in Italy.
6.5.3. The Rise of Hitler to Power

The fascists in Germany were extremist groups who established the national socialist
party or the Nazi party in 1920 under the leadership of Adolf Hitler. Like fascists in Italy, the
Nazi followed aggressive policies, firmly stood against communism and democracy. The Nazi
party appealed to the Germans to build a strong army to violate the Versailles Treaty. They
blamed the Jews for German’s trouble and committed to make Germany strong enough to govern
Europe and the World. The Nazi party was nationalist and militarist in character.
Factors that brought Nazism to power:
i) Economic depression: - the economic crisis had hit Germany very hard. All branches of the
German economy seriously suffered in the crisis of 1929-1933. When the German government
printed excessive quantities of paper inflation followed. The economic situation in Germany
became worsened as crisis resulted in business failure, falling wages and increase in
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unemployment. The Nazi party advocated and promised to improve the economic problems and
gained the support of the middle class, the workers and the unemployed.
ii) Fear of Communism: - The economic instability and disaster had many of the Germans
belief in the communist party. The industrialists, the bankers and other property owners feared
communism in Germany and came to stand y the fascists. They extended support to the Nazi
party in finance, armament and other provisions.
iii) Nationalism:-The Versailles treaty had provoked resentment among many of the Germans.
The defeat of Germany in WWI had become unacceptable. The fascists exploited such
resentments to inculcate nationalist feeling. They promised to make the Versailles Treaty null
and futile. The Nazi requested the pre-war period German colonies in Africa and elsewhere.
They demanded the right to rearmament. Hitler declared the Germans as “Pare Aryan” race and
their domination of world in general and Europe in particular. The idea of master race produced
chauvinism and students, the middle class and the army officers inclined to the side of the
fascists.
iv) Hitler’s anti-Jew stand:- Hitler disliked the Jews and made announcement that they should
leave Germany. Many of the Germans particularly the petty bourgeoisie heard fascist
propaganda on Jews and blamed them for Germany’s defeat in WWI. Some went to the extent of
looting Jewish enterprises and attacking the Jews.
V) Opposition to the Weimer Government: - In their history the Germans believed that they
had benefited from autocratic government, not from the democratic Weimer republican
government which was blamed for defeat in the war and their many problems afterward. While
Germany was strong during Bismarck, now the Germans felt was weak and had accepted harsh
treaty. Germany was also, they believed going down economically. Hence, many Germans
became willing to support the Nazi party and its promises in economy and glory.
vi) Leadership of Hitler: - born in 1889 in Austria and joining the Germany army in 1914 and
serving in the western Front, Hitler later was successful in forming the Nazi party thanks to his
organizational ability. During his stay in prison because of uprisings, Hitler wrote the story of his
life, discussed his motives of the Nazi party and Nazi Germany in his book Mein Kampf (My
struggle). He initiated people to violence, opposition and mass rallies against the republican
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government. The Nazi party soon began to attract attention and many who later became
notorious Nazis joined the party. By 1932, his party was able to gain the support of 37% of the
total votes and became the largest party in the Reichstag (parliament). In 1923 President Von
Hidenburg forcefully appointed Hitler Chancellor. In the election called in February 1933 Hitler
wanted to win majority and in voting marked by violence and deceit came to control the
Reichstag. This ended up the Weimer republic by witnessing the start of Hitler’s dictatorial
power.
Fascist Aggression in 1930s
Dear colleague! You have seen that the League of Nations was powerless and could not stand to
the implementation of its covenant. A turning point in the league’s failure to keep peace and
integrity of member nations came in the 1930s when the fascists followed aggressive policies
and formed the fascist bloc.
a) Japan aggression: - the economic depression which attacked Japan had caused economic
hardships. Widespread unemployment and strikes that rose as a result of the depression gave the
militaries the opportunity to hold power. In the 1920s, the power of military force grew and took
control of Japan in 1930s promising to curb Japanese social as well as economic problems by
expanding an overseas empire.
In September 1931the Japanese military force initiated clash over Manchuria, a province
in north China. In the war that followed the clash, Japan defeated China and formed a puppet
government. China, a member in the league, appealed the invasion to the league that later sent a
commission to Manchuria to assess what was going. When the league heard report of the
invasion from Litton commission simply condemned Japanese aggression. It did not recommend
other actions like economic ban or use of force. In 1933, Japan totally left the league
membership. In 1937 the Japanese government launched war for a full occupation and control of
China.
b) Italian aggression:- In October 1935 Italy decided invasion on Ethiopia. The reasons why
Italy so wanted occupation were Mussolini’s decision to make a great empire in east Africa and
above all the strong feeling in Italy to avenge Adwa. The Italians had registered the Adwa defeat
as a shameful “scar” and Mussolini, who wanted popularity of his regime, had to erase it. The
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Ethiopian king Haile Sellassie appealed, but the League could do nothing beyond condemning
the act and ordering a ban which was not effective.
c) German aggression: - a very important reason for Hitler’s coming to power and getting
popularity was his attack of the Versailles treaty and determination to reject it. In 1933, Hitler
demanded Germany’s right for rearmament. When he was refused announced total withdrawal of
Germany from membership of the League. In 1934, Hitler declared incorporation of Austria with
Germany. The following year, a forced military service of Germans was introduced. In the same
year the Rhine Land, supposed to be demilitarized zone at Versailles, was declared German
territory. Hitler went on defying the league and the Versailles treaty when he introduced
conscription and rearmament of latest weapons.
Hitler and Mussolini came to their mutual understanding of aggressive policies since
1936. In that year the first fascist coalition known as the Berlin-Rome Axis was formed. Both
agreed to aid General Francisco Franco’s nationalist and militarist movement in Spain that took
place from 1936-1939. The German, Italy and Japan Anti-Comintern pact that brought the three
countries to a common stand against the spread of communism was signed in 1937. This fascist
coalition was further extended in 1939 when General Francisco took control of Spain and
established a fascist dictatorship creating link with Germany and Italy. Hence, it was clear that
the league formed to maintain peace and stability was not successful and Europe was preparing
itself for another world war.
6.6. The Spanish Civil War 1936-1939

In 1923, a coup led by General Miguel Primo de Rivera formed a new government
in alliance with King Alfonso XIII Bourbon. In 1930, opposition to Primo de Rivera's
right wing government led to his resignation. Out of a desire for democracy and socialism
by the populace of Spain, Alfonso was overthrown in 1931 and a republic declared. In
1936, a Popular Front of leftists forces, hated by industrialists, the bourgeois, landowners,
the church, and the army, were elected to Parliament and took control of the government.
In July of 1936, rebellion broke out among army units, and the fighting began.
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The nation broke into two factions. The Republicans, or "Loyalists," consisted of
communists, socialists, anarchists, and liberals, and received some international support as
well as some military and financial aid from Stalin. The "Nationalists," or "Falangists,"
represented fascism, and consisted of monarchists, clergy, landowners, the army, members
of the "Falange" party and received a great deal of direct aid from Mussolini and Hitler.
In 1936, Great Britain, France, and the United States signed a non-intervention pact
regarding the civil war. In 1937, the town of Guernica, a civilian town, was attacked and
bombed by the German air force. In 1939, nationalists took Barcelona and Madrid, and
General Francisco Franco announced the end of the Civil War. From 1939 until 1975 Franco
would rule as dictator in Spain.
Again to War, the Outbreak of World War II
The Treaty of Versailles produced four so-called "revisionist" powers. Germany, who
was the loser of the war, had harsh reparations imposed against them. Italy got nothing out
of the Peace of Paris. Japan didn't receive the racial equality clause they desired, even after
defeating the Russians in the Russo-Japanese War. The Soviet Union was snubbed at the
Peace of Paris as well, as it was not invited to attend.
Aggressive Actions by the Revisionist Powers

In 1933, Germany left the League of Nations. In 1934, Germany attempted to annex
Austria. In 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia while Germany reoccupied the Saar valley and
began conscription and open rearmament. In 1936, Germany remilitarized the Rhineland.
In 1938, Germany annexed Austria and the Sudetenland.
In 1939, Germany seized the rest of Czechoslovakia, showing that war was inevitable and
that appeasement had failed. During the same year, Italy and Germany sign the "Pact of
Steel" alliance and Germany and the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact. This pact
showed that war was imminent because two systems mutually pledged for the other's
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destruction came to agreement.

On September 1, 1939, Germany invades Poland with its new war machine using
what was called lightning warfare or Blitzkrieg. As a result, on September 3, 1939, Great
Britain and France declared war on Germany. On September 17, 1939, the U.S.S.R.
invaded Poland. In 1940, Germany, Italy, and Japan sign the Tripartite Treaty, forming the
Axis powers.
Responses of the Western Democracies to the Actions
The prevalence of pacifism in the 1920s in Europe meant that European nations
were reluctant to interfere in the actions of the revisionist powers. In addition, the nations
of the Treaty of Versailles began to feel guilt for their treatment of Germany, and
believed that they had wronged Germany. Moreover, the areas that Germany initially
invaded were all of German heritage, and the leaders of the nations wondered if perhaps
Germany should be allowed to take those territories. The leaders met at the Munich
Conference in 1938, and Hitler promised to take no more aggressive actions. However,
Hitler clearly had no intention of fulfilling his promise, and in 1939 he continued his
aggressive actions and war broke out.
Check-List
Put a () if you have understood about:
1. Mussolini…………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Fascism…………………………………………………………………………………….
3. The Nazi party……………………………………………………………………………….
4. The Weimer republic…………………………………………………………………………
5. The black shirts………………………………………………………………………………
6. Mein Kampf………………………………………………………………………………….
7. Manchuria…………………………………………………………………………………….
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8. Francisco Franco……………………………………………………………………………..
9. Anti-Comintern………………………………………………………………………………
10. The Berlin Rome Axis………………………………………………………………………
Self-Test Exercise
Part I: Multiple Choices
Direction: Choose the best answer for the following Questions!
______1.Which one of the following is false about fascism?
A. Involved in violent actions
B. Opposed communism
C. Were extreme nationalists
D. Were advocators of world peace
______2.The first country to establish a fascist regime was:
A. Japan B. Italy C. Germany D. Spain
______3.The National Bloc was:
A. Mussolini’s party name in Italian coalition government
B. An alternate name for fascism in Germany
C. A movement against fascism in Italy
D. Anti-Versailles movement in Germany
______4.The Weimer Republic in Germany was:
A. A Militarist government
B. a democratic government
C. anti-nationalist government
D. a Nazi government
______5.The Nazi Party in Germany stood for all but not for the following one:
A. Opposed the post war allied dictated treaties
B. Created close links with German Jews
C. Demanded the right to rearmament
D. Declared the Germans as “Super race’ in the World
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______6.Which is/are common for Mussolini and Hitler?

A. Assumed power in the same year
B. Had come to power due to grievances of WWI
C. Had served as soldiers in WWI
D. B and C
_______7.The black shirts stood for:
A. the anti-comintern pact
B. the followers of Mussolini in Italy
C. the followers of Hitler in Germany
D. anti-fascist coalition
_______8.In the February 1929 concordat the Catholic Church in Italy:
A. established relations with the fascists
B. opposed any idea of Mussolini on nationalism
C. created links with the communist in Italy
D. rejected Mussolini’s coming to power
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Unit Seven
7. The Second World War
Dear colleague! Welcome to the final unit of this module, the Second World War 1939-1945.
This unit has three sections. They are causes of the Second World War, Course of the War or
events led to the war and end of the war. Each section is subdivided into sub topics. This part of
European history is very interesting and I hope you will understand and enjoy it.
Objectives of the Unit:
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the fundamental causes of the Second World War
 Identify the war strategy employed by Germany and the Allied power during the Second
World War.
 Describe how the War came to an end.
Section one: Events leading to the Second World War

Dear colleague; this section discusses about the events leading to the Second World War. Under
this section you are going to learn about the fundamental causes of the Second World War. You
are also going to deal with how German Nazist determined to revise the Versailles peace
settlement signed in 1919, the policy of appeasement followed by the Western ruling classes
and the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggressive pact signed in August 1939.
Objectives of the section:
After completing this section you will be able to:
Explain the fundamental causes of the WWII
Describe how Hitler began to take aggressive actions against the treaty of Versailles
 Discuss the policy of Appeasement and its downfall
State various forms of the Fascist coalition
Explain the temporary Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of 1939.
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7.1. The Road to the War (1939-1945)

It is true that Britain and Italy guaranteed the frontiers between Germany and France;
Germany and Belgium against either Germany or French aggression by the Locarno Treaty of
1925. Germany declared her acceptance of the treaty in the west including the demilitarized
Rhineland. The Locarno treaties were hailed with general satisfaction in Europe as a big step
towards peace. Following Locarno, some concessions were in fact made to Germany, for
instance:-
Germany admitted to the League of Nations in 1926
The last Allied forces of occupation withdrawn in 1930
The Allied control commission supervising German disarmament withdrawn in 1927
But all these concessions were not enough to satisfy her. Hitler’s coming to power in January
1933 was a turning point. His aims include:
i)To destroy the Versailles limitations on Germany’s military strength. This meant rearmament
ii) Destruction of the Versailles territorial settlement, Germany regaining lost territory, especially
the territory lost to Poland.
ii) Hitler attracted to the “Greater German” solution to the question of Germany’s frontiers
iv) Hitler wanted more over than this. In main Kampf he had stressed Germany’s need for
Lebensraum (living space) for her expanding population.
 What were the basic causes for the Second World War?
The fundamental cause for the Second World War was deeply rooted in the peace
settlement made at the end of WWI. The peace settlement sowed the seeds of future War. Public
opinion in Italy and Germany was strongly was against the peace treaties. The fascist regimes
which came to power in both countries were determined to reverse the peace settlement and
achieve national greatness through war and conquest. In Japan also militarist groups who took
power in the early 1930s followed a similar policy of achieving greatness through territorial
expansion but in east and South East Asia and the pacific.
Japan took the lead in wagging aggressive war abroad. In September 1931, the Japanese army
conquered Manchuria (the Northern Province of China) and set up a puppet government there.
China appealed to the League of Nations. When the League condemned Japan as an aggressor
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and told it to withdraw from the Chinese territory, the Japanese announced their withdrawal from
the League of Nations on 27 may 1933. Further aggressive expansion of Japan against China
finally led to the outbreak of Chino-Japanese war of 1937. It was a full scale War.
The Japanese boldness in 1931 encouraged Italy to make a similar move against Ethiopia. In
December 1934, the Fascist unleashed the Walwal Incident which was followed in October 1935
by a full scale invasion of Ethiopia. Ethiopia appealed to the League of Nations upon which the
League condemned Italy as an aggressor and imposed certain sanctions on it. But the League’s
action did not stop Mussolini from continuing his military conquest in Ethiopia. In May 1936 the
Italian army led by Marshal Badoglio occupied Addis Ababa.
At the general disarmament conference (1932-1934) Hitler demanded equality of armaments for
Germany and when the French refused, Hitler withdrew from the conference and the League of
Nations in October 1933. Hitler then took the following aggressive actions against the Treaty of
Versailles as well as against international law. His aggressive actions were responsible for the
outbreak of the WWII.
a) The introduction of national military service in 1935 violated the Treaty of Versailles which
limited the German ground force to only 100,000 men and prohibited conscription
b) The German armies occupied the demilitarized zone of the Rhineland in March 1936 though
by the treaty of Versailles the German army had been forbidden entry in to this part of Germany.
Germany continued to rearm at a rapid pace.
c) In March 1938, German armies annexed Austria. For a long time Hitler had dreamed of an
“Anschlus” that is, the annexation of Austria. As early as 1924, Hitler wrote in Mein Kampf that
“German-Austria must return to the Great German Mother Country…one blood demands one
Reich [State]”. This dream was realized When Austria was annexed to Germany in March 1938.
D) In 1938 and 1939 Czechoslovakia became a target for Hitler’s policy of German expansion.
The case of Czechoslovakia needs to be treated in some detail here.
 What do you know about the Munich agreement of 1938? And what do you understand by the
Policy of Appeasement?
7.1.1. The Munich agreement and the Destruction of Czechoslovakia:-

Czechoslovakia held a key strategic position in Eastern Europe. In Particularly, the
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Sudetenland (an economically important and heavily fortified region in north western
Czechoslovakia along the German border) attracted Hitler’s aggressive policy. There were about
3 million German who lived in Sudetenland.
At the time these Germans were on bad terms with the Czechoslovakia government which
provided Hitler a pretext to move against Czechoslovakia. Hitler infact encouraged the Sudeten
German leader to complain of Czech “oppression” and make demands. On 12 September 1938
Hitler demanded that the Czechoslovak government give the right of self-determination to the
Germans of Sudetenland. The Czechoslovak government not only refused to accept Hitler’s
demand but also declared Martial law in the territory. In an effort to avert war, the British Prime
Minister, Neville Chamberlain agreed to meet Hitler to discuss the problem. The French
government also gave support to Chamberlain’s effort. The issue was discussed at the Munich
conference in September 1938. The conference was attended by the Chamberlain of Britain,
Daladier of France, Mussolini of Italy and Hitler of Germany.
In what came to be known as the Munich agreement, Germany was allowed to annex the
Sudetenland. In return Hitler promised to respect the sovereignty of the rest of Czechoslovak
territory. He also promised to settle future disputes by peaceful negotiations. Britain and France
showed in part be blamed for Hitler’s bold moves that finally ended with Hitler, they followed
the policy of “appeasement” or satisfying Hitler’s demand. Above all, Chamberlain was the
leading proponent of the policy of appeasement. He hoped to maintain peace and stabilize
Europe by making concessions to Hitler. From the very beginning, appeasement was ineffective
in dealing with Hitler and Mussolini. When Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles by
introducing national military service and occupying the demilitarized Rhineland, Britain and
France did nothing. After the Italian fascist invasion of Ethiopia, Britain and France refrained
from taking effective action. They feared to antagonize Mussolini and push him in to alliance
with Hitler. Despite their caution, however, the fascist military bloc was formed. In 1936,
Mussolini announced the formation of a Rome-Berlin Axis meaning the alignment of Italy and
Germany. In the same year the two powers as well as Japan signed the anti-Comintern Pact (an
anti-communist alliance) or the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Triangle. Soviet Russia was willing to join
the western power to unite against Germany and its allies. But Britain and France refused to
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accept his policy because they feared that the formation of such a front would provoke war.
When Hitler invaded Austria, Britain and France refused to be involved in the crisis. Finally, in
the Munich Agreement they satisfied Hitler’s demands at the expense of Czechoslovakia.
However, far from keeping his promises, Hitler was encouraged to make further moves.
On 15 March, 1939, only six months after the Munich agreement, Hitler sent his armies into
Czechoslovakia and occupied the western part of the Country. In eastern Czechoslovakia a
German puppet state called Slovakia was set up. In the same month, Hitler turned toward Eastern
Europe where he annexed Memel from Lithuania. It was clear that Poland would be the next
victim.
7.1.2. The Spanish Civil war, 1936-1939

The Ethiopian war began the process of moving Italy in Hitler’s direction. The Spanish
civil War completed it. In July 1936, General Franco carried out a military rising against the
government of the Spanish Republic. The Spanish workers fought in defense of the Republic and
a bitter struggle lasted 19936-39 before Franco won. In the Civil war, the Soviet Union helped
the republic, while Germany and Italy helped Franco. This strengthened the alliance of the two
fascist states and led to the creation of Berlin-Rome “Axis” and later, Anti-comintern pact
between Germany, Italy and Japan.
7.1.3. The Nazi-Soviet Non-aggression Pact of 1939

Now it became clear to the British and French governments that the policy of
appeasement had utterly failed though Chamberlain himself still hoped he could get a firm
agreement with Hitler. Therefore they decided to increase their armaments and also pledged
themselves to give military assistance to Poland, Greece, Rumania and Turkey if these Countries
were the victims of Nazi aggression. Moreover, despite mutual distrust between the Soviets and
the western power, the latter now wanted to extend their front against Germany by including
Soviet Russia. When they requested the Soviet Union to join them against the Nazis, the Soviet
leader Joseph Stalin asked in effect a free hand for the USSR in Eastern Europe, especially the
Baltic republics and Poland. Chamberlain refused to accept Stalin’s terms. This pushed Stalin to
turn to Hitler. The result was the agreement known as the Nazi-Soviet Non aggression Pact
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signed on 23 August 1939. In the agreement, the two sides pledged to remain neutral if one of
them was at war with a third power.
Although they signed the agreement, both Stalin and Hitler knew that the pact would
have no lasting effect. Stalin thought that the agreement would give him time to strengthen
Soviet military power. Hitler also wanted the agreement because of it would relieve him of the
need to fight the Soviet while Germany fought a war elsewhere without having to worry about an
eastern front against the USSR.
The British and French leaders realized that the Nazi-Soviet Pact destroyed the last opportunity
of stopping Hitler without war. But Hitler still hoped that the west would not act against him.
Accordingly, on 1 September 1939 Hitler’s armies invaded Poland. Two days later, Britain and
France declared war on Germany. Thus the Second World War had started in Europe. In Asia it
had already started in 1931 (Manchuria) or more clearly in 1937 when Japan and China began
open war. In Africa, Ethiopia had been resisting fascism since 1935.
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Check-List
Put () if you know about the following!
1. The Locarno treaties……………………………………………………………………..
2. Allied powers…………………………………………………………………................
3. Greater German…………………………………………………………………………
4. Chino-Japanese war……………………………………………………………………..
5. The wal-wal incident…………………………………………………………………….
6. Disarmament conference………………………………………………………………...
7. The Munich agreement…………………………………………………………………..
8. The Policy of appeasement……………………………………………………………….
9. The Nazi-Soviet Non-aggression Pact …………………………………………………....
10. The Spanish civil war …………………………………………………………………...
11. Berlin-Rome Axis ……………………………………………………………………….
12. Anti-comintern Pact ……………………………………………………………………..
Self-test exercise
Direction: Choose the best answers from the given alternatives!
______1.The first hot-bed for the Second World War took place in the Far East in:-
A.1931 B.1933 C.1937 d.1939 E. 1938
______2.The Locarno Treaties of 1925:-
A. Guaranteed the frontiers between Germany and France
B. Guaranteed the frontiers between Germany and Belgium
C. Hailed with general satisfaction in Europe as a big step towards peace
D. all of the above
______3.In the Munich agreement of 1938:-
A. Britain and France satisfied Hitler’s demand
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B. The leaders of Britain, France, Italy and Germany participated

C. Germany was allowed to annex the Sudetenland
D . ‘A’ and ‘B’ E. All of the above
______4.The Spanish civil war of 1936:-
A. Strengthened the alliance of Germany and Italy
B. Overthrew the government of General Franco
C. Aided by both Britain and France siding the republican government
D. ‘A’ and ‘B’ above E. None of the above
_______5.Which part of Czechoslovakia attracted the Hitler’s aggressive Policy?
A. Saar B Memel D. Sudetenland E. None of the above
Section Two: Courses of WWII 1939-1945

Dear colleague! This section introduces you with the courses of WWII. The Second
World War began in Europe on 1 September 1939 with the invasion of Poland by Hitler’s
armies. Under this section you are going to discuss about various fronts of the war, the
Battle of Britain, the invasion of the Soviet Union, and the attack on Pearl Harbor by the
Nazi army.
At the end of this section you will be able to:
 Explain a war strategy employed by the Germans
Describe the aims of Hitler for invading the Soviet Union
Identify the phases of the battles of Britain
State the attack on Pearl Harbor and entrance of the USA into WWII
Discuss various fronts of the WWII and the defeat of the Italians in Europe
7.2. The Destruction of Poland, September 1939:-

Hitler’s forces destroyed Poland in about three weeks. This was the first example of
blitzkrieg or lightning war method of war. The aim of this war method was to win quick
victory by the use of air and ground forces, especially tanks in combination. This war
strategy gained a series of success from 1939 to 1941 before failing against the USSR.
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Moreover, this strategy was effectively practiced during the invasion of Poland. According
to this strategy the “Luftwaffe”, the German air force started the attack by bombing
Poland, then followed a heavy attack using ground forces including armored tank divisions
known as “Panzers’ and some motorized infantry including other motorized units. Within a
few weeks, Poland was devastated.
Britain and France had declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939 following
the invasion of Poland on 1, September but Britain and France did nothing effective to
Poland.
7.2.1. The Phony war:-

From the collapse of Poland to the spring of 1940 there was little fighting anywhere except
at sea and this phase of the War was called Phony war or Sitzkrieg or Sitting War. It
means false. Hitler wanted to launch a major offensive in the West but the weather in the
winter of 1939 -40 was too bad for mechanized warfare and air War. Reluctantly therefore,
Hitler postponed his campaign in the west until spring of 1940. The inactivity of Britain
and France had an important political reason. The forces of appeasement were still strong
in ruling circles in Britain and France. Britain and France had gone to war against
Germany but reluctantly, and important elements in the ruling circles of Britain and France
wanted to end the War if possible. But they did not succeed.
7.2.2. The end of the Phony war, the conquest of Denmark and Norway:-
In April 1940, the Phony war ended when Hitler invaded and rapidly conquered the neutral
state of Denmark and Norway. The British and French sent troops to assist Norway but
these troops were quickly driven out. The only positive effect of the allied defeat in North
was the fall of Chamberlain’s government in Britain in May 1940. Chamberlain fell
because the country’s parliament and his own conservative party had lost confidence in
him. He was replaced as Prime minister by Winston Churchill as the head of coalition
government whose purpose was to fight the war more effectively. This was the end of
appeasement in Britain but not in France.
7.2.3. The Fall of France: -
Page 130
On 10 May 1940, Hitler launched major offensive in the west invading Holland, Belgium,
Luxemburg and France. The British and French High Commands did not anticipate
German war strategy. They expected the Germans to attack through the plains of Belgium
as they had done in 1914 in World War I. Because of this, British and French forces
moved into Belgium to oppose what they thought to be the main German line of attack.
But, the Germans broke into France through the wooded hilly terrain of the Ardennes
which the Allied had believed impossible for major operations. A large part of the British
and French forces were cut off in Belgium. Most of the British army escaped by sea but
left most its equipments behind. This army was numbering more than 300,000. Belgium
and Holland were conquered.
The Germans then advanced south through France. At this point with France about
to collapse, Mussolini declared war on Britain and France in June 1940. Paris was
surrendered on June 27, 1940 and an armistice was signed putting all of northern and
western France including Paris under German occupation until a final peace treaty. Central
and Southern France were unoccupied by the Germans. But a new French government was
established there under Marshall Petain with its Capital Vichy. However, an army officer
Charles de Gaulle went to Britain and called on French people to continue the war in spite
of the Vichy government. De Gaulle and his supporter were known as “Free France”.
The rapid collapse of France in 1940 was not because the German had overwhelmingly
greater number of men, tanks and aircrafts. Militarily, the French collapse was because of
British and French military blunders and military conservatism. So that Britain and France
did not use their tanks and aircrafts as effectively as the Germans. Politically, France in
1940 was a demoralized Country rotten with appeasement and defeatism. The French
ruling class did not really want to fight Hitler at all and regarded its own working class and
communism as real enemy. Moreover, at the beginning of the war the French working
class did not support the war fully because the war had been denounced by comintern as
just another imperialist war.
7.2.4. The Battle of Britain: -
After the fall of France, Britain refused a peace offer from Hitler and therefore gave order
Page 131
to prepare for an invasion of Britain. To achieve a successful invasion of Britain, the

German air-force needed to control the air over the English Channel and southeastern
England. In the battle of Britain, July-September 1940, the German air force tried but
failed to gain control of the air. Hitler therefore postponed the invasion of Britain
indefinitely. In fact Hitler was already making plans for an attack on USSR, an attack
which he launched in June 1941 before he had ended the war in the west. Hitler’s failure to
defeat Britain in the summer of 1940 was an important factor for in the ultimate Nazi
defeat because although Britain herself could not defeat Germany, Britain provided her
base from which United States; British and Canadian forces reentered the continent Europe
in the summer of 1944.
7.2.5. The U.S.A and the War (1939-1941):-
In the summer of 1940 objectively Britain had little hope of victory fighting Germany by
herself. Britain’s main hope was that the U.S.A as in World War I would abandoned
neutrality and joins the war against Germany. When the war began in Europe in
1939(September), the United States Congress and the American people were determined
not to be drawn into WWII as they have drawn in WWI. To ensure this, in late1939 the
Congress passed a Neutrality Act which was aimed preventing US involvement in the
war in Europe. The Neutrality Act allowed the sale of arms and war materials to
belligerents but said that all such materials must be paid for in cash and carried to Europe
on the ships of the belligerents, not American ships. The neutrality Act also prohibited
American loans to belligerents.
When France collapsed in 1940 most Americans moved away from neutrality and
the USA began to give increasing material aid to British. This was because most
Americans disliked fascism and Americans feared that if German won the war in Europe,
domination of Europe by the Nazi Germany would be detrimental to U.S.A’s security and
economic interests. The U.S.A. greatly increased its own armaments and in September
1940 introduced conscription. In September 1940, the USA “leased” 50 old warships to
Britain in return for British accepting U. S.A’s military basis on British territory in the
Western hemisphere. In March 1941, Congress passed the Lend-Lease Act which allowed
Page 132
the U.S government to supply arms and war materials to Britain without payment in spite
of the 1939 Neutrality Act. In 1941 the US warships began to escort British merchant ships
part of the way across the Atlantic Ocean and US merchant ships were allowed to sell to
British in spite of the Neutrality Act the US go far from neutrality towards involving
herself into the war now.
By July 1941 all German and Italian assets in the U.S.A. had been frozen by the
U.S. government and all the German and Italian diplomats had left the U.S.A., that is,
embassy staffs. However, the U.S.A was not actually at war with Germany or Italy until
Hitler and Mussolini themselves declare war on the USA on December 11,1941 following
the Japanese attack on the USA in the Pacific on December 7,1941. The USA was therefore
pushed into the War in December 1941 by being attacked by Japan, Germany and Italy.
After victory over Germany, Italy and Japan in the war, the U.S.A had the position of super
power in the world politics to which its economic strength had already entitled it in the
inter war period.
7.2.6. The USSR and the war, September 1939-June 1941:-
From September 1939 to June 1941, the USSR was neutral as a result of the non-
Aggression Pact between the USSR and Germany signed in August 1939. While Germany
was occupied in the West the USSR used time to try to strengthen its armaments and
military organization and extended its territory westwards to strengthen its own security.
Hitler disliked this Soviet territorial expansion but could not oppose it until he had achieved
victory over France in the west.
I) In September 1939, following the collapse of Poland the USSR regained western
Byelorussia and the Western Ukraine
II)In 1939, the Baltic state Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania accepted Russian military basis
and signed mutual defense treaties with the USSR
III) Also in 1939 the USSR asked Finland to accept Soviet military basis and some frontier
changes to increase the security of Leningrad.
The Finnish government refused. From November 1939 to March 1940, there
followed the winter war between the USSR and Finland. The Finns fought well and the
Page 133
Soviet army suffered heavy losses and some serious military deficiencies were exposed in
the Soviet forces. However, Finland was crushed by superior numbers and made peace with
the U.S.S.R. by ceding territory in March 1940. During the winter war, the forces of
appeasement in France wanted to help Finland against the USSR with the hope that the war
against Germany could be changed into a war against the Soviet Union. However, Finland
was defeated before this hope could be fulfilled.
Although the USSR won the winter war, the weaknesses in the Soviet forces which the war
disclosed encourage Hitler’s believe in the weaknesses of the USSR and encouraged Hitler
to launch an early attack on the Soviet Union.
In July 1940, the USSR incorporated the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithonia into
the Soviet Union and became members of the USSR.
7.2.7. The Balkans and Italy, 1940-1941:-
Before Hitler could attack the USSR he was forced in early 1941 to fight a campaign to
rescue Italy in the Balkan and to secure his Balkan flank. Mussolini’s declaration of war
against France and Britain in June 1940 had brought no great success for Italy, nevertheless
in October 1940; Mussolini decided to extend the war into the Balkans by an attack on
neutral Greece. Mussolini’s motive was to make territorial gains in the Mediterranean
which he regarded as Italy’s sphere of influence and to win some prestige to balance
German’s victories since the beginning of the war.
The Italians invaded Greece from Albania which Italy did already occupied in 1939. The
Italian invasion of Greece was defeated and the Greeks in fact launch an offensive into
Albania. In addition to this defeat in the Balkans, Italy suffered heavy defeats in Africa
from December 1940-February 1941. The Italian forces in North Africa were heavily
defeated by British forces especially in Egypt and the Italians only held Libya because of
German troops sent to North Africa. Also Italians lost the all of their east African Empire
by April 1941.Hitler wanted to uphold the prestige of his fascist ally and could not afford to
allow Italy to collapse; also Hitler afraid that since Greece now involved in the war, Britain
would not establish Airbase in Greece from which Britain aircraft could bomb the oil fields
of Rumania which were vital for Germany’s war economy and armed forces.
Page 134
Hitler decided to crush Greece before attacking the USSR. Plans were made to attack
Greece with the help of Bulgaria. At the last moment, a coup in Yugoslavia replaced a pro-
German government by a Pro-British government in Yugoslavia. Hitler’s response was
simply to invade Yugoslavia as well as Greece with Hungary assisting the German invasion
of Yugoslavia.
Hitler invaded Yugoslavia on April 6, 1941 and the German army easily destroyed
Yugoslav and Greece resistance in about 3 weeks and these two countries were occupied.
Britain attempted to help Greece by sending troops from Egypt but these British troops
were forced to evacuate Greece with heavy losses. However, although the Yugoslav
government was defeated and the country occupied a powerful and extremely effective
partisan struggle soon developed against the occupying German and Italian forces. This
struggle was led by Josef Broz Tito. With Greece and Yugoslavia occupied German troops
were able to change the opposition ready for the attack on the USSR which Hitler finally set
for June 22, 1941. The campaign in the Balkans in spite of the German victory had however
forced Hitler to postpone his invasion of USSR from May 15 to June 22. As a result, Hitler
had less time to achieve victory over the USSR before the coming of the Russian Winter
which made military operations very difficult.
7.2.8. Invasion of the Soviet Union:-
After the failure in the Battle of Britain, Hitler decided on the invasion of the Soviet Union
whose defeat he thought would be accomplished before winter. In this invasion Hitler
aimed at fulfilling the goal of “Lebensraum” or living space which the vast Soviet territory
could provide for German settler. He also intended to take the wheat of the Ukraine and the
oil field of the Caucasus. With these aims, the Germans mounted their attack on 22 June,
1941. The Germans advanced very fast and in November 1941 they had already penetrated
around 960 kilometers deep into the Soviet Union. By then Kiev (the Capital of city of the
Ukraine) had fallen Leningrad, one of the major cities was cut off from any land connection
with the rest of the Soviet Union and put under siege. The Germans were at the outskirt of
Moscow. Although the Soviets were hard pressed by the enemy, they fought with the
utmost gallantry. They rallied to the cry “Behind us is Moscow-there is no room left for
Page 135
retreat!” .Consequently, in December 1941 when the Russian Winter set in, the Germans
had taken neither Moscow nor Leningrad.
7.2.9. The Attack on Pearl Harbor: -

Since the conquest of Manchuria in 1931, the Japanese had been engaged in the task of
achieving their ultimate goal of expansion in Asia and the Pacific. In 1937, they launched a
full scale invasion of China which resulted in the establishment of a Japanese-dominated
government in part of China in March 1940. The Japanese announced that the goal of the
Japanese government was to establish a “Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere”. In fact,
the Japanese aim was to replace Western Imperialism by Japanese imperialism and “Co-
prosperity” for other Asian peoples was only pretence. In response, the United States
extended a loan to China and put an embargo on the export scrap iron to Japan. This
prompted Japan to sign a Tripartite Treaty with Japan and Italy. In the treaty the three
powers pledged themselves to assist each other in the event of attack on any one of them.
In July 1941, Japan extended its control over Indochina to the southern part of the
Country. This measure strained relations between Japan and the United States and soon
trade relations between the two Countries came to a standstill. The USA put increasing
economic pressure on Japan to withdraw from Indochina and China. Eventually, Japan
decided to seize and hold the Oil and areas with raw materials in Southeast Asia. But to
seize and hold the oil and raw materials in Southeast Asia, Japan would need to destroy US
power in the area. Therefore, Japan decided to smash US naval power in the Pacific and
East Asia.
In a surprise attack the Japanese struck with carrier based air planes at the American
naval base at Pearl Harbour in Hawaii. In the attack which took place on 7 December 1941,
the Japanese sank 19 American ships and destroyed 188 planes. However the US aircraft
carries not present in Pearl Harbour at the time were not therefore sunk. The attack also
killed more than 2,400 people and wounded another 1100 or more. On the following day,
the United States declared war on Japan. On 11 December 1941, Germany and Italy,
declared War on the United States. Japan made rapid advance in the Pacific and Southeast
Page 136
Asia (Hong Kong, the Philippines, Burma, and Malaya etc).
7.2.10. The World at war: -

The Pearl Harbour catastrophe made the war fully a world war. By August 1942 the War
was being fought in several theatres situated in Eastern Europe, North Africa and the
Mediterranean, Burma and China and the Atlantic and the Pacific. The German had got to
the outskirts of Moscow, and besieged Leningrad as well as capturing the Soviet cities of
Sebastopol and Rostov. Greece, Yugoslavia and the Islands of Crete had fallen to the
German armies.
In the winter of 1941-1942, Soviet forces counter-attacked and pushed the Germans
back some distance from Moscow. But in the summer of 1942, the Germans opened a new
offensive against the Soviet Union in the South. The German armies mounted a major
attack against Stalingrad, a major industrial center on the Volga River. The City also served
as one of the Soviet’s lines of communication. In addition, the city was named after the
soviet leader Joseph Stalin. The fall of the city to the Germans would have a severe
psychological impact on the Soviets’ national pride. Given this, Stalin and the Soviets were
determined to hold the city. Hitler on his side was equally determined to take the city and
kept on ordering German armies to continue with their assault. For weeks, fierce battles
were fought.
In November 1942, the Soviets launched a major counter attack against the Germans
fighting in and near the city. In the counter-attack, the Soviets encircled the Germans
fighting in Stalingrad. At the time, the Germans were already suffering from the Russian
Winter. On 1 February 1943, the Germans were forced to surrender. This brought an end to
the Stalingrad battle in which a large part of the best of the German army was destroyed.
The Stalingrad battle was decisive turning point in the Course of WWII. In WWII in Europe
the heaviest fighting was done by the Soviet armies and the Soviet armies had the heaviest
losses.
In North Africa, the German forces commanded by General Erwin Rommel (the
Page 137
Desert Fox) had dominated the desert war since 1941. In 1942, they had nearly taken Egypt.
In late October, 1942, the British and Commonwealth troops under General Bernard
Montgomery launched a major attack against Rommel’s troops. Allied forces landed in
Algeria and Morocco in November 1942. Fierce Battle continued in the desert and in
Tunisia which came to an end with victory for the Allied troops. In May 1943, the Axis
forces in North Africa surrendered to the Allies.
In Western Allies engaged in secondary theaters of the war in North Africa and later in
Italy. Following the Anglo-American victory over Italian and German forces in North
Africa, Anglo-American forces from North Africa invaded Sicily in July 1943. This
invasion led to the overthrow of Mussolini by his own fascist Party leader and king Victor
Emmanuel III in July 1943. The king appointed a new government under Marshal Badoglio.
Italy then, changed sides. Allied troops moved into southern Italy and Italy declared war on
Germany.
However, Hitler had been expecting treachery from Italy and after Mussolini’s
overthrow; German troops quickly moved into Italy and took over most of Italy. Badoglio’s
government had to flee from Rome to join the Allies in the South of Italy. Fighting
continued in Italy between Anglo-American and German forces until 1945. However, the
forces involved were relatively small compared with the forces on the Russian front.
Mussolini himself was put under unrest by the king after his overthrow, but he was
rescued by the Germans and Hitler made Mussolini the head of the puppet Salo Republic in
Northern Italy which lasted until 1943-1945. In 1945, Mussolini was caught by the Italian
Communist partisans and executed on 28, April 1945 after failing to escape to Switzerland.
Page 138
Check-lists
Put () if you know the following terms!
1. Blitzkrieg………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Luftwaffe ………………………………………………………………………………
3. Neutrality Act……………………………………………………………………………
4. The “Phony” war……………………………………………………………………….
5. “Free France” ……………………………………………………………………………
6. Vichy Government………………………………………………………………………
7. “Lebensraum” ……………………………………………………………………………
8. “Greater east Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere” ………………………………………………
9. The Battle of Stalingrad ………………………………………………………………….
10. “The Desert Fox” ……………………………………………………………………...
11. The Salo republic………………………………………………………………………..
Self-test exercise
Direction: Multiple Choices
_____1.The German government war strategy employed during the WWII was known as:-
A. Blitzkrieg B. Sitzkrieg C. Phony war D. Luftwaffe E. None
_____2.The fall of France in 1940 was mainly attributed to:-
A. The British and French military mistakes
B. Policy of appeasement
C. Lack of support from the French working class
D. A&B E. all of the above
_______3.Hitler’s failure to defeat Britain in the summer of 1940 was mainly due to:-
A. The German forces unable to cross the British channel
B. The Soviets attacked Germany on the east
Page 139
C. The German air forces failed to gain control of the air

D. All of the above E. none of the above
_______4.Which one of the following battles was decisive and a turning point in the history
of the WWII?
A. Stalingrad B. Leningrad C. the Balkans D. Northern Africa E. None
Part II: Fill in the blank spaces!

1. Japan attacked Pearl Harbour in _______________________.
2. Mussolini was replaced as Prime Minister by____________________________.
3. In North Africa, the German forces were commanded by_____________________
4. The puppet government found in northern Italy by the Germans was called__________.
Section Three: The end of the War (WWII):-
Dear colleague! Welcome to this section! In the section you are going to see the opening of
the second front in Europe; the end of fighting in the centre of Europe and the culmination
of the war in the far-East.
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 Discuss the opening of the second Front in Europe
Briefly outline the end of the war in both Europe and the Far east or east Asia
Identify a number of summit conference held during the war
3.1 End of the Second World War:-
In June 1944 Britain, United States and Canadian forces invaded Western front from
Britain so that Germany then had to fight on two major fronts i.e. on the East and the West.
This certainly speeded out the end of the war. Besides the war in Europe, the USA and
Britain were in the Far East against Japan from December 1941onwards. The USA in the
Pacific Theater carried the main burden of the war against Japan and USA together with
China carried the main burden of the war in East Asia against Japan. The USSR was neutral
in the Far East war until after the defeat of Germany the USSR declared war on Japan on
August 9, 1945 just before the end of the war.
Page 140
There was much mutual suspicion and the alliances of the Western power with the
Soviet Union were often strained. The chief issue up to June 1944 was the Second front.
From June 1941 onwards the USSR demanded a large scale Anglo-American invasion on of
Western Europe to attack Germany from the west and established against Germany a
second Front in Western Europe.
In 1944, the invasion of France was carried out and the Second Front established
with adequate ground forces and full control of the sea and air. The British and Canadian
forces entered France against Germany. The invasion was named Operation Overlord, and
commanded by USA General Dwight Eisenhower (organized around 150,000) troops,
5,3000 ships and 12,000 planes for the invasion . The Allied troops launched the attack
along 96 kilometers stretch of the Normandy coast. Within a month and a half, they had
liberated almost all France. In the meantime, General Charles de Gaulle (the leader of Free
France) triumphantly entered Paris on 25 August 1944. Meanwhile, On the eastern Front,
the Soviet made a rapid advances. They liberated the Soviet Cities and territories one after
another. In July 1944, they crossed into Polish territory. Between August and October 1944,
the major part of Eastern and central Europe was under Soviet control.
In the Pacific, US forces were waging a life and death struggle against the Japanese.
The battle of Midway Island in 1942 was a decisive defeat of the Japanese navy. From then
on the US forces were pushing the Japanese back in the Pacific and by 1944, were getting
ready to invade Japan. At the end of 1944, the Allied troops advancing from the West were
invading Western Germany. Hitler then decided to mount a Counter attack against the
Allies through the Ardennes in order to halt their advance. He did so in mid December
1944, but failed. In fact, this was the last desperate offensive the Germans made before they
surrendered to the Allies. Hitler committed suicide on May 2, 1945, a week before the
capitulation of Berlin to the Soviet troops. Admiral Karl Doenitz replaced Hitler and on
May 7, 1945 he authorized Germany’s surrender to the Allies. The same day, the German
forces in the West surrendered to General Eisenhower. The next day, the German forces in
the East surrendered to the Soviet army. Thus, on 8, May 1945, became VE (victory in
Europe) day of the Second World War.
Page 141
Despite Germany’s surrender, the WWII was not yet over. The Japanese surrender
was forced by the use of the newly invented atomic bomb. Thus on 6 August, 1945, the first
of the Atomic Bomb, was dropped on the Japanese City of Hiroshima. On August 9, the
second bomb was dropped on another Japanese city of Nagasaki. The bombs caused
immense human and material destruction. On the days of the bombing, 80,000 people in
Hiroshima and 40,000 people in Nagasaki lost their life. Long after the bombing, victims
continued to suffer and die from radiation sickness. As a result, the death toll rose to around
200, 0000.
According to US President, Harry S. Truman the atomic bombs were used to hasten
the Japanese surrender and make an invasion of Japan unnecessary. However, Soviet
historian argued that in terms of military strategy the use of the bombs was not required.
Soviet historians have maintained that in using the bombs the US intended to demonstrate
its power to the Soviets as a warning in post-war international relations. Apart from this
reason, the US might have used the atomic bombs against Japan because of the bitter hatred
created by the Pearl Harbour catastrophe. The argument about the use of atomic weapons
on Japan is still open. In any case, on 15, August 1945 the Japanese Emperor Hirohito
authorized the Japan’s unconditional surrender and consequently, the Second World War
came to an end. A number of summit conferences were held during the war to maintain
contact between the Allies to resolve problems as far as possible and to maintain the
alliances. The Teheran conference was held from November to December 1943 with Stalin,
Roosevelt and Churchill (all presidents). In this conference, the Western Allies promised a
second Front in 1944 and the USSR promised to declare war on Japan after Germany had
been defeated.
In February, 1945, the Yalta Conference took place in the Crimea in Russia again
Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill were present. The Yalta conference agreed to reparations
from Germany and to the joint occupation and administration of Germany after the War by
the USA, Britain, France and the USSR. Germany was to be democratized and Nazism was
to be eliminated, the German capital Berlin was also to be jointly occupied and
Page 142
administered. It was agreed to set up a new international organization to replace the League
of Nations and this was the United Nations Organization (UNO). Inaugural meeting of the
UN was in fact in April 1845 in San Francisco (USA). Stalin confirmed his agreement to
enter war against Japan and demanded that the USSR should get from Japan Southern
Sakhalin and Kurile Islands.
The final summit conference was held at Potsdam in Germany in July- August 1945,
after defeat of Germany but before the surrender of Japan. Stalin was present, Truman as
the new president of the USA. Roosevelt had been died in April 1945 and Churchill then,
Attlee representing Britain. The Potsdam conference agreed on the Oder-Neisse Line as
Poland’s Western frontier with Germany and that the German province of East Prussia
should be divided between the USSR and Poland and international tribunal was to be set
up to try German War criminals and this tribunal was in fact held at Nuremburg in
1946. A procedure was agreed for preparing a final peace treaties with Germany but no
final peace treaties could be agreed because of the Cold War and the deterioration of
relations between the Western powers and the USSR.
Page 143
Check-list
Put () if you have understood about the following!
1. Operation Over Lord
2. Teheran Conference
3. Yalta Conference
4. Potsdam Conference
5. Oder-Neisse
6. Victory in Europe Day
7. Atomic Bomb
Self-Check Exercise
Part I: Matching
Direction: Match the items under Column “A” with the items under Column “B”
“A” “B”
_____1.General Charles De Gaulle A. “Free France”
_____2.Hiroshima B.6, August 1945
_____3.Operation Over Lord C. Oder-Neisse Line
_____4.victory in Europe Day D. General Dwight
_____5.Potsdam Conference E. 8, May, 1945
Assignment (40%)
Part I: Write ‘True’ if the statement is correct or “False’ if not! (20%)
_______1.The Teheran conference was held from November to December 1943.
_______2.Japan extended its control over Indochina to the southern part of the Country in
July 1941.
______3.The Bolshevik Party established workers’ militia called “the Red Guard”.
______4.Garibaldi encouraged the peasants to support him by promising the abolition of
Page 144
some taxes and granting of land to the poor if they joined his forces.
_______5.Collectivist anarchism is sometimes called revolutionary socialism.
_______6.All Russians were satisfied by the reforms of Alexander II.
________7.Russia entered the industrial age under Alexander III and his son Nicholas I.
_______8.The Fabian Society was founded in 1884 in France.
_______9.Napoleon III ruled both as emperor of Austria and king of Hungary.
______10.The battle of Sedan was the decisive battle of Franco-Prussian war.
Part II: Give necessary answers for the following Questions based their natures!
11. What was the Policy of Appeasement? Explain briefly (5pts)
12. Discuss briefly about “Mein Kampf” (3pts)
13. Explain briefly about the cause, courses and consequences of the Munich agreement (5pts)
14. What was the League Covenant and list its aims or goals!!(2pts)
15. What was Blitzkrieg? Explain clearly!(2pts)
16. Discuss briefly about the similarity and differences of Italian and German unification!(3pts)
Page 145

Survey of European History 1850-1945

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Survey of European History 1850-1945

4.1.4. Russian Revolution and other uprisings of the 1910s..............................................................70

6.5.3. The Rise of Hitler to Power....................................................................................................114

1.1. The Congress of Vienna 1814-1815

The Conference of Vienna was bases on three principles:

Nationalisms growth and export

national independence became more strident. In 1905 Norway won independence from Sweden,

1.4. The revolution of 1848 and their lessons

Reforms in Great Britain

From Monarchy to Democracy:

Social and Economic reform in Great Britain

The Struggle to win votes for women

1.5. The Italian Unification:

The Completion of Italian Unification: Venetia and Rome Patrimony

1.6. German Unification

1.6.1. Character of German unification

1.6.3. Bismarck’s aims and his Policy (1862-1864)

1.6.4. The First war of German Unification

1.6.5. The Second War of German Unification (Austro-Prussian war of 1866)

Self Test exercise

Part II: Choices

____3.Venetia was restored to Italy as a result of:-

2.1. Russia: Reform and Reaction

C) The Drive to Industrialization

The Decline of Hapsburg Empire

Formation of the Dual Monarchy

"without") ἀρχός, archos, i.e. "leader", "ruler"; (cf. archon or ἀρχή, arkhē, i.e. "authority",

to describe himself as an anarchist was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, a French philosopher and

4.1.1. First International and the Paris Commune

4.1.2. Organized labour

In 1907, the International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam gathered delegates from 14

4.1.3. Propaganda of the deed and illegalism

execution and exile of many communards to penal colonies, favored individualist political

4.1.4. Russian Revolution and other uprisings of the 1910s

4.1.5. Conflicts with European fascist regimes

repelling Blackshirts in the anarchist stronghold of Parma in August 1922. The veteran Italian

4.1.6. Spanish Revolution

4.1.7. Post-war years

anarchism and platformism took importance once again especially in the anarchist movements of

4.1.8. Classical anarchist schools of thought Mutualism

profit or discount." Mutualism has been retrospectively characterized as ideologically situated

interpretations of Stirner's philosophy. It was re-discovered and promoted by German

4.1.9. Post-classical schools of thought

theology that combines anarchism and Christianity. Its main proponents included Leo

Anarcho-capitalism advocates the elimination of the state in favor of individual sovereignty in

5.1. Europe at the eve of WWI

Self check exercise

5. The ultimatum of Austria Hungary to Serbia:

Section two: Courses of the First World War

5.1.2. Outbreak of the war

5.1.4. Major Fronts of WWI

The Eastern Front:

5.1.5. The End of the War

5. Identify the battle field from the Eastern front!

Section 3: Consequences of the WWI

5.1.6. Immediate Consequences

5.1.7. Motives of the Big Three

4. Keep the future interest of people under colonial rule

5.1.8. The Peace Conference at Paris and the treaty of Versailles

Section 1: The Russian revolutions

6.1. Causes of the Russian revolutions

6.2. The First Russian revolution of 1905

6.3. The 1917 Russian Revolutions