Journal of Environmental Management 320 (2022) 115887

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Review

A critical review of the pre-processing and metals recovery methods from

e-wastes
Rima Kumari, Sukha Ranjan Samadder *
Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad, 826004, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: E-wastes being potential sources of numerous valuable metals are promoted to undergo recycling and recovery
Biometallurgical method under the umbrella of urban mining and circular economy. Thus, the present study provides a critical review of
E-wastes the technological details of different metal recycling processes, pre-treatment methods, and the advancements
Hydrometallurgical method
made in these techniques. Critical evaluation of different metal recovery techniques has also been presented
Metal recovery
based on the available life cycle assessment (LCA), techno-economic, and industrial-scale studies. The study
And Pre-processing techniques
revealed that the integrated metal recovery techniques serve better in terms of recovery efficiency and envi­
ronmental performance than any single recovery technique. Also, scaling up of biometallurgical, electro­
chemical, and super critical fluid extraction methods needs to be promoted due to their better environmental
performances.

1. Introduction
The rapid advancements in technology, urbanization, affluence,
economic growth, and transition to online mode upon COVID-19
pandemic are some of the factors responsible for increase in demand
for different electrical and electronic products (EEPs). The rising de­
mand for these EEPs can be linked directly with their higher rate of
obsolescence. This can be validated by the fact that a record of 53.6
million metric tons (Mt) of e-waste has been generated worldwide in
2019 which grew by 9.2 Mt since 2014 and is expected to surpass the
projected e-waste generation rate of 74.7 Mt by 2030 (Forti et al., 2020).
The enhanced rate of e-waste generation creates huge problem for its
effective management.
E-wastes are the whole or part of EEPs or rejects from their
manufacturing and repairing processes that are no longer of use and are
intended to be discarded (MoEF&CC, 2016). These wastes consist of a
diverse range of EEPs as shown in Table 1, which contain a broad
spectrum of different organic and inorganic substances including metals,
plastics, ceramics, etc. (Fig. 1). The composition of e-wastes varies
depending on their type, age, and manufacturing company. Table 2
shows the percentage distribution of different valuable metals in
different types of e-wastes along with their estimated economic values
revealing the recovery potential of these e-wastes. The concentration of
these metals (especially the precious metals such as Au, Ag, Pt, and Pd) is
even higher in e-wastes than that in their natural ores. Thus, recovery of
these valuable metals from e-wastes is considered as feasible solution
from both economy and environment point of view.
Recycling and recovery of useable components from the wastes have
always been considered as wise and sustainable step of managing them.
When this recovery is done formally, it provides myriad benefits
extending from waste reduction to energy-saving and from emission
reduction to economic benefits (Yang et al., 2020). Despite several
benefits, the formal sector has managed to collect and recycle only
17.4% of the total e-wastes generated globally in 2019 indicating the
channelization of these wastes either in landfills or into informal recy­
cling system (Forti et al., 2020). These routes often involve a set of
pre-activities that are intended to be applied as an effective waste
management option; however, they are not considered sustainable and
suitable from an environmental perspective. Apparently, it becomes
crucial to recover the different valuable elements from these wastes
while, undertaking both economical as well as environmental aspects at
the same time.
Different conventional techniques such as pyrometallurgy and hy­
drometallurgy are the major recycling techniques that have been
currently adopted in most of the countries; however, these techniques
have serious concerns mainly in the form of toxicological effects and
secondary environmental pollution. The bottlenecks of these techniques
have resulted in the quest for the development of safer and more eco-

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: rima07km@gmail.com (R. Kumari), samadder@iitism.ac.in (S.R. Samadder).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.115887
Received 28 January 2022; Received in revised form 24 July 2022; Accepted 25 July 2022
Available online 5 August 2022
0301-4797/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Kumari and S.R. Samadder
Table 1
Different categories of e-wastes.
Country/ Type of e-waste
Organization
European Union (1) Temperature exchange
(EU) equipment, (2) Screens and monitors,
(3) Lamps, (4) Large equipment
(dimension >50 cm), (5) Small
equipment (dimension ≤50 cm), and
(6) Small IT and telecommunication
equipment (dimension ≤50 cm).
China (1) Refrigerator, (2) Monitors and
TVs (3) Washing machine, (4) Air
conditioner, (5) Water-heater, (6)
Personal computer (7) Fax and
telephone machine, (8) Mobile
phone, (9) Printer, and (10) Copier.
United Nations (1) Central heating, (2) Photovoltaic
University panels, (3) Professional heating &
(UNU) ventilation, (4) Dishwashers, (5)
Kitchen equipment, (6) Washing
machines, (7) Dryers, (8) Household
heating & ventilation, (9) Fridges,
(10) Freezers, (11) Air conditioners,
(12) Other cooling equipment, (13)
Professional cooling equipment, (14)
Microwaves, (15) Other small
household equipment, (16)
Equipment for food preparation, (17)
Small household equipment for hot
water preparation, (18) Vacuum
cleaners, (19) Personal care
equipment, (20) Small IT equipment,
(21) Desktop PCs (excluding
monitors, accessories), (22) Laptops,
(23) Printers, (24)
Telecommunication equipment, (25)
Mobile phones, (26) Professional IT
equipment, (27) CRT monitors, (28)
Flat display panel monitors, (29)
Small consumer electronics, (30)
Portable audio & video, (31) Music
Instruments, radio & Hi-Fi, (32)
Video & projectors, (33) Speakers,
(34) Cameras, (35) CRT TVs, (36) Flat
display panel TVs, (37) Small lighting
equipment, (38) Compact fluorescent
lamps, (39) Straight tube fluorescent
lamps, (40) Special lamps, (41) LED
lamps, (42) Household luminaires,
(43) Professional luminaires, (44)
Household tools, (45) Professional
tools, (46) Toys, (47) Game consoles,
(48) Leisure equipment, (49)
Household medical equipment, (50)
Professional medical equipment, (51)
Household monitoring & control
equipment, (52) Professional
monitoring & control equipment,
(53) Non-cooled dispensers, and (54)
Cooled dispensers.
India (1) Information technology and
telecommunication equipment
(computer, laptop, notepad, printers,
copying equipment, telephone,
cellular phones, etc.), and (2)
Consumer electrical and electronics
(television, refrigerator, washing
machine, air conditioner, fluorescent
and other mercury containing lamps).
Japan (1) Large home appliances (air
conditioners, TVs, refrigerators,
washing machines and dryers), and
(2) Small home appliances (PCs,
mobile phones, digital cameras,
clocks, hair dryers, etc.).
Journal of Environmental Management 320 (2022) 115887
friendly techniques. Moreover, the realization of the importance of the
recovery potential of numerous invaluable resources from these e-
Reference wastes has also drawn the attention of various researchers who have
been actively involved in this field and are continuously publishing
European Union numerous research articles and reviews every year. However, most of
(2018) the reviews on e-wastes recycling are largely restricted to policies and
legislations to promote the recycling of metallic fractions from e-wastes
(Kumar et al., 2017), to evaluate their effect on humans (Awasthi et al.,
2016), environment (Yang et al., 2020) and on the economy (Ravindra
and Mor, 2019). Other reviews available in this field include feasibility
Forti et al. (2018) studies of various pretreatment stages of recycling (Duan et al., 2011),
current recycling trends & challenges (Tabelin et al., 2021) and metal
specific recycling techniques such as precious metals (Lu and Xu, 2016)
or rare earth metals (Sethurajan et al., 2019) recovery methods from
e-wastes. Reviews on specific metal recovery processes such as hydro­
Forti et al. (2018) metallurgy (Cui and Anderson, 2016; Li et al., 2018), biometallurgy
(Işıldar et al., 2018; Desmarais et al., 2020), supercritical fluid extrac­
tion (Li and Xu, 2019) and ionic liquid extraction techniques (Schaeffer
et al., 2018) can also be found. Limited review articles were found that
focused on the overall metal recovery techniques (Zhang and Xu, 2016;
Chauhan et al., 2018); however a thorough comparison and analysis is
still lacking for these methods. Thus, to address the knowledge gap, an
attempt has been made to provide a comprehensive review on different
pre-treatment and metal recovery techniques from e-wastes as well as
the advancements made in these techniques. Further, critical evaluation
of different metal recovery techniques has been done based on the
available life cycle assessment (LCA), techno-economic, and
industrial-scale studies to identify the possible limitations in the pub­
lished processes. Finally, perspectives and analysis of different recovery
methods with critical discussion have been presented to suggest poten­
tial directions for future research towards the development of a more
sustainable way of metal recovery techniques from e-wastes.
2. Methodology for literature survey
A three-step investigative methodology was followed for reviewing
the different metal recovery techniques from e-wastes. At first, a thor­
ough search of peer-reviewed articles, reports, book chapters, etc. was
done on different web sources, viz. Google Scholar, and Science Direct
using keywords such as “e-waste” & “metals”, “WPCB” & “recycle”,
“recover” & “metallurgical technique”, and so forth. Then, recent studies
published in reputed journals between 2010 and 2021 were selected and
sorted in time sequence. Only relevant articles falling within the scope of
the present study were reviewed after screening the abstracts of the
papers. This was followed by classification of different conventional and
novel metal extraction techniques. Representative examples from each
of these techniques were selected based on the objective, concept,
methods and results of the experiments for further summarization and
review of the process. Finally, critical evaluation and comparative
analysis of different metal recovery technologies were carried out to
identify the perspectives and scope for future research in the relevant
MoEF&CC (2016) field.
3. Pre-treatment methods
The heterogeneous nature and complicated structures of e-wastes
make it difficult to find a suitable and specific recycling technique. In
addition, the presence of hazardous substances makes the recovery
Ministry of the process even more complex. Therefore, pre-treatment of these wastes is
Environment of required which plays an important role in overcoming these difficulties
Japan (2014) to a greater extent. The different pretreatment methods involved during
the recovery process aid in enriching the metallic concentration in the
output stream by enhancing the separation efficiency of the metallic and
non-metallic fractions (NMFs) (Marra et al., 2018). Different
pre-treatment stages of e-wastes are shown in Fig. 2 which are further
reviewed in detail in the following sub-sections.
2
R. Kumari and S.R. Samadder
3.1. Disassembly
Disassembly is the first step involved in the recycling process of the e-
wastes. There are certain reusable and hazardous components such as
socket pedestal, screw joints, cathode ray tubes (CRTs), batteries, ca­
pacitors, and electronic chips found attached with these wastes that are
required to be treated differently (Duan et al., 2011; Kumar et al.,
2020b). During the disassembly stage, all these components are sys­
tematically removed to prevent their entry into the mainstream of the
recovery process. This step of pre-processing can be accomplished either
in selective or simultaneous way. The selective type of disassembly is
based on the principle of ‘look and pick’ where, the connections and
joints in e-wastes are identified first, followed by the individual disas­
sembly of the components. While, the simultaneous dismantling which
is based on the principle of ‘evacuate and sort’ is usually applied in case
of printed circuit boards (PCBs) where, all the components are removed
simultaneously by heating the whole board in the furnace. Although,
simultaneous disassembly has higher efficiency; however, it enhances
the processing time, cost, and the risk of damaging the components
during heating (Chauhan et al., 2018).
Currently, the informal practice of manual disassembly is more
common in developing countries; while mechanical disassembly is
frequently practiced by developed nations. Manual dismantling in­
corporates the use of hammers, chisels, cutting torches, etc. to separate
the components and to open the solder connections. The method also
often employs open burning and heating of the e-wastes for further
separation of the components which are detrimental to the human
health and the environment. High labor cost, more material wastage,
and environmental & health hazards associated with the informal
practices restricted their application and popularized the mechanical
means of dismantling practices in the developed nations (Hsu et al.,
2019). Mechanical dismantling is either semi-automatic or automatic.
The semi-automatic method uses the external forces such as shearing or
vibration along with the heating system for liberation of the attached
components from e-wastes. The fully automatic mechanical method is
designed to separate the reusable and hazardous components from the
waste stream. In recent years, several researchers have worked on the
development of greener and automatic dismantling methods of e-wastes.
For example, Park et al. (2015) developed a disassembly unit with
infrared heat treatment facility for separating electrical components
(ECs) from waste PCBs (WPCBs) with 94% separation efficiency. Chen
et al. (2013) used combinations of hot air treatment and mechanical
vibration as dismantling method. The disassembly rate reached almost
Fig. 1. Composition of e-wastes.
3
Journal of Environmental Management 320 (2022) 115887
100% for surface mounted components (SMCs) and pin through hole
components (PTHCs) under optimal temperature and incubation period
of 260 ◦ C and 2 min respectively. But, the disassembly rate for other
small SMCs (>3 mm) was 40–50% lower than these SMCs and PTHCs.
Further, Wang et al. (2016) designed a pilot-scale automatic disassembly
unit with an off-gas purification system. The disassembly unit success­
fully dislodged SMCs from WPCBs except certain small PTHCs within 8
min of the incubation time. Marconi et al. (2019) developed a prototype
of automatic disassembly system comprising a wave soldering machine,
a manipulator equipped with vacuum gripper for components picking,
and a central control unit for co-ordination. Each SMC is exposed to high
temperatures within the unit for a limited duration that resulted in
effective detachment of components without any damage. Also, a proj­
ect (ADIR) was launched by European consortium for disassembling
mobile phones and other PCBs’ components. The disassembling tech­
nique involved various measurements of the PCBs using 2D and 3D laser
images to mark components with potentially high amounts of valuable
material, such as tantalum. These data are then used to extract co­
ordinates for the laser beam control to selectively cut out parts or to
unsolder SMCs of PCB with an average cutting speed of 50 cm/min for
each board (Noll et al., 2018).
Automatic dismantling equipment being expensive is ideally suitable
for e-wastes with high metal contents. However, manual dismantling is
still the most common disassembly method practiced in most of the
recycling centers of developing nations. Therefore, an appropriate
disassembly method should be chosen depending on the quantity and
quality of metallic fractions available in the waste stream in order to
reduce the recovery cost and to enhance the recovery efficiency.
3.2. Size reduction
After dismantling and sorting of the reusable and hazardous ECs
from e-wastes, the remaining wastes undergo different mechanical
processing of size reduction such as shredding, crushing, and grinding
for effective separation of metallic and NMFs. This comminution is also
required for super-capacitors to strip the activated carbon off the
aluminium foil before undergoing other pre-treatment methods (Kumar
and Kim, 2018; Pallavolu et al., 2021). Different mechanical instruments
such as hammer crushers, disc crushers, granulators, rotary crushers,
shredders, and cutters are used for reducing the size of e-wastes. The
selection of the equipment is usually based on the strength, hardness,
particle size, and other properties of the components of e-wastes (Yang
and Xu, 2011). Normally, hammer crushers with high shearing and
R. Kumari and S.R. Samadder Journal of Environmental Management 320 (2022) 115887

impact forces are suitable and sufficient enough to comminute the
e-wastes but ball milling and disc milling are also often employed for
further pulverization (Ghosh et al., 2015). This pulverization is required
for achieving a higher degree of liberation for enhancing the metal re­
covery efficiency. Arshadi et al. (2018) analyzed the effect of particle
size distribution on metal recovery efficiency and found that the
maximum extraction efficiencies for Cu, Ag, Ni, and Ti were achieved for
finer particles (<1 mm) of e-wastes. No interlocking between metallic
and NMFs was reported after milling e-wastes to below 150 μm size.
Recently, Zhou et al. (2016) studied the effect of cryogenic grinding in
size reduction of WPCBs. The decreased temperature favored the size
reduction (0.5–1.4 mm) with minimal power consumption than con­
ventional crushing techniques.
Although comminution of e-wastes is necessary for effective sepa­
ration, there are certain challenges associated with this process. The
generation of fine dust during crushing and pulverization of e-wastes is
one of the major issues (Ghosh et al., 2015). Also, the energy demand
and subsequent cost hikes affect the overall efficiency of the recovery
process. Further, the excessive crushing results in agglomeration of the
polymeric fraction and loss of metallic fractions; while inadequate
comminution deteriorates the quality and degree of liberation of mate­
rials from e-wastes (Ruan and Xu, 2016).
3.3. Screening and sieving
The size and the properties of metallic fractions are different from
that of NMFs. This variation in the size of particles necessitates per­
forming the screening and sieving of these wastes for further classifi­
cation and recovery. Screening is usually performed for relatively
coarser materials, as the efficiency reduces for finer materials (Ardente
et al., 2014). This step assists in preparing a uniform feed size and in
upgrading the metal contents. Different types of screening equipment of
stationary and rotating types are used in recycling industries; however,
the primary method of screening is usually done using rotating screen or
trommel. These large drum-shaped trommel screens mainly separate
coarser substances from bulk material. Sieves of different sizes are used
for classification of different-size materials. The screening is generally
limited to the particle size of about 250 mm; while the finer particles
below this size undergo the process of classification (Kaya, 2016). The
size sorting and classification of particles are necessary for enhancing
the efficiency of different physical separation methods. Kumar et al.
(2013) found that the separation efficiency was enhanced up to 90%
after sorting particles based on different size classifications for WPCBs of
DVDs. Similarly, Bilesan et al. (2021) revealed the feasibility of using
sieving for recovering precious metals as sieving separated the
maximum Au fraction in the finer classification (<75 μm) and Cu in the
coarser fractions. The size classified fractions are then sorted based on
their density, conductivity, and other physical parameters.
3.4. Enrichment
After screening and sieving, the ground particles undergo different
physical treatment methods. Physical recycling is done primarily to
enrich the metal contents by separating NMFs from the remnants of e-
wastes. The methods involved in the physical treatment segregate the
metallic and NMFs on the basis of differences in various physical char­
acteristics of the materials (Yang and Xu, 2011). Degree of separation
and efficacy of the method depend on the shape, size, and distribution of
the particles (Ghosh et al., 2015). A summary of different physical
separation and enrichment methods is given in Table S1 which is further
reviewed in following sub-sections. The separated metallic fractions
after enrichment undergo different refining and purification processes
for recovery of the individual element.
3.4.1. Air separation
Air classification method is used to separate metallic and NMFs of
different sizes based on density of different components of the pulver­
ized e-wastes mixture. The principle of separation is based on the dif­
ference in their terminal settling velocity (Vt). The heavier particles with
larger Vt move downwards against the air stream at shorter distance;
while the lighter particles rise on the top of the column along with the air
stream and settles at larger distance (Eswaraiah and Soni, 2015).
The air current separation method involves the use of different types
of air classifiers. For example, Zhou et al. (2016) successfully applied air
table for separation of grade materials in the range of 0.5–2.8 mm from
WPCBs. Ribeiro et al. (2019) used zig-zag air classifier to separate lighter
fractions from heterogeneous powdered mixture of e-wastes. The sepa­
ration enhanced the Cu content from 13.8% to 48.8% in the pulverized
WPCBs. In other studies, fluidized bed separators have also been used as
physical air separation method. Zhang et al. (2017a) utilized vibrating
gas-solid fluidized bed separator for segregating metallic and NMFs;
however, the separator showed poor segregation efficiency for fine
particles (<0.25 mm). Stronger interactive forces among these
finer-sized particles resulted in their agglomeration, thereby reducing
their segregation efficiency. Moreover, the separation efficiency was
found to be dependent on the shape, size, & density of the components
along with the superficial air flow rates, fluidization time and fluidiza­
tion frequency. Barnwal and Dhawan (2019) compared the air and
water-based fluidization processes where, the air fluidization process
yielded higher weight efficiency and metal recovery than the water
fluidization technique. Although these methods have certain advantages
in terms of their simpler operation and lower energy consumption, the
common problems associated with this method are the low-quality
product, added workload, and difficulty in further refining. Besides,
successive grinding and milling are required in certain air separators for
higher metal liberation (Kaya, 2018).

Table 2
Weight composition of metals and their economic value distribution in different types of e-wastes.
Type of e- Metal content (% by weight) and economic value distribution (%) (in brackets) Reference
wastes
Cu Fe Si Sn Al Zn Pb Co Mn Ni Ag Au

Computer PCBs 36.14 0.53 4.19 2.14 5.96 2.06 1.45 - (0.00) 0.03 0.09 0.03 _ Arshadi et al.
with wire (73.00) (− ) (2.30) (12.70) (3.60) (2.00) (1.10) (0.02) (0.29) (4.90) (2018)
Mobile phone 57.47 25.23 8.8 3.49 0.77 4.29 0.85 0.23 0.24 5.10 0.15 0.12 Fontana
(5.52) (0.47) (2.18) (0.98) (0.02) (0.20) (0.03) (0.25) (0.01) (0.82) (1.34) (88.01) et al. (2019)
Television PCBs 14.4 5.00 2.15 3.61 4.14 2.06 2.18 - (0.00) 0.06 0.24 0.04 _ Arshadi et al.
(44.58) (− ) (1.79) (32.58) (3.84) (3.00) (2.46) (0.05) (1.24) (10.38) (2018)
Waste DVD 17.8 5.51 3.79 2.57 10.10 1.99 3.33 0.04 0.24 0.36 – _ Kumar et al.
(52.88) (3.15) (3.04) (22.34) (9.02) (2.79) (3.62) (1.17) (0.19) (1.79) (2013)
CPU 30.51 9.44 9.56 1.80 5.10 0.26 0.82 0.39 0.06 3.61 0.13 _ Arshadi et al.
(50.52) (− ) (4.27) (8.71) (2.54) (0.20) (0.50) (6.34) (0.03) (9.9) (16.83) (2018)
Fax machine 21.03 6.56 8.82 3.04 6.14 1.26 1.77 - (0.00) 0.51 0.57 0.14 _ Arshadi et al.
(44.32) (− ) (5.02) (18.75) (3.89) (1.26) (1.36) (0.29) (2.00) (23.07) (2018)
Refrigerator 3.4 50 – – 1.1 – – – – – – _ Zeng et al.
(25.5) (72.1) (2.48) (2016)

4
R. Kumari and S.R. Samadder
Fig. 2. Pre-treatment methods of e-wastes.
3.4.2. Gravity separation
Gravity separation method is a density-based separation process
employed for separating lighter fractions from heavier fractions. The
comminuted particles of e-wastes constitute a diverse range of metallic
and NMFs with varying specific gravity. This difference in specific
gravity is utilized by the gravity separators where, the fractions with
higher specific gravity get separated from lighter fractions by the rela­
tive movement of heavier fractions in response to gravity. The forces
exerted by denser liquids and size & shape of the particles also play an
important role in separating metallic fractions (Kaya, 2016).
Various types of equipment such as water tables, hydro-cyclones,
jigs, rising-current separators, Falcon centrifugal separators, etc. have
been used so far as gravity separators in e-wastes recycling. Different
dense liquid media such as tetrabromoethane and acetone have also
been used in the sink-float method of gravity separation to separate the
metals from NMFs of comminuted e-wastes. The separated lighter frac­
tion floats on the surface while, the heavier fraction settles at the bot­
tom. Rodrigues et al. (2021) used sodium silicate as a dense liquid
medium to enrich the metallic content in the WPCBs. The contents of Cu,
Ag, and Au in the remnant enhanced by 17.37%, 0.74%, and 0.22%
respectively after the dense medium separation. In another study, Sarvar
et al. (2015) recovered up to 97.5% of the metallic constituents from a
coarser fraction (0.59–1.68 mm) of WPCBs using wet jigging process.
Tanısalı et al. (2021) studied the effect of gravity separation on bene­
ficiation of comminuted WPCBs and metal recovery efficiencies and
revealed that the recovery efficiencies for different metallic fractions
(96.8% for Au, 96.7% for Ag, and 97.7% for Cu) were enhanced in the
heavier fraction. These different methods of gravity separation are
usually adapted as a cleaner approach to recycle and enrich the metallic
elements in the left-out fraction.
3.4.3. Magnetic separation
Magnetic separation method has been widely used in pre-treatment
5
Journal of Environmental Management 320 (2022) 115887
process of e-wastes. The crushed particles of e-wastes often contain a
relatively larger content of iron and nickel than other metals. These
metals possess magnetic properties that can be used for their effective
separation from the rest of the materials. Thus, magnetic separators
exploit the difference in the magnetic properties of comminuted e-
wastes particles to separate the ferrous and non-ferrous components
(Lim et al., 2014).
Magnetic separators, specifically low-intensity drum separators are
used for separating ferromagnetic components from non-ferrous com­
ponents. These low-intensity magnetic separators are more efficient in
recovering the coarser and strongly magnetic materials only; thus, a
high-intensity magnetic separator (HIMS) is required for recovering the
paramagnetic materials (Bentli et al., 2017). Much advancement in
design and operation of HIMS has been achieved for enhancing the
separation efficiency of the process. These separators have a conveyor
belt where, the magnetic substances get attracted while, the non-ferrous
materials fall freely into the collection tank under the gravitational in­
fluence (Ruan and Xu, 2016). The method, thus, aids in enriching the
ferromagnetic content in the output fraction. Fujita et al. (2014) carried
out the magnetic separation of WPCBs at a lower magnetic field strength
and found that the nickel content in the magnetic product was enhanced
from 0.16% to 6.7%. Ruan and Xu (2016) found that the recovery rate of
iron particles from crushed waste refrigerator cabinets and toner car­
tridges reached almost 99% after magnetic separation. One of the major
issues associated with this method is the agglomeration of the ferrous
and non-ferrous particles that further attract other non-ferrous mate­
rials. Another issue is its inefficiency to separate individual metals from
their alloys (Hadi et al., 2015). Besides, they have poor separation ef­
ficiency for the dust obtained during PCB comminution. Recently,
Oluokun and Otunniyi (2020) proposed chemical conditioning of the
dust using octyl phenol ethoxylate as a solution to combat these effects.
Efficient wet magnetic separation was obtained for PCB dust particles of
size 150–212 μm with 97% and 94% recovery efficiencies for Fe and Ni
R. Kumari and S.R. Samadder
respectively.
3.4.4. Electrostatic separation
Electrostatic separation is another pre-treatment method that sepa­
rates the conductive and non-conductive materials of e-wastes on the
basis of their conductivity or resistivity differences (Ruan and Xu, 2011).
The electric field generated by the conductive or metallic fraction is
utilized to separate them from the less conductive or NMFs. This capa­
bility of separation is dependent on the amount of charge acquired and
the difference in polarity between the particles of comminuted e-wastes
(Matsusaka et al., 2010).
There are three different techniques under electrostatic separation
which are usually used for separating conductive and non-conductive
materials. These methods typically include corona electrostatic separa­
tion (CES), eddy current separation (ECS), and triboelectric separation
(TES). The CES or the induction charging technique effectively separates
the metallic and NMFs that possess significant differences in their den­
sity and conductivity. Catinean et al. (2021) demonstrated that the CES
method is efficient enough to recover up to 95% of Cu from a fine
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and Cu granular mixture of low metal content
(less than 15%). Similarly, the ECS method is also useful in separating
ferrous and non-ferrous metals. The separation technique is dependent
on the gravitational, centrifugal, frictional, and magnetic deflection
forces for the separation of ferrous materials. However, the magnetic
deflection force is the pre-dominant force responsible for the separation
(Jujun et al., 2014). In recent years, researchers have further explored
the ECS method with rotating electrodes or pulsed excitation and on
optimization of specific operating conditions for efficiency enhancement
of the method (Li et al., 2017).
Tribo-electricity or contact charging technique is useful for charging
and separating the materials with similar conductivities. The difference
in triboelectric charge between the organic and inorganic materials is
used to separate the inorganic materials from NMFs of e-wastes (Zhang
et al., 2017b). Zhang et al. (2018b) found that TES technique
strengthens the gravity separation process resulting in enhanced metal
recovery from 76.39% to 81.41%. However, the overall efficiency of the
Fig. 3. Different methods of metal recovery from e-wastes.
6
Journal of Environmental Management 320 (2022) 115887
electrostatic separation process is poor for smaller particle sizes.
3.4.5. Froth flotation
Natural hydrophobicity of plastics and other NMFs has been exten­
sively utilized in the processing of e-wastes. It has been found that even
reagent-free flotation of the coarser fraction of e-wastes yields an
excellent recovery with a good quality product. Mäkinen et al. (2015)
revealed that a relatively large amount of Cu, Ni, Pb, and Sb can be
found in the froth even without the use of any reagents. However, the
addition of frother such as bromoform and benzene helps in stabilizing
the froth and in enhancing the kinetics. Flotation using water and air has
also been introduced as green floatation technique for recycling WPCBs
(Estrada-Ruiz et al., 2016). Further, Zhu et al. (2020) studied the
dissociation and flotation behaviors of different sized particles of WPCBs
and revealed that the distribution rate of the particles increased with the
reduction in particle size. Also, it was found that Au and other base
metals can be successfully recovered by flotation using kerosene from
the shredder light fractions (Jeon et al., 2018). Thus this method can be
widely used for separation of fine particles from e-wastes. Froth flotation
has certain advantages including high efficiency for a large range of
particle size, lower dust emission, and more economical; however, it
often requires treatment for the residual water (Ruan and Xu, 2016).
4. Metal recovery techniques
After pre-treatment of e-wastes, further processing is required to
obtain enriched and pure metallic fractions. Various metallurgical as
well as other novel techniques have been employed so far after the
disassembly and separation of metallic and NMFs of e-wastes. Fig. 3
depicts the different approaches employed for extracting metals from e-
wastes and the same has been reviewed in detail in the following
sections.
4.1. Pyrometallurgical process
Pyrometallurgical process is a traditional approach of metal recovery
R. Kumari and S.R. Samadder
where, different thermal treatments such as incineration, roasting, sin­
tering, and smelting are carried out under controlled high-temperature
to recover the metallic components from e-wastes. The heating is usu­
ally done in specialized incinerators, blast furnaces, or plasma arc fur­
naces where, the crushed scraps containing metals are volatilized under
high temperature and the impurities are converted into slags to obtain
coarse metal ingot (Zhang and Xu, 2016). Also, thermal desoldering of
e-wastes is usually done using electric heating tubes, infrared heating,
liquid heating media including dielectric liquids and molten salts (Kaya,
2018).
Thorough reviews have been carried out on various pyrometallur­
gical recovery routes such as Noranda smelting process, Aurubis smelter,
Umicore’s Smelter, and Boliden Ronnskar Smelter for different metals
by Ebin and Isik (2016) and Wang et al. (2017). These methods are
currently being practiced worldwide for processing the metallic frac­
tions of e-wastes; however, high investment cost and energy demand
along with the release of toxic fumes are some of the major limitations of
these pyrometallurgical techniques.
In recent years, researchers have investigated the potential of low
temperature roasting in presence of different chlorinating agents. Panda
et al. (2020) performed low temperature roasting of WPCBs in presence
of NH4Cl and recovered about 93% Cu and 100% Pb, Ni, and Zn under
optimized roasting conditions (temperature: 300 ◦ C, time: 4 h, and
NH4Cl dose: 3 g/g). Studies on combination of pyrometallurgical tech­
niques and other metal recovery techniques have also been explored to
enhance the metal recovery efficiency while, averting environmental
impacts. Jadhao et al. (2020) employed an integrated technique of
mild-temperature pyrolysis and ultrasonication for simultaneous re­
covery and recycling of the metallic and polymeric fractions to produce
fuel-grade gases. Approximately 90 wt% of metallic fraction was
recovered within 30 min of the process. Also, attempts have been made
to transform the WPCBs into value-added metallic alloys instead of
producing pure metals using pyrometallurgical techniques (Shokri et al.,
2017).
4.2. Hydrometallurgical process
Hydrometallurgical technique is usually considered as a more exact,
highly flexible, predictable, and easily controllable method for metal
extraction from e-wastes. The process involves two essential stages, viz.,
extraction stage for solubilization of metals using suitable lixiviants and
refining stage for recovery of leached metals from the polymetallic
pregnant leaching solution (Silvas et al., 2015). Many leaching agents
such as aqua regia (Cyganowski et al., 2017), inorganic acid (Yazici and
Deveci, 2014), cyanide (Bisceglie et al., 2017), halide (Altansukh et al.,
2016), thiourea (Birloaga et al., 2014), thiosulfate (Jeon et al., 2019),
and ammonia (Xiao et al., 2013) have been used for extraction of
different base, precious, critical, and rare earth elements from e-wastes.
These leaching systems are considered less hazardous than pyrometal­
lurgical process except for certain lixiviants like cyanide, aqua regia and
other mineral acids. A slow leaching kinetic and generation of volumi­
nous liquid wastes and sludge are some of the other concerns associated
with the process. The different leaching systems with their advantages
and disadvantages have been further discussed in the following
sub-sections. Also, summary and critical evaluations of these leaching
systems along with their efficiency under different optimal conditions
have been presented in Table S2.
After extraction, the recovery of these metals is generally done using
adsorption, solvent extraction, cementation using Zn, Al, Ni, & Fe and
electrowinning methods (Kumar et al., 2020a). Selection of these
methods is dependent on the leaching system used for metal extraction,
content of target metals and amount of impurities present in the leaching
solution. For example, the maximum recovery of precious metals from
acidic thiourea and other thio leaching systems has been achieved using
cementation method; while, the recovery of other metals such as Cu, Co,
& Ni is generally done using conventional electrowinning and solvent
7
Journal of Environmental Management 320 (2022) 115887
extraction methods. Calderon et al. (2020) utilized magnetic nickelif­
erous pyrrhotite, a mined-waste product as an adsorbent to recover Au
from chloride solutions. Further, alternative approaches such as
enhanced cementation and coupled magnetic separation-cementation
methods are also explored to overcome the limitations of these pro­
cesses and to enhance the recovery efficiency (Jeon et al., 2020).
Recently, Choi et al. (2021) revealed that the enhanced cementation
technique using Al and activated carbon (AC) together increased the
overall recovery efficiencies of Cd2+, Zn2+, Ni2+, and Co2+ in compar­
ison of using Al or AC individually. Similarly, Jeon et al. (2021)
enhanced the Au recovery from ammonium thiosulfate using galvanic
interactions between Al and AC.
4.2.1. Traditional inorganic acid leaching method
Traditional leaching methods using various inorganic acids such as
HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, and their combinations have been well investigated
for selective and non-selective extraction of metals from e-wastes. Aqua
regia, a combination of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid (HCl:HNO3 =
3:1, v/v) has also been extensively used for non-selective and aggressive
digestion and solubilization of precious and base metals of e-wastes
(Cyganowski et al., 2017). These acids, when used alone, are also
capable of selectively extracting metals from the metallic mixture.
Hossain et al. (2018) reported that the maximum Cu extraction from
WPCBs reached 190 mg/g within 60 min of the selective extraction
using concentrated H2SO4. Innocenzi et al. (2017) designed a mobile
plant under HydroWEEE-demo project for the treatment of e-wastes
based on the selective extraction using inorganic acid leaching system.
The recovered products showed leaching efficiencies of around 90% for
Cu, Au, Ag (PCB), 95% for Y and Eu (lamp and CRT powders), 93% for
Li, and >97% for Co (Li-ion battery).
Generally, the base metals including Al, Fe, Zn, and Sn can be easily
solubilized in dilute acids; however, leaching of Cu requires either an
oxidizing acid or a non-oxidizing agent with an oxidant for efficient
dissolution. Birloaga et al. (2014) studied the H2SO4 leaching procedure
with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as an oxidant for Cu extraction from
WPCBs. Three-step oxidative leaching procedure was required to ach­
ieve maximum Cu extraction efficiency (99%). Somasundaram et al.
(2014) used 0.1 M CuCl2 as an oxidant in HCl leaching system for se­
lective extraction of Sn (92%) from WPCBs and further revealed that
leaching of Cu, Pb, and Ni is feasible with an elevated CuCl2 concen­
tration of 0.5 M.
The concentration of these inorganic acids is the most influential
parameter in determining the efficiency of the process. Bas et al. (2014)
revealed that the extractions can be enhanced from 88.5% to 99.9% and
14%–68% for Cu and Ag respectively with the increase in concentration
of nitric acid from 1 to 5 M. Similar results were obtained in the study
conducted by Ajiboye et al. (2019) where, the leaching efficiency of Cu
increased from 52.7% to almost 100% with an increase in concentration
of HNO3 from 0.25 M to 1.0 M. Apart from the concentration of the
acids, temperature, pH, solid to liquid (S/L) ratio, and size of e-waste
sample are some of the other predominant parameters which affect the
rate of leaching process (Jha et al., 2012). Variation in these parameters
influences the mass transfer coefficient, flux of H+ ions and diffusivity
across the particle boundaries which in turn influence the rate of reac­
tion (Kumari et al., 2016).
Studies have revealed that inorganic acids can effectively extract
different base metals from e-wastes under relatively moderate condi­
tions, but requirements of higher concentrations of acid, oxidant,
leaching time, temperature, and pressure make the process uneconom­
ical. Besides, the volatile nature of acids and the potential release of
toxic gases such as NOx from these inorganic acids possess potential risks
for workers and the environment. Corrosive nature of mineral acids,
large amount of acid waste, and unwanted by-products are some of the
other concerns associated with the inorganic acids leaching system (Li
et al., 2018).
R. Kumari and S.R. Samadder
4.2.2. Cyanide leaching method
Cyanide leaching for precious metal extraction from e-wastes has
been extensively studied by various researchers (Petter et al., 2014;
Bisceglie et al., 2017). The lixiviant is preferably used for recovery of Ag
and Au from mines because, of its higher efficiency and lower cost
involvement. However, the cyanide leaching of e-wastes is avoided due
to its high toxicity (Akcil et al., 2015).
Cyanide ions (CN− ) can be found as complexes, hydrogen cyanide
(HCN), free cyanide ions (CN− ), or simple compounds in solutions
depending on pH. However, cyanidation at pH ≥ 10.5 is considered as
economical and eco-friendly because of the limited formation and
volatilization of toxic HCN. Besides toxicity, the presence of large
amount of Cu in WPCBs results in excessive consumption of cyanide
which in turn increases the cost considerably. One of the ways to
overcome such a problem is to introduce a multi-stage leaching system
where the base metals are extracted at the first stage followed by
precious metals extraction at the second stage. Another way to reduce
cyanide consumption during leaching process is the addition of other
lixiviants that can combine with cyanide to form complexes with metals.
Preliminary research conducted by Bisceglie et al. (2017) revealed that
3-nitrobenzene-sulphonate (NBS) can improve Au recovery rate from
e-wastes.
Sufficient information on toxicity and safe handling of cyanide (In­
ternational Cyanide Management Code) is available; however, the
practice of cyanide leaching at the industrial level is still not feasible
because of high toxicity and environmental consequences associated
with the leaching system. Moreover, the chances of leaching of residual
cyanide from effluents (if not treated properly) into the soil and
groundwater are very high which will result in chronic health problems.
Therefore, the focus of the research on precious metal leaching from e-
wastes has been shifted towards the development of a less toxic and
much milder leaching system.
4.2.3. Mild leaching method
Several mild leaching agents such as ammonia-ammonium (Sun
et al., 2015), halide (He and Xu, 2015; Patel and Dawson, 2015), and
thio-based lixiviants, viz. thiosulfate (Jeon et al., 2018), and thiourea
(Birloaga and Vegliò, 2016) have also been investigated. Amongst these
leaching agents, the thio-based and halide leaching agents are mainly
used for precious metals extraction; while the ammonia-ammonium
leaching agent is used mainly for extraction of base metals.
Thio-based leaching system has been seen as a promising substitute
of cyanide leaching system for precious metals owing to its low corro­
sivity, high selectivity, and reduced environmental risk. Jing-ying et al.
(2012) extracted 90% Ag from WPCBs using thiourea within 2 h of the
leaching process. In another study, Birloaga and Vegliò (2016) followed
a two-step leaching process using H2SO4 and H2O2 in the first step for
base metals extraction and acidic thiourea in the second step for
precious metals extraction (Ag-75%; Au-90%). Gámez et al. (2019)
proposed a feasible leaching system using ammonia-thiosulfate solution
and ion exchange resin method for extraction and recovery of precious
metals from WPCBs. This method can recover more than 80% of the
precious metals (Ag and Au). Similarly, Jeon et al. (2019) enhanced
(around 15-fold) Au extraction from waste mobiles using ammonium
thiosulfate solution after pre-treatment with different physical separa­
tion methods. A non-cyanide based alternative method has also been
developed by Uwin Nanotech of Taiwan which is operational at indus­
trial level for precious metals recovery with around 99% product purity
(UWin Nanotech, 2019).
Ammonia-ammonium leaching is another suitable lixiviant for se­
lective extraction of Cu from e-wastes. Sun et al. (2015) investigated the
ammonia-ammonium carbonate leaching system for Cu extraction from
e-waste mixture and reported high Cu recovery (>90%) and high
extraction selectivity (98%). Recently, an efficient ammonia-ammonium
carbonate slurry electrolysis system has also been proposed by Wang
et al. (2021) for high purity Cu extraction from WPCBs of mobile phones.
8
Journal of Environmental Management 320 (2022) 115887
This ammonia-ammonium leaching system has also shown leachability
for other base metals depending on the reduction potential of metals and
stability of the metal-ammine complex (Xiao et al., 2013).
In recent years, different halide leaching systems such as chlorine-
chloride (Yazici and Deveci, 2015), and iodine-iodide (Altansukh
et al., 2016) leaching systems have been used for precious metals
extraction under alkaline environment. Pereira et al. (2020) found an
extraction efficiency of 96% for Ag when WPCBs of computers were
leached using the combination of sodium chloride and calcium hypo­
chlorite. Xiu et al. (2015) reported an enhancement in the extraction
efficiency of iodine–iodide leaching system for Au, Ag, and Pd after
supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) pre-treatment of WPCBs. Envir­
oLeach Technologies Inc. in Canada has patented a process based on the
iodide-iodate and electrolysis method for precious metals recovery from
e-wastes with reagent recycling system (Nelson et al., 2017). The
non-toxic and non-corrosive nature of this leaching system together with
its fast kinetics and good selectivity for precious metals make it an
appropriate leaching solution for precious metal extraction. Also, the
complex formed between Au-iodide is a very stable compound. Never­
theless, high reagent consumption and cost of iodine are some of the
major limitations associated with this leaching system (Ghosh et al.,
2015).
4.2.4. Organic solvent etching method
In recent years, some organic acids such as citric acid (Li et al.,
2010), oxalic acid (Cui et al., 2019), and acetic acid (Natarajan et al.,
2018) have been introduced as environment-friendly lixiviants for
extraction of metals from e-wastes. Chen et al. (2015b) proposed a green
method for sustainable extraction of Co and Li from spent Li-ion batte­
ries using citric acid as the major lixiviant in combination with other
different reductants (Tea Waste, Phytolacca americana branches, and
hydrogen peroxide). The leaching results revealed better efficiencies for
the combinations of citric acid & tea-waste (96% for Co and 98% for Li)
and of citric acid & H2O2 leaching system (98% for Co and 99% for Li)
under optimized conditions. In another study, Varshney et al. (2017)
used DL-malic acid and H2O2 as leaching agents that resulted in more
than 90% extraction of Cd, Pb, and Ni from WPCBs.
Besides, glycine (amino acid) has also been used as organic lixiviant
with different oxidants (O2, H2O2, and Cu2+) and catalysts/synergists for
effective extraction of precious and base metals from e-wastes. Oraby
et al. (2020) used glycine as a lixiviant in an alkaline environment for
precious and base metals extraction from WPCBs with leaching effi­
ciencies of 92.1%, 85.3%, 98.5%, 89.8%, and 99.1% for Au, Ag, Zn, Pb,
and Cu respectively. Similarly, Li et al. (2020) developed a sustainable
approach for extraction of Cu from WPCBs using alkaline glycine solu­
tion in which, a maximum Cu extraction of 96.5% was achieved together
with high co-extraction of other base metals.
4.3. Biometallurgical process
Bio-metallurgical processing of e-wastes is an emerging eco-friendly
metal recovery technique that has attracted much attention of the re­
searchers for making practical application of the process. It is the process
that involves utilization of metal-microbe interactions during bio­
leaching and biosorption stage for metal extraction and their subsequent
recovery from e-wastes (Awasthi et al., 2019). Tables S3 and S4 present
a detailed critical evaluation of the various bioleachants and biosorbents
used for metal extraction and recovery from different e-wastes.
Chemo-lithoautotrophic bacteria such as Acidithiobacillus ferroox­
idans and Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans are the group of microorganisms
that have been considered the most for bioleaching of the elements
available in e-wastes. Other heterotrophic bacteria and fungi are also
being used in dissolving metallic ions from complex e-wastes. These
microbes have the ability to facilitate metal dissolution through a series
of chemical reactions such as acidolysis, redoxolysis, and complexolysis
(Desmarais et al., 2020). Jowkar et al. (2018) reported 100% extraction
R. Kumari and S.R. Samadder
of indium from discarded liquid crystal displays (LCDs) using Acid­
ithiobacillus thiooxidans. Recent studies are more focused on using mixed
culture of microorganisms and combination of microbes with other
chemical lixiviants for maximum extraction of metals from e-wastes. For
example, Pant et al. (2014) reported first the use of microbes (Serratia
plymuthica) and EDTA for improved metal leaching from waste CRTs.
Işıldar et al. (2016) performed a two-step bioleaching process using
A. thiooxidans & A. ferrivorans in the first stage and P. fluorescens &
P. putida in the second stage for enhanced Cu extraction (98.4%). In
another study, Heydarian et al. (2018) also performed two-step bio­
leaching using a mixture of A. thiooxidans and A. ferrrooxidans and
extracted around 99% Li, 89% Ni, and 50% Co under optimized condi­
tions. Similar mixed culture bioleaching experiment was also conducted
by Priya and Hait (2020) using A. ferrrooxidans and Acidiphilium acid­
ophilum. The mixed culture demonstrated highest bioleaching effi­
ciencies of around 95% for Cu & Zn and 75% for Ni & Pb. .
Biosorption process is another biological approach for recovering
metals from WPCBs. In various studies, bacteria, fungi, other living or
dead microbial mass, agricultural and plant biomass have been used as
biosorbents for recovering metals from the leached solutions of e-wastes.
Varshney et al. (2017) recovered Cd (93.03%), Pb (95.18%), and Ni
(97.08%) from WPCBs using ameliorated wood pulp as biosorbent. In
another study, Yi et al. (2016) used ethylenediamine-modified
persimmon tannin as biosorbent for recovering Au (~100%) and Pd
(~100%) from the leached solution of WPCBs. Sinha et al. (2018)
demonstrated the biosorption potential of Aspergillus oryzae and Baker’s
Yeast in recovering Cu from WPCBs (>80%); however, the duration
required for effective biosorption is quite high. These adsorbed metals
were then desorbed from the biosorbents with specific solvents or were
incinerated. This method is believed as cost-effective and
environment-friendly, but the efficiency of the process is dependent on
selectivity, total metal-binding capacity, stability and renewability of
materials (Awasthi et al., 2019).
Overall, the process can be considered as a green alternative to
conventional metallurgical processes because of their lower operational
temperature & energy requirement and better environmental perfor­
mance. However, the challenges of slow kinetics, maintaining the
quality and purity of microbial culture, and low waste load due to mi­
crobial sensitivity to toxic constituents of e-wastes remained a concern
in its full scale industrial operation (Işıldar et al., 2018). Few studies
have investigated the configurations of bioleaching process using bio­
reactors, but the knowledge for same at large scale is still limited. For
example, Erust et al. (2021) performed bioleaching of Cu from WPCBs in
a semi-pilot reactor system using a consortium of iron and sulfur
oxidizing bacteria. Results revealed that consortium efficiently solubi­
lized Cu (95%) at a solid/liquid ratio of 10% within 8 days. Another
project of BiotaWee has also worked on bioleaching at large scale. The
project has implemented 10 to 20 semi-industrial bioreactors for the
recovery of valuable metals from WPCBs in two-step bioleaching process
using metabolically-engineered cyanogenic bacteria (ARGCON5). The
leaching efficiency was found to reach 100%, 80% and 60% for Fe, Ni,
and Cu respectively within 48 h (BiotaWee, 2021).
4.4. Electrochemical process
Electrochemical process is another promising technology for
extraction of precious, critical and base metals from e-wastes because of
its minimum environmental impacts and less requirement of chemicals.
In this process, dissolution of metals is favored by proton generation at
the anode (Kim et al., 2010). Kim et al. (2011) investigated the leaching
behavior of metals such as Cu, Zn, Pb, and Sn from WPCBs using
electro-generated chlorine in HCl solution. The experiment was per­
formed using two different reactors, viz. a combined reactor equipped
with the facility for simultaneous Cl2 generation and metal leaching, and
a separate metal leaching reactor connected with the anode compart­
ment of a Cl2 gas generator. The separate leaching reactor revealed that
9
Journal of Environmental Management 320 (2022) 115887
the leaching efficiencies can reach up to 71% for Cu, 96% for Sn, & Pb,
and 98% for Zn within 240 min under optimized conditions.
Direct electro-dissolution of powdered WPCBs was carried out by
Guimarães et al. (2014) in an acidic copper sulfate solution to recover
Cu. The results indicated that electrolyte stirring and temperature in­
crease favored cathodic recovery of Cu (96%). In another study, Fogarasi
et al. (2014) investigated a chemical–electrochemical process involving
acidic ferric chloride solution for simultaneous Cu extraction and Au
separation from WPCBs using two different reactors in series. A leaching
reactor with a perforated rotating drum was employed for dissolution of
base metals and a divided electrochemical reactor was used for regen­
eration of the leaching solution and for electrowinning of Cu. After
dissolution and recovery of Cu (99.04%), the Au concentration in the
residue enhanced 25 times than that in the initial sample. Direct re­
covery of Cu from complex e-wastes through a process combining
electro-dissolution and electro-deposition was also achieved by Haccu­
ria et al. (2017).
Minimum chemical requirement is one of the advantages of electro-
recycling process for recovery of metals. Nevertheless, inadequate
electrical conductivity of WPCBs and high energy consumption during
ball-milling are some of the major limitations that hamper the recovery
efficiency of this process. Moreover, the recovery process is found un­
suitable for processing complex e-wastes (Guimarães et al., 2014).
4.5. Supercritical fluid (SCF) extraction method
In recent years, supercritical fluid (SCF) technology has attracted
much attention for extraction of metals from e-wastes. These SCFs are
the fluids that remain in single-phase even at/above its critical tem­
perature and pressure with gas-like diffusion rate & viscosity, and liquid-
like density (Sanyal et al., 2013). The special properties of SCFs such as
low viscosity, high solubility, high mass transfer coefficient, and high
diffusivity for organics make this method eco-friendly. This technique is
suitable for decomposition of organic fractions and recovery of metallic
constituents from e-wastes (Xiu et al., 2015).
Generally, SCF treatment of e-wastes is done either through SCF
extraction process or through SCF oxidation process. SCF extraction
method is mainly used for extraction of metals and smaller molecules of
organic materials and SCF oxidation method is used for degrading
organic constituents of e-wastes (Xiu et al., 2013). Several researchers
have used supercritical water (SCW) as SCF combined with acid leaching
for extraction of base metals from WPCBs (Xiu et al., 2013; Golzary and
Abdoli, 2020). SCW has also been used for extraction of precious metals
from e-wastes (Xiu et al., 2015). Liu et al. (2016) used SCF
oxidation-extraction process for extraction of Ag and Pd from WPCBs.
SCW oxidation was used for enrichment of precious metals and super­
critical CO2 was used as an eco-friendly solvent for extraction of
precious metals resulting in 93.7% and 96.4% extraction of Pd and Ag
respectively. In another study, Xiu et al. (2017) proposed a method for
direct recovery of ultrafine Cu from WPCBs using supercritical methanol
after extraction of Cu using nitric acid. The reducing capacity of su­
percritical methanol is used to reduce the Cu ions into zero-valent Cu
contained in the leached liquor of waste without any further addition of
reductant.
SCF techniques demonstrate promising green reaction and resource
recovery option, but these methods still have certain technical short­
comings. In fact, the SCF treatment methods need more operational cost
and energy than that of hydrometallurgical treatment methods. The sole
disadvantage of using SCW in acid leaching is the requirement of higher
temperature (420–440 ◦ C). Further, the corrosion and salt deposition at
high temperature and pressure are some of the other concerns associated
with this method (Li and Xu, 2019).
4.6. Vacuum metallurgy method
In recent years, the vacuum metallurgical (VM) technique has gained
R. Kumari and S.R. Samadder
popularity for extracting metals from e-wastes. The VM separation
technique includes the methods of vacuum evaporation, vacuum
reduction, vacuum sublimation, and vacuum pyrolysis (Ma and Xu,
2013). Separation of metals using VM method is based on the difference
in vapor pressure of the metallic elements present in e-wastes. This
technique is suitable for recovery of elements such as Bi, Sb, Pb, and
other heavy metals from WPCBs (Zhan and Xu, 2012). Niu et al. (2017)
used vacuum pyrolysis in combination with mechanical− physical sep­
aration to recover Ta and other materials from waste tantalum capaci­
tors. In another study, Xiang et al. (2015) used vacuum separation and
inert gas condensation for Zn recovery and preparation of Zn
nano-particles from spent zinc-manganese batteries.
Application of VM technique is not restricted to the recovery of in­
dividual elements, but the method can also recover metallic alloys from
crushed e-wastes (Ruan and Xu, 2016). This method is considered as an
environment-friendly method; however, there are certain limitations
that need to be focused on for enhancing separation and recovery effi­
ciency. For example, the metal oxide layer present on the surface of
particles can influence the separation efficiency and the smaller size of
particles can pose much higher resistance to separation rate than the
larger-sized particles. Moreover, presence of a large amount of other
metallic elements can hamper the evaporation rate (Ruan and Xu,
2016).
4.7. Other novel techniques
Limitations associated with conventional metal recovery techniques
from e-wastes lead to explore and develop more novel green technolo­
gies such as chelation technology, use of ionic liquids, and application of
integrated metal extraction approach. A brief description of these novel
techniques is given in the following sub-sections.
4.7.1. Chelation technology
Chelating agents have been successfully used in the metal extraction
from various contaminated sites. This technique has been adapted
mainly to optimize resource consumption and to minimize negative
impacts of pollutants on environment. Chelation technique is considered
as one of the novel greener approaches in e-waste recycling in which,
leaching of metallic contents of e-wastes is facilitated by a multi-dentate
chelator (lixiviant). The chelator reacts with metals or metallic ions to
form stable solution of metal-ligand complexes (Chauhan et al., 2015).
Limited studies on the use of chelating agents are available for
extraction of metals from e-wastes (Chauhan et al., 2013, 2015). Jadhao
et al. (2016) used eco-friendly chelation technology to extract Cu from
WPCBs and compared the results with conventional acid leaching
methods. The results revealed that nearly 84% of Cu extraction can be
achieved using chelation technique while only 27% of Cu can be
extracted using the traditional acid leaching methods. In another study,
Sharma et al. (2017) used a similar concept for extraction of Cu and Co
from WPCBs and mobile batteries under statistically optimized param­
eters. Recently, Verma and Hait (2019) employed the chelation method
for extraction of base metals (Cu, Zn, Ni) from WPCBs of obsolete
computers using diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA).
Further research is required to explore the applicability of chelating
agents for better extraction of metals from e-wastes. Search for new
biodegradable chelating agents, their degradation pathways and feasi­
bility studies for separation and recovery of chelated metals is also
required for development of a more sustainable method of metals re­
covery from e-wastes.
4.7.2. Ionic liquid extraction method
Ionic liquids (ILs) have emerged as new class of lixiviants for
extracting metals from e-wastes. Practical applications of this method
are possible due to their unique properties of negligible vapor pressure,
high thermal stability (<400 ◦ C), chemical stability, and ability to
dissolve organic and inorganic compounds (Aslanov, 2011). In recent
10
Journal of Environmental Management 320 (2022) 115887
years, different ILs have been used as green solvents for metal extraction
from e-wastes. A feasibility study was conducted by Zhu et al. (2012) to
dissolve brominated epoxy resins of WPCBs using the IL 1-ethyl-3-me­
thylimizadolium tetrafluoroborate [EMIM+][BF−4 ] for recovering cop­
per foils and glass fibers. Huang et al. (2014) used
1-butyl-3-methyl-imidazolium hydrogen sulfate ([bmim]HSO4) as IL for
leaching of Cu from WPCBs with almost 100% extraction efficiency. In
another study, a comparative analysis on extraction efficiencies of five
typical ILs viz. [BSO4HPy]HSO4 (N-sulfobutylpyridinium hydrosulfate),
[BSO3HMIm]HSO4 (1-sulfobutyl-3-methylimidazolium hydrosulfate),
[BSO3HMIm]OTf (N-sulfobutylpyridiniumtrifluoromethanesulfonate),
[MIm]HSO4 (Methylimidazolium hydrosulfate), [BSO3HPy]OTf (1-sul­
fobutyl-3-methylimidazolium trifluoromethanesulfate) was carried out
by Chen et al. (2015a). The results revealed that each of these ILs was
capable of extracting almost 100% Cu; however, the extraction of Pb was
below 30%. Similar studies were conducted by Zhang et al. (2018a) and
He et al. (2020) in which, the leaching behavior of Cu from WPCBs was
investigated using different types of acidic ILs. Most of these studies are
focused only on the extraction of Cu using these ILs from WPCBs and
have neglected other elements. Also, the co-leaching behavior, inter­
ference of other metals, efficient recovery from leached solution, and
regeneration of these ILs should be studied in more details to understand
the practical applicability of ILs.
4.7.3. Integrated metal recovery method
Recently, combinations of two or more metal recovery techniques
(hybrid techniques) have been employed for efficient extraction of
metals from e-wastes. Several integrated metal extraction/recovery
techniques have been developed such as ultrasonically assisted acid
leaching method (Zhang et al., 2017c), mechano-chemical technology
(Niu et al., 2017), combination of hydrometallurgy & biometallurgy
(Pant et al., 2014; Bui et al., 2021), SCF & chemical leaching (Xiu et al.,
2013) and pyrometallurgy & hydrometallurgy techniques (Havlik et al.,
2010). Sinha et al. (2018) employed a combination of bioleaching and
biosorption methods as extraction and purification steps followed by
electro-treatment process to recover Cu from WPCBs. Jadhao et al.
(2020) proposed an integrated approach using pyrolysis and ultra­
sonication techniques for recovery of metals from e-wastes. The pyrol­
ysis at a temperature of 400 ◦ C for 20 min resulted in 35% combustible
gases and 60% solid products. The solid products were then treated by
ultrasonication process to recover the metallic fraction (>90%). In
another study, Chen et al. (2020) investigated integrated method of
low-temperature alkaline smelting and liquid-liquid phase separation to
recover metals from WPCBs of mobile phones. The results revealed an
enhanced separation rate of 99.5%, 97.8%, 95.7%, 88.4%, and 81.6%,
for Al, Si, Zn, Sn, and Pb respectively. Further, the extraction rates of the
metals Ag, Au, Cr, and Ni reached 99.8%, 98.1%, 95.6%, and 75.4%
respectively.
Various challenges associated with the individual metal recovery
techniques such as high environmental pollution, low efficiency,
extensive use of chemical reagents, complex workflow, and selective
element recovery still remained unsolved. Therefore, more attention is
to be paid towards developing integrated metal recovery techniques for
efficient and environment-friendly recycling and management of e-
wastes.
5. Residual disposal methods
The residues obtained both during pre-processing and end-
processing of e-wastes recycling and recovery require special attention
due to the toxicity associated with these wastes. In addition, wastewater
from e-waste recycling industries needs to be treated before its disposal.
These final wastes are usually sent to landfills for its disposal or to
incineration plants for energy production. However, high expenditure,
limited landfill space, and environmental and health hazards are some of
the major concerns of these disposal methods. Focus has been laid on
R. Kumari and S.R. Samadder
conversion of e-wastes residual plastics into organic products using
hydrothermal treatment (Zhao et al., 2018). This treatment technique
has been utilized by various researchers in enhancing the recycling
potential of e-wastes (Yoon et al., 2020). Another technique, plasma
treatment has also been introduced as a more environment friendly
method of residual waste treatment. Cubas et al. (2014) reported
disposal of plasma treated e-wastes residuals into a secured landfill as a
safer procedure. Use of plasma technology has its own benefits such as
robust installation, rapid heating, more stable energy, reduced emis­
sions, more economical and environment-friendly disposal (Sanito et al.,
2021). In recent years, some pilot-scale investigations of plasma treat­
ment of e-waste residual have been done (Szałatkiewicz, 2016). A
detailed review on the residual treatment and disposal of e-waste using
plasma technology has been done by Sanito et al. (2021).
6. Critical discussion on the various metal recovery techniques
Realization of the importance of metal recovery from e-wastes as an
effective and sustainable management step has resulted improvements
in different metal recovery techniques in the recent decades. For
example, advancements from manual to mechanical dismantling with an
automated sensor-based sorting (Chen et al., 2013; Marconi et al.,
2019), cryogenic grinding (Zhou et al., 2016), selective
crushing-screening (Phengsaart et al., 2020), etc. are evident. Also, ad­
vances in different metallurgical techniques in the form of shift towards
the utilization of less corrosive reagents, other organic, and bio lixiviants
with similar or higher recovery efficiencies can also be observed from
the literature (as summarized in Tables S2 and S3). However, these
technologies still have certain challenges that need to be addressed for
further improvements. Major concerns of these technologies are the
environmental, economic, and social sustainability which require
further studies. A comparative assessment of different metal recovery
techniques based on these parameters is presented in Table S5. Metal
recovery from e-wastes is itself a very complex process and the hetero­
geneous nature of these wastes makes it even more complex. Thus it is
essential to consider all these parameters for accurate evaluation and
prediction of the sustainability of these techniques. Sustainability can be
assessed using LCA studies of these different techniques. Various LCA
tools such as SimaPro and GaBi have been used so far to evaluate the
environmental impacts of different metal recovery techniques of
e-wastes. These tools use different life cycle impact assessment (LCIA)
methods such as Tool for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and
Other Environmental Impacts (TRACI), International Reference Life
Cycle Data (ILCD), CML, Environmental Development of Industrial
Products (EDIP), and ReCiPe to model the environmental impacts of the
various processes (S. No. 3 of Table S5). The most commonly used
models are USEtox, USES-LCA, EUTREND, EASEWASTE, and RAINS10.
Literature survey revealed that most of the studies are focused on re­
covery of single element; but the extraction efficiency and purity of the
recovered metals and the loss of valuable resources remained a concern.
It is evident from Table S2 that most of the chemical leaching systems
were focused on recovering either Cu or precious metals and when
attempted to recover other metals parallelly, the recovery efficiency was
found insignificant. However, leaching using organic acids was found
efficient to extract rare earth metals, base metals, and other heavy
metals from e-wastes (S. No. 14, 16 of Table S2). Thus, potential of more
such types of organic acids need to be evaluated for further improve­
ment of extraction efficiency. As the biometallurgical approach is green
and eco-friendly recovery method, thus, this method needs to be
explored more to overcome the lower recovery rates. The process effi­
ciency can be improved by optimization of the parameters as achieved
by Jowkar et al. (2018) for indium recovery (S. No. 9 of Table S3). In
addition, use of mixed microbial culture can further enhance the re­
covery efficiency (S. No. 6, 10 of Table S3). Further studies are also
required on ILs and chelating agents based extraction of elements from
e-wastes as most of the previous studies have focused only on the
11
Journal of Environmental Management 320 (2022) 115887
extraction of Cu using the ILs and have neglected other elements.
For actual field application, the various aspects of metal recovery
techniques need to be addressed. Firstly, the techniques should be
feasible for commercialization especially for small & medium-sized en­
terprises of developing countries. The feasibility can be ensured by
focusing on the process optimization, techno-economic analysis, and
scale-up studies of these metal recovery techniques. It is evident from
Table 3 that most of the industrial and scale-up techniques available for
recycling of e-wastes in developed nations are based on pyrometallur­
gical, hydrometallurgical, or combination of these two processes. While
in developing countries like India, the recycling process is mostly
restricted to pre-processing stage only. Despite the technological ad­
vancements, the higher operational & capital cost, lower efficiency, and
metal loss due to variable feed compositions remained a concern for the
scale-up of these techniques. Very limited studies are available on in­
dustrial scale application and on economic evaluation of SCF extraction
method. Also, limited scale-up studies based on electrochemical and
biometallurgical methods are available despite their high recovery ef­
ficiency and better environmental performance than the existing in­
dustrial recycling practices (Table S5). Thus, further studies are required
to explore possibility of industrial application of these methods partic­
ularly in developing countries. Secondly, a thorough research is required
to establish a scientific, closed-loop, and complete metal recovery sys­
tem. This can be achieved by understanding the recyclability of various
components of e-wastes followed by prioritization of the metals to be
recovered using appropriate treatment and recovery methods. For
example, a well-designed pretreatment method such as a combination of
mechano-physical technology can be adapted for efficient separation of
metallic and NMFs to avoid emissions of toxic gases and minimization of
residues resulting from NMFs of e-wastes. Recycling technologies can
also be integrated based on the physical and chemical properties of e-
wastes. Though attempts have been made to develop economical and
environment-friendly metal recycling techniques, still there is huge
scope to improve the sustainability of the recovery processes. Applica­
tion of single technology may not be adequate for recovering metals
efficiently from complex e-wastes. However, integrated metal recovery
methods can be proved as potential metal recovery methods from e-
wastes. Systematic integration of two or more methods for recovering
metallic fractions from e-wastes can even be more feasible in terms of
both economic and environmental aspects.
7. Conclusion
The present study critically reviewed the different pre-treatment and
metal recovery methods from e-wastes. Following conclusive remarks
have been made as per the analysis in this review:
i. Selective and automatic disassembly of components has been
recommended for e-wastes containing high metal contents to
enhance recovery efficiency. Further, temperature-controlled
crushing with a milling size below 150 mm is generally sug­
gested for effective separation of non-metals from metals.
ii. For physical separation of metallic and NMFs, density-based
separation methods are usually preferred. However, the latest
developments including corona electrostatic separators are also
gaining popularity for separation of metallic and NMFs of e-
wastes.
iii. Significant improvements have been made in traditional methods
such as pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical techniques of
e-waste recycling; still, more improvement is required for feasible
application of these techniques at industrial scale with minimum
environmental impacts.
iv. Extensive research for biometallurgical, SCF, chelation, and IL
leaching methods is also required because of their compatibility
as effective substitutes for these conventional recovery tech­
niques. Also, focus should be laid on scaling up the
R. Kumari and S.R. Samadder Journal of Environmental Management 320 (2022) 115887

Table 3
Details of the industrial scale technologies available for recycling of e-wastes.
S. Industry (Location) Type of e-waste Recycling technique Materials Remark Reference
No. recycled recovered

1. Forrec- WEEE Large household Manual dismantling and mechanical Fe, plastics, non- The recycling unit has arrangements Forrec
Recycling Plant appliances, TVs, pre-treatment ferrous metals for the air flow and dust control system (2021)
(Italy) CRTs, etc. during grinding as well as noise control
and soundproofing system.
2. Aurubis Recycling Electrical and Pretreatment followed by Cu, Ni, Sn, Pb, and The batch time is short due to quick Aurubis
Center (Germany, electronic scrap. pyrometallurgy and electrolysis other precious melting process in the bath melting (2021)
North America, Asia) method metals furnace.
3. Umicore (North Cell phones, laptops, Smelting, leaching, electrowinning, Base metals (Cu, The recycling unit has treatment Umicore
America, Europe, and other small IT precious metals refining (PMO), base Ni, Pb), precious facility for the byproducts generated (2021)
Asia Pacific, Latin devices without metals operations (BMO): blast metals, secondary from PMO as well as emission (dust,
America, Middle East, batteries. furnace and lead refinery and the metals (Sn, Bi, Sb) gasses, and dioxins) control system.
and Africa) special metal plants
4. Boliden (Sweden, Dismantled and pre- Rönnskär and Kaldo furnace Au, Ag, Cu, Pd, Ni, Melted plastics from e-wastes during Boliden
Finland, Norway, treated e-wastes. (Pyrometallurgy and Se, Zn, and Pb smelting are used as a source of energy. (2021)
Ireland) Hydrometallurgy). The heat generated is partially reused
as district heating in the plant area and
the remaining heat is supplied to the
local district heating system. The
recycling unit is equipped with
advanced systems to clean process
gases and discharge water.
5. UWin Nanotech PCBs. Automatic desoldering, mechanical Cu, Au, Ag, Pd, and The recycling unit uses cyanide-free UWin
(Japan, USA, China, pre-treatment and hydrometallurgy Sn chemical methods and is integrated Nanotech
Taiwan) with automated processes, thereby (2019)
making the recovery of precious metals
more effective.
6. UNIVAQ’s pilot plant PCBs, CPUs, Hydrometallurgy, cementation/ Cu, Ag, Au, and tin The process is suitable for e-wastes rich Fenix (2020)
[FENIX] (Italy) electrical connectors, precipitation, and electrowinning oxide in precious metals (i.e. larger than
mother boards and methods 500–800 g/t of Au) and is not very
other kinds of e- efficient for grinded materials.
wastes.
7. E-Parisarra Private PCBs, toner Manual dismantling and other Plastics, glass, and The method of recycling is restricted to E-Parisarra
Limited (India) cartridges, tube mechanical pre-treatment methods metals manual dismantling, other mechanical (2021)
lights, CRTs, etc. sorting, and density-based separation
methods.

electrochemical, biometallurgical, and SCF extraction methods References

due to their better environmental performances than the existing
industrial recycling practices.
v Application of integrated metal recovery methods from e-wastes
needs to be promoted as they offer much more sustainable and
eco-friendly platforms with higher recovery potential than any
single method. This integrated approach can aid in overcoming
the major environmental and economic challenges of recovering
metals from e-wastes to a great extent.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge the support provided by the Department of
Environmental Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
(Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad, for carrying out this research work.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.115887.
Ajiboye, E.A., Panda, P.K., Adebayo, A.O., Ajayi, O.O., Tripathy, B.C., Ghosh, M.K.,
Basu, S., 2019. Leaching kinetics of Cu, Ni and Zn from waste silica rich integrated
circuits using mild nitric acid. Hydrometallurgy 188, 161–168.
Akcil, A., Erust, C., Gahan, C.S., Ozgun, M., Sahin, M., Tuncuk, A., 2015. Precious metal
recovery from waste printed circuit boards using cyanide and non-cyanide
lixiviants–a review. Waste Manage. 45, 258–271.
Altansukh, B., Haga, K., Ariunbolor, N., Kawamura, S., Shibayama, A., 2016. Leaching
and adsorption of gold from waste printed circuit boards using iodine-iodide solution
and activated carbon. Eng. J. 20 (4), 29–40.
Ardente, F., Mathieux, F., Recchioni, M., 2014. Recycling of electronic displays: analysis
of pre-processing and potential ecodesign improvements. Resour. Conserv. Recycl.
92, 158–171.
Arshadi, M., Yaghmaei, S., Mousavi, S.M., 2018. Content evaluation of different waste
PCBs to enhance basic metals recycling. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 139, 298–306.
Aslanov, L.A., 2011. Ionic liquids: liquid structure. J. Mol. Liq. 162 (3), 101–104.
Aurubis, 2021. Retrieved from: https://www.aurubis.com/produkte/recycling/Tech
nologie. (Accessed 25 November 2021). accessed on.
Awasthi, A.K., Zeng, X., Li, J., 2016. Relationship between e-waste recycling and human
health risk in India: a critical review. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Control Ser. 23 (12),
11509–11532.
Awasthi, A.K., Hasan, M., Mishra, Y.K., Pandey, A.K., Tiwary, B.N., Kuhad, R.C., et al.,
2019. Environmentally sound system for E-waste: biotechnological perspectives.
Curr. Res. Biotechnol. 1, 58–64.
Barnwal, A., Dhawan, N., 2019. Evaluation of fluidization process for recovery of metals
from discarded printed circuit boards. J. Sustain. Metal. 5 (4), 519–527.
Bas, A.D., Deveci, H., Yazici, E.Y., 2014. Treatment of manufacturing scrap TV boards by
nitric acid leaching. Separ. Purif. Technol. 130, 151–159.
Bentli, I., Erdogan, N., Elmas, N., Kaya, M., 2017. Magnesite concentration technology
and caustic–calcined product from Turkish magnesite middlings by calcination and
magnetic separation. Separ. Sci. Technol. 52 (6), 1129–1142.
Bilesan, M.R., Makarova, I., Wickman, B., Repo, E., 2021. Efficient separation of precious
metals from computer waste printed circuit boards by hydrocyclone and dilution-
gravity methods. J. Clean. Prod. 286, 125505.
BiotaWee, 2021. Retrieved from: https://www.biotawee.com/es/. accessed on: 06/05/
2022.
Birloaga, I., Vegliò, F., 2016. Study of multi-step hydrometallurgical methods to extract
the valuable content of gold, silver and copper from waste printed circuit boards.
J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 4 (1), 20–29.

12
R. Kumari and S.R. Samadder
Birloaga, I., Coman, V., Kopacek, B., Vegliò, F., 2014. An advanced study on the
hydrometallurgical processing of waste computer printed circuit boards to extract
their valuable content of metals. Waste Manage. 34 (12), 2581–2586.
Bisceglie, F., Civati, D., Bonati, B., Faraci, F.D., 2017. Reduction of potassium cyanide
usage in a consolidated industrial process for gold recovery from wastes and scraps.
J. Clean. Prod. 142, 1810–1818.
Boliden, 2021. Retrieved from: https://www.boliden.com/sustainability/case-studies/la
rgest-electronic-material-recycler-in-the-world. (Accessed 26 November 2021).
accessed on.
Bui, T.H., Jeon, S., Lee, Y., 2021. Facile recovery of gold from e-waste by integrating
chlorate leaching and selective adsorption using chitosan-based bioadsorbent.
J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 9 (1), 104661.
Calderon, A.R.M., Alorro, R.D., Tadesse, B., Yoo, K., Tabelin, C.B., 2020. Repurposing of
nickeliferous pyrrhotite from mine tailings as magnetic adsorbent for the recovery of
gold from chloride solution. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 161, 104971.
Catinean, A., Dascalescu, L., Lungu, M., Dumitran, L.M., Samuila, A., 2021. Improving
the recovery of copper from electric cable waste derived from automotive industry
by corona-electrostatic separation. Part. Sci. Technol. 39 (4), 449–456.
Chauhan, G., Pant, K.K., Nigam, K.D., 2013. Development of green technology for
extraction of nickel from spent catalyst and its optimization using response surface
methodology. Green Process. Synth. 2 (3), 259–271.
Chauhan, G., Pant, K.K., Nigam, K.D.P., 2015. Chelation technology: a promising green
approach for resource management and waste minimization. Environ. Sci. J. Integr.
Environ. Res.: Process. Impacts 17 (1), 12–40.
Chauhan, G., Jadhao, P.R., Pant, K.K., Nigam, K.D.P., 2018. Novel technologies and
conventional processes for recovery of metals from waste electrical and electronic
equipment: challenges & opportunities–a review. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 6 (1),
1288–1304.
Chen, M., Wang, J., Chen, H., Ogunseitan, O.A., Zhang, M., Zang, H., Hu, J., 2013.
Electronic waste disassembly with industrial waste heat. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47
(21), 12409–12416.
Chen, M., Huang, J., Ogunseitan, O.A., Zhu, N., Wang, Y.M., 2015a. Comparative study
on copper leaching from waste printed circuit boards by typical ionic liquid acids.
Waste Manag. 41, 142–147.
Chen, X., Luo, C., Zhang, J., Kong, J., Zhou, T., 2015b. Sustainable recovery of metals
from spent lithium-ion batteries: a green process. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 3 (12),
3104–3113.
Chen, B., He, J., Sun, X., Zhao, J., Jiang, H., Zhang, L., 2020. Separating and recycling
metal mixture of pyrolyzed waste printed circuit boards by a combined method.
Waste Manage. 107, 113–120.
Choi, S., Jeon, S., Park, I., Tabelin, C.B., Ito, M., Hiroyoshi, N., 2021. Enhanced
cementation of Cd2+, Co2+, Ni2+, and Zn2+ on Al from sulfate solutions by
activated carbon addition. Hydrometallurgy 201, 105580.
Cubas, A.L.V., de Medeiros Machado, M., de Medeiros Machado, M., Gross, F.,
Magnago, R.F., Moecke, E.H.S., Gonçalvez de Souza, I., 2014. Inertization of heavy
metals present in galvanic sludge by DC thermal plasma. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48
(5), 2853–2861.
Cui, H., Anderson, C.G., 2016. Literature review of hydrometallurgical recycling of
printed circuit boards (PCBs). J. Adv. Chem. Eng. 6 (1), 142–153.
Cui, J., Zhu, N., Luo, D., Li, Y., Wu, P., Dang, Z., Hu, X., 2019. The role of oxalic acid in
the leaching system for recovering indium from waste liquid crystal display panels.
ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 7 (4), 3849–3857.
Cyganowski, P., Garbera, K., Leśniewicz, A., Wolska, J., Pohl, P., Jermakowicz-
Bartkowiak, D., 2017. The recovery of gold from the aqua regia leachate of
electronic parts using a core–shell type anion exchange resin. J. Saudi Chem. Soc. 21
(6), 741–750.
Desmarais, M., Pirade, F., Zhang, J., Rene, E.R., 2020. Biohydrometallurgical processes
for the recovery of precious and base metals from waste electrical and electronic
equipments: current trends and perspectives. Bioresour. Technol. Rep. 11, 100526.
Duan, H., Hou, K., Li, J., Zhu, X., 2011. Examining the technology acceptance for
dismantling of waste printed circuit boards in light of recycling and environmental
concerns. J. Environ. Manag. 92 (3), 392–399.
E-Parisarra, 2021. Retrieved from: https://ewasteindia.com/processes/. accessed on: 27/
11/2021.
Ebin, B., Isik, M.I., 2016. Pyrometallurgical processes for the recovery of metals from
WEEE. In: WEEE Recycling. Elsevier, pp. 107–137.
Erust, C., Akcil, A., Tuncuk, A., Deveci, H., Yazici, E.Y., Panda, S., 2021. A novel
approach based on solvent displacement crystallisation for iron removal and copper
recovery from solutions of semi-pilot scale bioleaching of WPCBs. J. Clean. Prod.
294, 126346.
Estrada-Ruiz, R.H., Flores-Campos, R., Gámez-Altamirano, H.A., Velarde-Sánchez, E.J.,
2016. Separation of the metallic and non-metallic fraction from printed circuit
boards employing green technology. J. Hazard Mater. 311, 91–99.
Eswaraiah, C., Soni, R.K., 2015. Milling and classification of printed circuit boards for
material recycling. Part. Sci. Technol. 33 (6), 659–665.
European Union, 2018. Retrieved from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TX
T/?uri=CELEX:02012L0019-20180704. (Accessed 20 December 2021). accessed on.
Fenix, 2020. Retrieved from: http://www.fenix-project.eu/wp-content/uploads/2020
/03/FENIX_D3.4-report-final.pdf. accessed on: 27/11/2021.
Fogarasi, S., Imre-Lucaci, F., Imre-Lucaci, Á., Ilea, P., 2014. Copper recovery and gold
enrichment from waste printed circuit boards by mediated electrochemical
oxidation. J. Hazard Mater. 273, 215–221.
Fontana, D., Pietrantonio, M., Pucciarmati, S., Rao, C., Forte, F., 2019. A comprehensive
characterization of End-of-Life mobile phones for secondary material resources
identification. Waste Manage. 99, 22–30.
13
Journal of Environmental Management 320 (2022) 115887
Forrec, 2021. Retrieved from: https://www.environmental-expert.com/products/forrec
-weee-recycling-plant-190391/. (Accessed 25 November 2021). accessed on.
Forti, V., Baldé, K., Kuehr, R., 2018. E-Waste Statistics: Guidelines on Classifications,
Reporting and Indicators. United Nations University, ISBN 978-92-808-9066-2.
Print.
Forti, V., Balde, C.P., Kuehr, R., Bel, G., 2020. The Global E-Waste Monitor 2020:
Quantities, Flows and the Circular Economy Potential. United Nations University,
ISBN 978-92-808-9115-7. Print.
Fujita, T., Ono, H., Dodbiba, G., Yamaguchi, K., 2014. Evaluation of a recycling process
for printed circuit board by physical separation and heat treatment. Waste Manage.
34 (7), 1264–1273.
Gámez, S., Garces, K., de la Torre, E., Guevara, A., 2019. Precious metals recovery from
waste printed circuit boards using thiosulfate leaching and ion exchange resin.
Hydrometallurgy 186, 1–11.
Ghosh, B., Ghosh, M.K., Parhi, P., Mukherjee, P.S., Mishra, B.K., 2015. Waste printed
circuit boards recycling: an extensive assessment of current status. J. Clean. Prod. 94,
5–19.
Golzary, A., Abdoli, M.A., 2020. Recycling of copper from waste printed circuit boards by
modified supercritical carbon dioxide combined with supercritical water pre-
treatment. J. CO2 Util. 41, 101265.
Guimarães, Y.F., Santos, I.D., Dutra, A.J., 2014. Direct recovery of copper from printed
circuit boards (PCBs) powder concentrate by a simultaneous
electroleaching–electrodeposition process. Hydrometallurgy 149, 63–70.
Haccuria, E., Ning, P., Cao, H., Venkatesan, P., Jin, W., Yang, Y., Sun, Z., 2017. Effective
treatment for electronic waste-Selective recovery of copper by combining
electrochemical dissolution and deposition. J. Clean. Prod. 152, 150–156.
Hadi, P., Xu, M., Lin, C.S., Hui, C.W., McKay, G., 2015. Waste printed circuit board
recycling techniques and product utilization. J. Hazard Mater. 283, 234–243.
Havlik, T., Orac, D., Petranikova, M., Miskufova, A., Kukurugya, F., Takacova, Z., 2010.
Leaching of copper and tin from used printed circuit boards after thermal treatment.
J. Hazard Mater. 183 (1–3), 866–873.
He, Y., Xu, Z., 2015. Recycling gold and copper from waste printed circuit boards using
chlorination process. RSC Adv. 5 (12), 8957–8964.
He, J., Yang, J., Tariq, S.M., Duan, C., Zhao, Y., 2020. Comparative investigation on
copper leaching efficiency from waste mobile phones using various types of ionic
liquids. J. Clean. Prod. 256, 120368.
Heydarian, A., Mousavi, S.M., Vakilchap, F., Baniasadi, M., 2018. Application of a mixed
culture of adapted acidophilic bacteria in two-step bioleaching of spent lithium-ion
laptop batteries. J. Power Sources 378, 19–30.
Hossain, M.S., Yahaya, A.N.A., Yacob, L.S., Rahim, M.Z.A., Yusof, N.N.M., Bachmann, R.
T., 2018. Selective recovery of copper from waste mobile phone printed circuit
boards using sulphuric acid leaching. Mater. Today Proc. 5 (10), 21698–21702.
Hsu, E., Barmak, K., West, A.C., Park, A.H.A., 2019. Advancements in the treatment and
processing of electronic waste with sustainability: a review of metal extraction and
recovery technologies. Green Chem. 21 (5), 919–936.
Huang, J., Chen, M., Chen, H., Chen, S., Sun, Q., 2014. Leaching behavior of copper from
waste printed circuit boards with Brønsted acidic ionic liquid. Waste Manage. 34 (2),
483–488.
Innocenzi, V., De Michelis, I., Vegliò, F., 2017. Design and construction of an industrial
mobile plant for WEEE treatment: investigation on the treatment of fluorescent
powders and economic evaluation compared to other e-wastes. J. Taiwan Inst.
Chem. Eng. 80, 769–778.
Işıldar, A., van de Vossenberg, J., Rene, E.R., van Hullebusch, E.D., Lens, P.N., 2016.
Two-step bioleaching of copper and gold from discarded printed circuit boards
(PCB). Waste Manage. 57, 149–157.
Işıldar, A., Rene, E.R., van Hullebusch, E.D., Lens, P.N., 2018. Electronic waste as a
secondary source of critical metals: management and recovery technologies. Resour.
Conserv. Recycl. 135, 296–312.
Jadhao, P., Chauhan, G., Pant, K.K., Nigam, K.D.P., 2016. Greener approach for the
extraction of copper metal from electronic waste. Waste Manage. 57, 102–112.
Jadhao, P.R., Ahmad, E., Pant, K.K., Nigam, K.D.P., 2020. Environmentally friendly
approach for the recovery of metallic fraction from waste printed circuit boards
using pyrolysis and ultrasonication. Waste Manage. 118, 150–160.
Jeon, S., Ito, M., Tabelin, C.B., Pongsumrankul, R., Kitajima, N., Park, I., Hiroyoshi, N.,
2018. Gold recovery from shredder light fraction of E-waste recycling plant by
flotation-ammonium thiosulfate leaching. Waste Manage. 77, 195–202.
Jeon, S., Ito, M., Tabelin, C.B., Pongsumrankul, R., Tanaka, S., Kitajima, N., et al., 2019.
A physical separation scheme to improve ammonium thiosulfate leaching of gold by
separation of base metals in crushed mobile phones. Miner. Eng. 138, 168–177.
Jeon, S., Tabelin, C.B., Park, I., Nagata, Y., Ito, M., Hiroyoshi, N., 2020. Ammonium
thiosulfate extraction of gold from printed circuit boards (PCBs) of end-of-life mobile
phones and its recovery from pregnant leach solution by cementation.
Hydrometallurgy 191, 105214.
Jeon, S., Bright, S., Park, I., Tabelin, C.B., Ito, M., Hiroyoshi, N., 2021. The effects of
coexisting copper, iron, cobalt, nickel and zinc ions on gold recovery by enhanced
cementation via galvanic interactions between zero-valent aluminum and activated
carbon in ammonium thiosulfate systems. Metals 11 (9), 1352.
Jha, M.K., Kumari, A., Choubey, P.K., Lee, J.C., Kumar, V., Jeong, J., 2012. Leaching of
lead from solder material of waste printed circuit boards (PCBs). Hydrometallurgy
121, 28–34.
Jing-ying, L., Xiu-Li, X., Wen-quan, L., 2012. Thiourea leaching gold and silver from the
printed circuit boards of waste mobile phones. Waste Manage. 32 (6), 1209–1212.
Jowkar, M.J., Bahaloo-Horeh, N., Mousavi, S.M., Pourhossein, F., 2018. Bioleaching of
indium from discarded liquid crystal displays. J. Clean. Prod. 180, 417–429.
R. Kumari and S.R. Samadder
Jujun, R., Yiming, Q., Zhenming, X., 2014. Environment-friendly technology for
recovering nonferrous metals from e-waste: eddy current separation. Resour.
Conserv. Recycl. 87, 109–116.
Kaya, M., 2016. Recovery of metals and nonmetals from electronic waste by physical and
chemical recycling processes. Waste Manage. 57, 64–90.
Kaya, M., 2018. Waste printed circuit board (WPCB) recovery technology: disassembly
and desoldering approach. Ref. Module Mater. Sci. Mater. Eng. 4, 658–676.
Kim, E.Y., Kim, M.S., Lee, J.C., Yoo, K., Jeong, J., 2010. Leaching behavior of copper
using electro-generated chlorine in hydrochloric acid solution. Hydrometallurgy 100
(3–4), 95–102.
Kim, E.Y., Kim, M.S., Lee, J.C., Jeong, J., Pandey, B.D., 2011. Leaching kinetics of copper
from waste printed circuit boards by electro-generated chlorine in HCl solution.
Hydrometallurgy 107 (3–4), 124–132.
Kumar, Y.A., Kim, H.J., 2018. Preparation and electrochemical performance of
NiCo2O4@NiCo2O4 composite nanoplates for high performance supercapacitor
applications. New J. Chem. 42 (24), 19971–19978.
Kumar, V., Lee, J., Jeong, J., Jha, M.K., Kim, B., Singh, R., 2013. Novel physical
separation process for eco-friendly recycling of rare and valuable metals from end-of-
life DVD-PCBs. Separ. Purif. Technol. 111, 145–154.
Kumar, A., Holuszko, M., Espinosa, D.C.R., 2017. E-waste: an overview on generation,
collection, legislation and recycling practices. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 122, 32–42.
Kumar, Y.A., Kumar, K.D., Kim, H.J., 2020a. A novel electrode for supercapacitors:
efficient PVP-assisted synthesis of Ni 3 S 2 nanostructures grown on Ni foam for
energy storage. Dalton Trans. 49 (13), 4050–4059.
Kumar, Y.A., Sambasivam, S., Hira, S.A., Zeb, K., Uddin, W., Krishna, T.N.V., et al.,
2020b. Boosting the energy density of highly efficient flexible hybrid
supercapacitors via selective integration of hierarchical nanostructured energy
materials. Electrochim. Acta 364, 137318.
Kumari, A., Jha, M.K., Lee, J.C., Singh, R.P., 2016. Clean process for recovery of metals
and recycling of acid from the leach liquor of PCBs. J. Clean. Prod. 112, 4826–4834.
Li, K., Xu, Z., 2019. A review of current progress of supercritical fluid technologies for e-
waste treatment. J. Clean. Prod. 227, 794–809.
Li, L., Ge, J., Wu, F., Chen, R., Chen, S., Wu, B., 2010. Recovery of cobalt and lithium
from spent lithium ion batteries using organic citric acid as leachant. J. Hazard
Mater. 176 (1–3), 288–293.
Li, J., Jiang, Y., Xu, Z., 2017. Eddy current separation technology for recycling printed
circuit boards from crushed cell phones. J. Clean. Prod. 141, 1316–1323.
Li, H., Eksteen, J., Oraby, E., 2018. Hydrometallurgical recovery of metals from waste
printed circuit boards (WPCBs): current status and perspectives–A review. Resour.
Conserv. Recycl. 139, 122–139.
Li, H., Oraby, E., Eksteen, J., 2020. Extraction of copper and the co-leaching behaviour of
other metals from waste printed circuit boards using alkaline glycine solutions.
Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 154, 104624.
Lim, J., Yeap, S.P., Low, S.C., 2014. Challenges associated to magnetic separation of
nanomaterials at low field gradient. Separ. Purif. Technol. 123, 171–174.
Liu, K., Zhang, Z., Zhang, F.S., 2016. Direct extraction of palladium and silver from waste
printed circuit boards powder by supercritical fluids oxidation-extraction process.
J. Hazard Mater. 318, 216–223.
Lu, Y., Xu, Z., 2016. Precious metals recovery from waste printed circuit boards: a review
for current status and perspective. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 113, 28–39.
Ma, E., Xu, Z., 2013. Technological process and optimum design of organic materials
vacuum pyrolysis and indium chlorinated separation from waste liquid crystal
display panels. J. Hazard Mater. 263, 610–617.
Mäkinen, J., Bachér, J., Kaartinen, T., Wahlström, M., Salminen, J., 2015. The effect of
flotation and parameters for bioleaching of printed circuit boards. Miner. Eng. 75,
26–31.
Marconi, M., Palmieri, G., Callegari, M., Germani, M., 2019. Feasibility study and design
of an automatic system for electronic components disassembly. J. Manuf. Sci. Eng.
141 (2), 021011.
Marra, A., Cesaro, A., Belgiorno, V., 2018. Separation efficiency of valuable and critical
metals in WEEE mechanical treatments. J. Clean. Prod. 186, 490–498.
Matsusaka, S., Maruyama, H., Matsuyama, T., Ghadiri, M., 2010. Triboelectric charging
of powders: a review. Chem. Eng. Sci. 65 (22), 5781–5807.
Ministry of the Environment of Japan, 2014. Retrieved from: https://www.env.go.jp/en/
recycle/smcs/attach/hcswm.pdf. accessed on: 06/05/2022.
MoEF&CC (Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change), 2016. E-Waste
(Management and Handling) Rules. Retrieved from: http://www.indiaenvironmen
tportal.org.in/content/329984/e-waste-management-and-handling-rules-2011/.
accessed on: 12/10/2021.
Nanotech, UWin, 2019. Retrieved from: https://www.uwin-nano.com/en/news.php?
id=66. (Accessed 26 November 2021). accessed on.
Natarajan, S., Boricha, A.B., Bajaj, H.C., 2018. Recovery of value-added products from
cathode and anode material of spent lithium-ion batteries. Waste Manage. 77,
455–465.
Nelson, D., Scott, S., Doostmohammadi, M., Jafari, H., 2017. Methods, Materials and
Techniques for Precious Metal Recovery. US Patent US20170369967A1.
Niu, B., Chen, Z., Xu, Z., 2017. Recovery of valuable materials from waste tantalum
capacitors by vacuum pyrolysis combined with mechanical–physical separation. ACS
Sustain. Chem. Eng. 5 (3), 2639–2647.
Noll, R., Connemann, S., Fricke-Begemann, Schreckenberg, F., Ambrosch, R., Tori, A.,
Guolo, M., 2018. Inverse Production Line for the Automated Dismantling of Mobile
Phones with Selective Laser-Based Detaching and Sorting of Valuable Components.
Retrieved from. https://www.vivis.de/wp-content/uploads/RuR11/2018_RuR
_533-544_Noll.pdf. (Accessed 14 May 2022). accessed on.
14
Journal of Environmental Management 320 (2022) 115887
Oluokun, O.O., Otunniyi, I.O., 2020. Chemical conditioning for wet magnetic separation
of printed circuit board dust using octyl phenol ethoxylate. Separ. Purif. Technol.
240, 116586.
Oraby, E.A., Li, H., Eksteen, J.J., 2020. An alkaline glycine-based leach process of base
and precious metals from powdered waste printed circuit boards. Waste Biomass
Valorization 11 (8), 3897–3909.
Pallavolu, M.R., Kumar, Y.A., Mani, G., Alshgari, R.A., Ouladsmane, M., Joo, S.W., 2021.
Facile fabrication of novel heterostructured tin disulfide (SnS2)/tin sulfide (SnS)/N-
CNO composite with improved energy storage capacity for high-performance
supercapacitors. J. Electroanal. Chem. 899, 115695.
Panda, R., Jadhao, P.R., Pant, K.K., Naik, S.N., Bhaskar, T., 2020. Eco-friendly recovery
of metals from waste mobile printed circuit boards using low temperature roasting.
J. Hazard Mater. 395, 122642.
Pant, D., Singh, P., Upreti, M.K., 2014. Metal leaching from cathode ray tube waste using
combination of Serratia plymuthica and EDTA. Hydrometallurgy 146, 89–95.
Park, S., Kim, S., Han, Y., Park, J., 2015. Apparatus for electronic component disassembly
from printed circuit board assembly in e-wastes. Int. J. Miner. Process. 144, 11–15.
Patel, A., Dawson, R., 2015. Recovery of platinum group metal value via potassium
iodide leaching. Hydrometallurgy 157, 219–225.
Pereira, M.M., Costa, F.O., Gomes, R.F., Rodrigues, M.L.M., da Silva, G.A., Leão, V.A.,
2020. Multivariate study of a novel hydrometallurgical route employing chloride/
hypochlorite for leaching silver from printed circuit boards. Chem. Eng. Res. Des.
163, 115–124.
Petter, P.M.H., Veit, H.M., Bernardes, A.M., 2014. Evaluation of gold and silver leaching
from printed circuit board of cellphones. Waste Manage. 34 (2), 475–482.
Phengsaart, T., Ito, M., Azuma, A., Tabelin, C.B., Hiroyoshi, N., 2020. Jig separation of
crushed plastics: the effects of particle geometry on separation efficiency. J. Mater.
Cycles Waste Manag. 22 (3), 787–800.
Priya, A., Hait, S., 2020. Biometallurgical recovery of metals from waste printed circuit
boards using pure and mixed strains of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and
Acidiphilium acidophilum. Process Saf. Environ. Protect. 143, 262–272.
Ravindra, K., Mor, S., 2019. E-waste generation and management practices in
Chandigarh, India and economic evaluation for sustainable recycling. J. Clean. Prod.
221, 286–294.
Ribeiro, P.P.M., dos Santos, I.D., Dutra, A.J.B., 2019. Copper and metals concentration
from printed circuit boards using a zig-zag classifier. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 8 (1),
513–520.
Rodrigues, E.F., De Rossi, A., Rovaris, B., Valerio, A., de Oliveira, D., Hotza, D., 2021.
Cleaner pre-concentration of metals from printed circuit board waste using novel
dense liquid medium based on sodium silicate. Waste Biomass Valorization 12 (7),
4081–4087.
Ruan, J., Xu, Z., 2011. A new model of repulsive force in eddy current separation for
recovering waste toner cartridges. J. Hazard Mater. 192 (1), 307–313.
Ruan, J., Xu, Z., 2016. Constructing environment-friendly return road of metals from e-
waste: combination of physical separation technologies. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.
54, 745–760.
Sanito, R.C., You, S.J., Wang, Y.F., 2021. Application of plasma technology for treating e-
waste: a review. J. Environ. Manag. 288, 112380.
Sanyal, S., Ke, Q., Zhang, Y., Ngo, T., Carrell, J., Zhang, H., Dai, L.L., 2013.
Understanding and optimizing delamination/recycling of printed circuit boards
using a supercritical carbon dioxide process. J. Clean. Prod. 41, 174–178.
Sarvar, M., Salarirad, M.M., Shabani, M.A., 2015. Characterization and mechanical
separation of metals from computer Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) based on mineral
processing methods. Waste Manage. 45, 246–257.
Schaeffer, N., Passos, H., Billard, I., Papaiconomou, N., Coutinho, J.A., 2018. Recovery of
metals from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) using unconventional
solvents based on ionic liquids. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48 (13–15),
859–922.
Sethurajan, M., Van Hullebusch, E.D., Fontana, D., Akcil, A., Deveci, H., Batinic, B., et al.,
2019. Recent advances on hydrometallurgical recovery of critical and precious
elements from end of life electronic wastes-a review. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol.
49 (3), 212–275.
Sharma, N., Chauhan, G., Kumar, A., Sharma, S.K., 2017. Statistical optimization of
heavy metal (Cu2+ and Co2+) extraction from printed circuit boards and mobile
batteries using chelation technology. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 56 (23), 6805–6819.
Shokri, A., Pahlevani, F., Cole, I., Sahajwalla, V., 2017. Selective thermal transformation
of old computer printed circuit boards to Cu-Sn based alloy. J. Environ. Manag. 199,
7–12.
Silvas, F.P., Correa, M.M.J., Caldas, M.P., de Moraes, V.T., Espinosa, D.C., Tenório, J.A.,
2015. Printed circuit board recycling: physical processing and copper extraction by
selective leaching. Waste Manage. 46, 503–510.
Sinha, R., Chauhan, G., Singh, A., Kumar, A., Acharya, S., 2018. A novel eco-friendly
hybrid approach for recovery and reuse of copper from electronic waste. J. Environ.
Chem. Eng. 6 (1), 1053–1061.
Somasundaram, M., Saravanathamizhan, R., Basha, C.A., Nandakumar, V., Begum, S.N.,
Kannadasan, T., 2014. Recovery of copper from scrap printed circuit board:
modelling and optimization using response surface methodology. Powder Technol.
266, 1–6.
Sun, Z.H.I., Xiao, Y., Sietsma, J., Agterhuis, H., Visser, G., Yang, Y., 2015. Selective
copper recovery from complex mixtures of end-of-life electronic products with
ammonia-based solution. Hydrometallurgy 152, 91–99.
Szałatkiewicz, J., 2016. Metals recovery from artificial ore in case of printed circuit
boards, using plasmatron plasma reactor. Materials 9 (8), 683.
Tabelin, C.B., Park, I., Phengsaart, T., Jeon, S., Villacorte-Tabelin, M., Alonzo, D., et al.,
2021. Copper and critical metals production from porphyry ores and E-wastes: a
review of resource availability, processing/recycling challenges, socio-
R. Kumari and S.R. Samadder
environmental aspects, and sustainability issues. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 170,
105610.
Tanısalı, E., Özer, M., Burat, F., 2021. Precious metals recovery from waste printed
circuit boards by gravity separation and leaching. Miner. Process. Extr. Metall. Rev.
42 (1), 24–37.
Umicore, 2021. Retrieved from: https://pmr.umicore.com/en/about-us/process/.
(Accessed 26 November 2021). accessed on.
Varshney, S., Jain, P., Srivastava, S., 2017. Application of ameliorated wood pulp to
recover Cd (II), Pb (II), and Ni (II) from e-waste. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 19
(4), 1446–1456.
Verma, A., Hait, S., 2019. Chelating extraction of metals from e-waste using diethylene
triamine pentaacetic acid. Process Saf. Environ. Protect. 121, 1–11.
Wang, J., Guo, J., Xu, Z., 2016. An environmentally friendly technology of disassembling
electronic components from waste printed circuit boards. Waste Manage. 53,
218–224.
Wang, H., Zhang, S., Li, B., Pan, D.A., Wu, Y., Zuo, T., 2017. Recovery of waste printed
circuit boards through pyrometallurgical processing: a review. Resour. Conserv.
Recycl. 126, 209–218.
Wang, J., Chen, S., Zeng, X., Huang, J., Liang, Q., Shu, J., et al., 2021. Recovery of High
Purity Copper from Waste Printed Circuit Boards of Mobile Phones by Slurry
Electrolysis with Ammonia-Ammonium System. Separation and Purification
Technology, p. 119180.
Xiang, X., Xia, F., Zhan, L., Xie, B., 2015. Preparation of zinc nano structured particles
from spent zinc manganese batteries by vacuum separation and inert gas
condensation. Separ. Purif. Technol. 142, 227–233.
Xiao, Y., Yang, Y., van den Berg, J., Sietsma, J., Agterhuis, H., Visser, G., Bol, D., 2013.
Hydrometallurgical recovery of copper from complex mixtures of end-of-life
shredded ICT products. Hydrometallurgy 140, 128–134.
Xiu, F.R., Qi, Y., Zhang, F.S., 2013. Recovery of metals from waste printed circuit boards
by supercritical water pre-treatment combined with acid leaching process. Waste
Manage. 33 (5), 1251–1257.
Xiu, F.R., Qi, Y., Zhang, F.S., 2015. Leaching of Au, Ag, and Pd from waste printed circuit
boards of mobile phone by iodide lixiviant after supercritical water pre-treatment.
Waste Manage. 41, 134–141.
Xiu, F.R., Weng, H., Qi, Y., Yu, G., Zhang, Z., Zhang, F.S., Chen, M., 2017. A novel
recovery method of copper from waste printed circuit boards by supercritical
methanol process: preparation of ultrafine copper materials. Waste Manage. 60,
643–651.
Yang, D., Xu, Z., 2011. A model for simulating the grinding and classification cyclic
system of waste PCBs recycling production line. J. Hazard Mater. 192 (3),
1450–1457.
Yang, H., Zhang, S., Ye, W., Qin, Y., Xu, M., Han, L., 2020. Emission reduction benefits
and efficiency of e-waste recycling in China. Waste Manage. 102, 541–549.
15
Journal of Environmental Management 320 (2022) 115887
Yazici, E.Y., Deveci, H.A.C.I., 2014. Ferric sulphate leaching of metals from waste printed
circuit boards. Int. J. Miner. Process. 133, 39–45.
Yazici, E.Y., Deveci, H.A.C.I., 2015. Cupric chloride leaching (HCl–CuCl2–NaCl) of metals
from waste printed circuit boards (WPCBs). Int. J. Miner. Process. 134, 89–96.
Yi, Q., Fan, R., Xie, F., Min, H., Zhang, Q., Luo, Z., 2016. Selective recovery of Au (III)
and Pd (II) from waste PCBs using ethylenediamine modified persimmon tannin
adsorbent. Procedia Environ. Sci. 31, 185–194.
Yoon, J.H., Kumar, Y.A., Sambasivam, S., Hira, S.A., Krishna, T.N.V., Zeb, K., et al., 2020.
Highly efficient copper-cobalt sulfide nano-reeds array with simplistic fabrication
strategy for battery-type supercapacitors. J. Energy Storage 32, 101988.
Zeng, X., Gong, R., Chen, W.Q., Li, J., 2016. Uncovering the recycling potential of “New”
WEEE in China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 50 (3), 1347–1358.
Zhan, L., Xu, Z., 2012. Separating criterion of Pb, Cd, Bi and Zn from metallic particles of
crushed electronic wastes by vacuum evaporation. Separ. Sci. Technol. 47 (6),
913–919.
Zhang, L., Xu, Z., 2016. A review of current progress of recycling technologies for metals
from waste electrical and electronic equipment. J. Clean. Prod. 127, 19–36.
Zhang, G., He, Y., Wang, H., Zhang, T., Wang, S., Yang, X., Xia, W., 2017a. New
technology for recovering residual metals from nonmetallic fractions of waste
printed circuit boards. Waste Manage. 64, 228–235.
Zhang, G., Wang, H., He, Y., Yang, X., Peng, Z., Zhang, T., Wang, S., 2017b. Triboelectric
separation technology for removing inorganics from non-metallic fraction of waste
printed circuit boards: influence of size fraction and process optimization. Waste
Manage. 60, 42–49.
Zhang, K., Li, B., Wu, Y., Wang, W., Li, R., Zhang, Y.N., Zuo, T., 2017c. Recycling of
indium from waste LCD: a promising non-crushing leaching with the aid of
ultrasonic wave. Waste Manage. 64, 236–243.
Zhang, D.J., Dong, L., Li, Y.T., Wu, Y., Ma, Y.X., Yang, B., 2018a. Copper leaching from
waste printed circuit boards using typical acidic ionic liquids recovery of e-wastes’
surplus value. Waste Manage. 78, 191–197.
Zhang, G., He, Y., Feng, Y., Zhang, T., Wang, H., Zhu, X., 2018b. Recovery of residual
metals from fine nonmetallic fractions of waste printed circuit boards using a
vibrated gas-solid fluidized bed. Separ. Purif. Technol. 207, 321–328.
Zhao, X., Xia, Y., Zhan, L., Xie, B., Gao, B., Wang, J., 2018. Hydrothermal treatment of e-
waste plastics for tertiary recycling: product slate and decomposition mechanisms.
ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 7 (1), 1464–1473.
Zhou, C., Pan, Y., Lu, M., Yang, C., 2016. Liberation characteristics after cryogenic
modification and air table separation of discarded printed circuit boards. J. Hazard
Mater. 311, 203–209.
Zhu, P., Chen, Y., Wang, L.Y., Zhou, M., 2012. Treatment of waste printed circuit board
by green solvent using ionic liquid. Waste Manage. 32 (10), 1914–1918.
Zhu, X.N., Ni, Y., Wang, D.Z., Zhang, T., Qu, S.J., Qiao, F.M., et al., 2020. Effect of
dissociation size on flotation behavior of waste printed circuit boards. J. Clean. Prod.
265, 121840.