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Case Studies on Transport Policy xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

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Case Studies on Transport Policy

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cstp

Assessing the socio-economic impacts of rural road improvements in

Ghana: A case study of Transport Sector Program Support (II)
Raymond Asomani-Boateng a, Russell J. Fricano a,*, Frank Adarkwa b
a
Urban and Regional Studies Institute, Minnesota State University Mankato, Mankato, MN, United States
b
School of Urban and Public Affairs, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, United States

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Roads are the predominant mode of transport in African countries, and represent a critical element for
Available online xxx economic development. In Ghana, this reliance has led to major investments in road construction,
including an initiative—the Ghana Transport Sector Program Support—that focuses on revitalizing rural
Keywords: economies and reducing poverty by prioritizing the improvement and maintenance of rural feeder road
Ghana systems. This research employs a case study approach to assess the socio-economic impacts of rural road
Road improvement program improvements in the three northern regions of Ghana. The study measured ex ante/ex post changes in
Socio-economic impact household income and expenditures, crop production, the usage of motorized vehicles, access to
markets, school and health facilities, and transport charges. The analysis revealed that road
improvements led to dramatic growth in these indicators along each subject road corridor during
the initial phase of the program. However, indicators grew to a minor degree or declined during the
second phase. The analysis attributes this change to soaring fuel prices impacting freight and passenger
charges. These findings suggest that Ghana should better coordinate road maintenance programs with
the development of alternative fuels. This strategy would include utilization of natural gas reserves of the
Jubilee oil field with a program that would develop natural gas fuels and alternative fuel vehicles. The use
of alternative fuel vehicles in concert with rural road improvements could improve access and make
transport less vulnerable to petroleum market fluctuations.
ß 2015 World Conference on Transport Research Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Specifically, the objectives of this study are listed below:

1.1. Purpose of research
For most developing countries, roads are the predominant
mode of transportation, as these countries have not been able to
efficiently develop other modes such as rail, air, and water
(Government of Ghana National Baseline Studies Report, 2006).
This high dependency on road systems has resulted in major
investments in the road sector, which have altered the economic
and social landscape of many Sub-Saharan African countries,
especially Ghana. To better understand these alterations, this study
assesses the socio-economic effects of rural road improvement
projects in the three northern regions of Ghana.
* Corresponding author at: Urban and Regional Studies Institute, Minnesota State
University Mankato, 106 Morris Hall, Mankato, MN 56001, United States.
Tel.: +1 507 389 1540.
E-mail address: russell.fricano@mnsu.edu (R.J. Fricano).
 To assess the socio-economic effects of the feeder road
component of the Transport Sector Program Support project
(TSPS-2) for beneficiary communities.
 To identify any means with which the derived benefits can be
sustained over time.
 To identify how the impacts of poverty can be mitigated through
rural road improvements and other strategies.
1.2. Background
According to the 2000 Population and Housing Census, about
57% of Ghana’s population lives in rural areas (Ghana Statistical
Service, 2005). The primary means of transportation for this
majority rural populace comprise trails and paths that link to
feeder roads, which connect to urban and trunk roads. The poverty
that is prevalent in Ghana’s rural communities is caused by
isolation, which in turn is caused by rural households’ inability to

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cstp.2015.04.006
2213-624X/ß 2015 World Conference on Transport Research Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Asomani-Boateng, R., et al., Assessing the socio-economic impacts of rural road improvements in
Ghana: A case study of Transport Sector Program Support (II). Case Stud. Transp. Policy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.cstp.2015.04.006
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2 R. Asomani-Boateng et al. / Case Studies on Transport Policy xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
participate in financial and commodity markets and a lack of access
to public services that could improve their standard of living. This
problem is caused by an insufficient transportation network and
road maintenance system. Consequently, development plans in
Ghana that target poverty reduction should include effective rural
road maintenance. Donnges et al. (2007) further note that rural
road maintenance is not merely a financial and economic issue; it
is also a humanitarian priority.
1.3. Overview of Ghana’s Transport Sector Program Support (TSPS)
Transport sector improvements are one of several priority
programs of the Danish Government, one of Ghana’s major
development partners. The Danish Government, through the
Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA), has been
involved in Ghana’s road transport sector since 1992. In the latter
half of the 1990s, this organization met with the Government of
Ghana to prepare an expanded program of support for Ghana’s
road transport sector. This led to an agreement in 1999 in which
the two groups established the TSPS project.
The first phase of the TSPS project (TSPS-1) commenced in
1999 and was completed in 2003. Phase 1 comprised the following
three components:
(i) Trunk roads component: Rehabilitation of a 29.7 km road
section between Takoradi and Agona, supplemented by
training, health and safety activities.
(ii) Feeder roads component: Maintenance of feeder roads, training,
and assistance to decentralize the Department of Feeder
Roads.
(iii) Institutional component: Provision of financial and technical
support to the National Road Safety Commission and the
Ghana Highway Authority’s Road Safety and Environment
Division to assist in undertaking safety and environmental
responsibilities.
The events and processes that led to Phase 2 of the TSPS project
(TSPS-2) included the commitment of the Government of Ghana to
the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS) and a general policy
of decentralization, continued support to the transport sector by
the Government of Denmark through TSPS-1, and the commence-
ment of the Road Sector Development Program (RSDP) as a
coordinated national program in the road sector (Transport Sector
Program Support Document, 2005).
The second phase, TSPS-2, was intended to augment Ghana’s
National RSDP. This program aimed to revitalize the economy
and reduce poverty by lowering transport costs and improving
rural access; it was also implemented within the framework of
Ghana’s GPRS. According to TSPS-2 (2004, 2009), the develop-
ment of the rural environment provided a catalyst for the
transformation of the national economy and the drive to
economic maturity. This involved providing transport infra-
structure to facilitate the flow of agricultural goods to urban
markets. Ghana’s agricultural sector contributes about 36% to its
gross domestic output (Asare and Wong, 2004). The program
intended to rehabilitate the rural road network (roads leading to
agricultural areas) and improve rural access by investing in all
levels of the network, focusing on trunk and feeder roads, as
supported in Phase 1.
The feeder roads component extended the development of the
feeder road network, serving five rural regions in Ghana: Ashanti,
Brong–Ahafo, Northern, Upper East, and Upper West. These regions
comprise some of the poorest areas of the country. Road
construction and maintenance was intended to be implemented
by labor-based contractors, employing a significant number of
laborers from rural communities in the vicinity of the road works
Please cite this article in press as: Asomani-Boateng, R., et al., Assessing the socio-economic impacts of rural road improvements in
Ghana: A case study of Transport Sector Program Support (II). Case Stud. Transp. Policy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.cstp.2015.04.006
projects. The program placed emphasis on road decentralization,
with support for capacity building in selected districts. According
to the program, a steady expansion of support would be channeled
through the district level with a corresponding decrease in support
channeled through the Department of Feeder Roads over the five-
year period of Phase 2 (TSPS-2, 2004, 2009).
The Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) also
shared concerns with poverty reduction. The programs in TSPS-2
were planned and coordinated with DANIDA’s water sector
program; both operated at district levels to harness potential
synergies between the two programs. The intended outcome of
this coordinated effort was to facilitate improvements for rural
populations. According to Adarkwa (2003), this effort has the
potential to increase household income and improve social
conditions with enhanced access to various social and economic
facilities and services. The geographical focus of TSPS-2 also
considered these outcomes.
2. Impacts of transport investment in Africa
Aid to Africa is expected to double in the future, and a great
part of this increase is likely to be directed towards infrastruc-
ture development. It is further noted that among all infrastruc-
ture, roads are usually deemed as the infrastructure most
likely to reduce poverty by improving connectivity in isolated
communities and enhancing economic growth (Gachassin et al.,
2010). Consequently, the relationship between transport and
economic growth in Africa has received a great deal of attention
in research and policy analysis. Researchers and financial
institutions such as the World Bank view road transport in
Sub-Saharan Africa as both a problem and a panacea: the high
cost of transport has been attributed to slow economic growth,
particularly in land-locked regions (Collier and Gunning, 1999;
Limão and Venables, 2001). Lebo and Schelling (2001) further
suggest that poverty is more prevalent in developing countries
with limited road access.
Conversely, other works advocate transport as a means of
providing farmers and other rural residents with access to markets
and social services (Freeman, 2009) and employment through road
construction and maintenance (Riverson et al., 1991). Research on
transport investment and economic development focus on three
issues: benefits derived from improved access, prescriptive works
on the implementation of transport investment, and external
factors such as environment, demographics, and governance that
affect transport efficiency.
2.1. Road access and poverty reduction
Research on transportation investment recognizes the role of
road infrastructure in the economic growth of developing
countries. In their seminal work, Transport Investment and
Economic Development, Banister and Berechman (2000) note that
infrastructure in developing countries can have a strong rate of
impact serving areas where access was limited. Increased access
can induce economic growth, improve environmental sustainabil-
ity, and alleviate poverty. Among the types of infrastructure
making the greatest impacts, transport investment exhibited a
consistently high rate of return (Banister and Berechman, 2000, p.
22). The authors further note that a higher rate of return depends
on whether services respond to demand in an efficient manner. In
addition, the effects are more pronounced in developing countries,
where infrastructure is less prevalent in comparison to developed
countries with established infrastructure systems.
Most studies view transport as a primary catalyst in economic
growth by opening up markets to rural areas, providing employ-
ment by maintaining roads in serviceable conditions, and
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eliminating constraints to needed services. In this manner, road
access provides economic and social benefits to rural areas. Road
access can be aligned with agricultural development, promoting
agricultural activity and providing access to major urban markets.
Under this approach, the most preferable areas for road improve-
ments are in regions at moderate distances from urban areas
within reach of urban markets (Braithwaite, 2003; Foster and
Briceno-Garmeñdia, 2010).
Another economic consequence of investing in rural roads is
that it generates employment among the local population through
road construction and maintenance. This elicits a subsequent effect
on income and business opportunities, particularly if the
development and maintenance of rural roads utilize local
resource-based methods (Porter et al., 2012). These methods
include training and utilizing local labor and small-scale equip-
ment contractors to undertake maintenance works (Donnges et al.,
2007; Starkey, 2001). In addition, creation of gainful employment
in the construction industry potentially supports the local
economy and strengthens local commerce. Subsequently, this
has important implications for poverty reduction and local
economic and social development (Donnges et al., 2007; Porter
et al., 2012; Thompson, 2011).
Outside of economic benefits, accessibility also alleviates
effects associated with poverty. Eliminating constraints in rural
road transport provides access to education, health care, and other
socio-economic services (Donnges et al., 2007; Freeman, 2009;
Porter, 2012). In addition, road improvements make roads safer
and encourage more usage; this promotes greater school enroll-
ment, especially among females. As parents are assured of safer
roads, they are more willing to send their daughters to school,
increasing the proportion of female students (Freeman, 2009).
2.2. Implementation issues
Implementation of transport investment and programs consid-
er three main issues: road maintenance practices, operation of road
improvement programs, and user participation. The main goal of
rural road maintenance is to guarantee that the roads remain
serviceable throughout their lifetime. According to Donnges et al.
(2007), consistent rural road improvement is essential for the
following reasons: prolonging the life of the road by reducing the
rate of deterioration, which safeguards previous investments in
construction and rehabilitation; lowering the cost of operating
vehicles on the road by providing a smooth running surface; and
keeping the road open for traffic and providing more reliable
transport services year round, while sustaining the social and
economic benefits of improved road access. Failure to maintain
existing roads leads to deterioration, which can increase rapidly
over time.
Research literature also notes that long-term growth can be
hampered if capital investments are concentrated on constructing
new roads at the expense of existing road maintenance. Foster and
Briceno-Garmeñdia (2010) also observed that some rural roads are
over-engineered; greater efforts are needed to adapt road design
standards to local conditions and materials to avoid excessive costs
in road construction, particularly for low-volume sealed roads.
Banister and Berechman (2000) also admonish that transport
investment alone is not sufficient; much depends upon how well
transport programs are administered. They stress that road
transport is too often under the purview of the public sector; a
greater involvement of the private and community sector is
needed. Under their conception, transport programs are run in the
same manner as businesses under market conditions, fostering
competition. This would involve hiring of private road contractors
through a competitive bidding process. Additionally, Donnges et al.
(2007) suggested that rural roads should be funded based on an
Please cite this article in press as: Asomani-Boateng, R., et al., Assessing the socio-economic impacts of rural road improvements in
Ghana: A case study of Transport Sector Program Support (II). Case Stud. Transp. Policy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.cstp.2015.04.006
3
economic analysis of both the reduction in transport costs and an
increase in production.
2.3. External factors
Factors outside of road construction and maintenance can
impact benefits provided by access: environmental conditions,
demographic trends, detrimental government policy, and fuel
prices.
First, Sub-Saharan Africa lies within the tropical latitude and is
conducive to diseases such as malaria and other poor health
conditions. The tropical climate also adversely impacts crops and
livestock. Rains are intermittent and unpredictable, and soil
quality is poor (Gallup et al., 1999; Sachs and Warner, 1997).
Mountainous and wet conditions also hamper road maintenance
(Foster and Briceno-Garmeñdia, 2010).
Population density also poses different types of impacts to
different regions. In urbanized coastal areas, a dense population
has access to trade, ranging from local to international levels. With
infrastructure and access more prevalent in urban centers, higher
density also implies greater efficiency in the use of infrastructure
and services. In rural areas, higher population density can impede
economic development by congesting comparatively minimal or
non-existent infrastructure, exacerbating poor health conditions
and service delivery (Gallup et al., 1999).
Other factors emerge in the form of inappropriate policies, which
add further expense and time to freight transport. African countries
are constrained by prohibitive road tariffs, set with the intent of
maximizing profits rather than as a nexus to road construction and
maintenance costs (Foster and Briceno-Garmeñdia, 2010).
Foster and Briceno-Garmeñdia (2010) note that countries with
better roads have road ministries and funding programs. However,
a distinction must be made in the operation of the ministry and its
relation to transport improvements. Public agencies have expertise
in determining road standards and road classifications. However,
as they set long-range planning goals, these agencies need user
representation, which can include farmers, trucking operators, and
rural residents.
Higher cost can occur if there is lack of competition among
contractors and inadequate performance assessment. Minimal
competition for civil works contracts with a small number of
bidders limits the price spreads across bids (Van Zyl et al., 2008).
Once a contractor is selected, performance-based maintenance
contracts are needed (Foster and Briceno-Garmeñdia, 2010).
Finally, another extraneous phenomenon that can impact
transport includes fuel prices. According to Cantore et al. (2012),
global oil-price increases can affect transportation by increasing
costs. Developing countries subsidize fossil fuels to keep prices
artificially low. However, while the intent is to preserve household
income, the strategy can be inefficient, as the poor generally do not
receive a significant benefit, and subsidies are enacted at the
expense of other programs that aid the poor (Crawford, 2014).
The Ghanaian Government attempted to reform the subsidiza-
tion in 2003 to keep fuel prices consistent with the International
Monetary Fund. This action increased fuel prices by 90% (Laan
et al., 2010). Following the lift of the subsidy, pump prices for
petrol in Ghana further soared by 120% from 2004–2014
(GlobalPetrolPrices.com, 2014; Trading Economics, 2014). Fig. 1
depicts a dramatic increases in both gasoline and diesel fuel during
this period.
2.4. Summary
Most literature regards transport investment as a significant
catalyst in economic growth. Its benefits emerge in different ways:
opening rural areas to external markets, providing employment
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0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5 Price (USD/Liter) Super

Gasoline
0.4 Price (USD/Liter) Diesel
0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

Fig. 1. Ghanaian gasoline and diesel prices.

Wagner et al. (2012).

through road construction and maintenance, and enhancing access
to needed public services. These benefits should be tempered with
observations of how well road transport programs are adminis-
tered and external factors that can affect them.
Effective programs are found in countries with funding and
responsible ministries. Stakeholder involvement also remains a
crucial factor in ensuring the road programs are meeting user
needs. Research also promotes putting road transport under the
private market with less public sector involvement; competition
among contractors keeps construction costs down. In addition,
roads have to be designed to correspond to local conditions and
should not be excessively engineered.
External factors can also be detrimental to road transport and
its incipient benefits. These include climatic conditions, excessive
population density, and poor governance. Inappropriate gover-
nance impedes the efficiency of road transport programs with the
predominance of the public sector in road construction; limited
contracting; and excessive freight charges, tariffs and fuel prices.
Each can result in excessive transport costs, which offset benefits of
transport investment.
We conclude this review with an observation by Freeman
(2009) that the impact of transport projects on poverty is under-
researched. The issues presented in this review compelled the
researchers to assess how well an established road transport
program stimulated economic growth and provided access to
markets and services in rural Ghana.
3. Research questions
Based on previous literature, road improvements can potentially
lead to social and economic benefits, provided that construction
projects enhance access to markets and services receptive to road
users’ needs. Construction projects must also target local businesses
and the population and maintain a careful balance between new
road construction and existing road maintenance. These factors are
extremely important in assessing Ghana’s road improvement
programs, with the stated goals of reducing poverty, improving
access, and creating economic opportunities.
The above issues guided the following research questions,
which test the effectiveness of Ghana’s rural road improvement
programs:
(1) To what extent did TSPS-1 and TSPS-2 provide socio-economic
benefits to the selected impoverished regions in Ghana?
(2) Were any of the derived benefits of TSPS-1 and TSPS-2
sustained over a longer period of time?
4. Methodology
This study analyzed the impacts of road infrastructure
programs in selected regions in Ghana using a case-study approach
that utilized quantitative and qualitative methods. This study
covered a period of five years and was divided into three main
phases: a baseline study in the first year and two impact
monitoring studies in the third and fifth years. To mitigate the
impact of seasonal weather variations on crop output, all three
phases of the study were conducted in the rainy seasons, occurring
April through July and September through November.
4.1. Description of study area
Geographically, the study covered three regions of Ghana
(Northern, Upper East, and Upper West) and a total of six road
corridors cutting across five districts of Ghana; these districts
included Bawku East, Builsa, Savelugu–Nanton, Tamale, and Wa.
Three settlements were surveyed per corridor, and a total of
18 settlements were therefore covered by the study. These three
regions and six road corridors were selected based on the level of
poverty that exists within both the regions and the communities
along the selected road corridors. All of the following statistics
were gathered from the Government of Ghana’s website after their
most recent census (2010). The study area is depicted in Fig. 2
below.
Northern Region: According to the official website of the
Government of Ghana (Government of Ghana, 2010), the Northern
Region is the largest region in Ghana, covering an area of
70,383 km2 and divided into twenty districts. The region has a
population of 1,820,806, and its capital is Tamale.
Upper East Region: The Upper East Region of Ghana is located in
the northeastern corner of the country and is bordered by Burkina
Faso to the north and Togo to the east. This region covers an area of
8842 km2, with Bolgatanga as its capital, and has a population of
964,500.
Upper West Region: The Upper West Region of Ghana is located
in the northwestern corner of the country and is bordered by
Burkina Faso to the north. The capital and its largest city is Wa. The
region covers an area of 18,476 km2 with a population of 576,583.

Please cite this article in press as: Asomani-Boateng, R., et al., Assessing the socio-economic impacts of rural road improvements in
Ghana: A case study of Transport Sector Program Support (II). Case Stud. Transp. Policy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.cstp.2015.04.006
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Fig. 2. Location of study areas.

http://www.theidlgroup.com/documents/report_4.pdf

All three regions were selected for this study because they are
the least developed in Ghana and suffer from extreme poverty
levels. These regions are all mainly engaged in agricultural
activities. The low population density within these three regions
is partly caused by migration due to extreme poverty.
4.2. Analytical methods
Analytical methods include indicators and techniques used to
measure social and economic impacts of TSPS-2. The study
relied on both quantitative and qualitative methods. Some data
sources were readily available from government agencies, but
others were obtained from field surveys. Both forms of data
served a comparative analysis between ex-ante and ex-post
conditions.
developed for this analysis and their data sources. Further
discussion of data sources is provided in Section 4.7.
4.2.2. Baseline/impact analysis
The approach for TSPS-2 was based on a before-and-after
comparative analysis of the outcomes of the project interventions
over a 5-year period as indicated below. This research was based
on a quasi-experimental (trend analysis) approach and involved
the measurement of indicators at periodic intervals, before the
road improvement program and after the road improvement
program. The before (ex-ante) and after (ex-poste) estimates
enabled the researchers to compare baseline data collected before
the road intervention to two monitoring datasets collected after
the road improvement. All data collected were based on the same
set of indicators. Fig. 3 provides the project timeline.

4.2.1. Impact indicators

Table 1a
In order to assess the social and economic impact of road Indicators for productivity.
improvement projects on beneficiary communities, question-
Indicators Units Data source
naires, interviews, and official reports were used to collect baseline
data. The indicators derived from this data each contributed a Food crop outputs Acreage and bushels Household survey
different finding about the impact of rural road improvement Household income Ghanaian Cedi (Cedi ¢) Household survey
Household expenditure Ghanaian Cedi (Cedi ¢) Household survey
projects on beneficiary communities. Tables 1a–1c list indicators

Please cite this article in press as: Asomani-Boateng, R., et al., Assessing the socio-economic impacts of rural road improvements in
Ghana: A case study of Transport Sector Program Support (II). Case Stud. Transp. Policy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.cstp.2015.04.006
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Table 1b
Indicators for access to social and economic services.

Indicators Units Data source

Weeks per year that the road is impassable Number of weeks Community level survey
Travel time to the nearest market and school Minutes Household and community level surveys
Availability of public transport services Number of services Passenger and vehicle operator surveys
Transport charges to primary school facility Cost/km (Cedi (¢)) Field survey
Health facility access Level of health service facility accessed Household and community level surveys

Table 1c
Indicators for market network efficiency.

Indicators Units Data source

Type of market transaction % Transactions by market type Field survey

Commodity prices of some selected produce which are Cost per unit or kg Household and community level surveys
representative of the study area

Unit cost of transporting passengers and goods to nearest market Cost/km Passenger and vehicle operator surveys

Traffic on the road, both motorized and non-motorized transport No. of vehicles/day Passenger/vehicle user and community level surveys
No. of persons/day

Volume of goods moved during two weekdays (one market Tons Transported/day? Passenger/vehicle user
and one non-market day)

Value of goods moved during two weekdays Value of goods Passenger/vehicle user
(one market and one non-market day) transported/day in Cedi (¢)

The lengths of candidate roads chosen for the study were at
least 5 km long, which represents the shortest length of rural road
identified in the study area. The study sections were no longer than
10 km, and the assumed area of influence was within a band of
1.5 km from the centerline of the road and on either side.
4.3. Questionnaires
Indicator estimates were also obtained from survey question-
naires. Six different sets of questionnaires were customized to each
target respondent group, developed with the proposed indicators
taken into consideration. Information on each category of
questionnaire is provided in Table 2 below:
The total number of questionnaires administered by category is
indicated in Table 4 (see Section 4.5).
4.4. Other methods
The study also obtained qualitative data through direct
observations, focus group discussions, and stakeholder con-
sultations. Direct observations were made with a structured
form to record commercial establishments along the road
corridors, informal traders (selling points) along the road
corridors, and new houses within the community. Focus group
discussions brought together residents over the age of 18 years
to discuss the impact of roads on their ability to access social
and economic services and whether the road improvement
projects were beneficial. Stakeholder consultations were con-
ducted in the form of formal visits to the office of the
Department of Feeder Roads at the district level to obtain
progress reports on the projects’ roads.

Year Acvity Tasks

1 Baseline Study 1) Reviewing the suitability of the set of impact indicators to be included in
the overall study framework.

2) Evaluang the appropriateness of the indicated area of influence for the

selected roads (proposed at 1.5 km for each side).

3) Conducng the baseline study for the selected roads.

3 Impact Study 1) Conducng an impact study of the spot improvement of the selected
roads in Year 3 of the program by quanfying the indicators

2) Comparing the situaon with the baseline study (Year 1) and the first
impact study (Year 3).

5 Impact Study 1) Conducng an impact study aer Year 5 on the selected roads by
quanfying the indicators and comparing the situaon with the baseline
study (Year 1) and the first impact study in (Year 3).

2) Calculang the average change in indicators between the baseline (ex-

ante) and Stage 1 and 2 (ex-post).

Fig. 3. Project timeline.

Please cite this article in press as: Asomani-Boateng, R., et al., Assessing the socio-economic impacts of rural road improvements in
Ghana: A case study of Transport Sector Program Support (II). Case Stud. Transp. Policy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.cstp.2015.04.006
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Table 2
Questionnaire by category.

Questionnaire category Target respondent Information provided

Household Household head or spouse Demographic characteristics (gender, marital status, housing, etc.) of
(in absence of household head) respondents, occupation of respondents, travel pattern of respondents,
income and expenditure of respondents, as well as infrastructural
facilities that existed in households
Community level Community residents 18+ years in age Availability of social services (health facilities, schools, potable water
and energy) and the impact of road conditions on these facilities
Passenger/vehicle user All vehicle users Trip patterns, reliability of transport services, as well as passenger and
freight charges
Vehicle operators Vehicle operators Type and capacity of vehicle, trip characteristics, vehicle operation and
maintenance, and vehicle utilization
Health institution Administrators Impact of road conditions on quality health services
Educational institution Administrators Impact of roads on school enrollment, attendance and access to
teaching aids and facilities

4.5. Sample determination
The sample was adjusted in relation to a region’s population, as
well as the length of the road corridor, to gain sample sizes
representative of total populations. The proportional stratified
technique was chosen in the first stage of selecting the sample. The
total population in each of the communities along the road corridor
was identified, and the sample size chosen per community was
proportionate to the average number of households. This was
estimated from the average household size and the projected total
population of the settlement. The total number of settlements
surveyed on each road corridor was also proportional to the road
length of the identified road corridor. A 95% confidence level was
chosen to make the data as precise as possible. Coverage of the
sampling area is depicted in Table 3.
4.6. Data sources and data collection methods
The study obtained data from secondary sources, including
official reports from the Department of Feeder Roads and the
Internet, where relevant literature on similar projects were
reviewed to better define the benefits of rural access improvement
projects. Additional data obtained from secondary sources
included social, demographic, and economic characteristics of
the three regions covered in the survey. This enabled the
researchers to make reasonable comparisons between local data
collected and that of the region.
The study obtained its primary data from selected settlements
along the various road corridors through surveys. These ques-
tionnaires were further tested in the Upper East and Upper West
Regions to address issues such as the length of questionnaires and
respondents’ ability to understand and answer the questions
properly. The total number of questionnaires administered by
category is indicated in Table 4 below. Household surveys were
administered face-to-face to randomly selected homes. Copies of
all the questionnaires used for the study have been included in the
Appendix.
4.7. Data processing and analysis
A number of techniques were used in analyzing and processing
the data, which were edited, coded, and processed with the use of
Microsoft Excel. Editing detected and eliminated errors to ensure
clean and reliable data, and coding classified questions into
meaningful categories to bring out essential patterns that
informed the research questions posed. The researchers then
presented the data using quantitative and qualitative techniques in
the forms of tables and pictorial diagrams. This combination of
techniques ensured that generalization of the data would be based
on a credible and reliable means of analyzing data from the field.
The focus was on the frequency distribution of the various
indicators.
The researchers note that Ghana experienced a high rate of
inflation during the time of the study and found it necessary to

Table 3
Coverage of study (by road corridor and settlement).

Region District Road name Length Settlement Population (m) Sample (n) Region total

Northern Savelugu–Nanton Sion–Dingoni–Kpachelo 17.9 km  Sion 1332 25

 Dingoni 314 13 58
 Kpachelo 509 20
Tamale Bamvim–Buhija 18.4 km Bamvim 315 15
 Dalogyili 228 15 45
 Buhija 432 15

Upper East Builsa Balansa–Kaasa–Siniesi 10.0 km  Balansa 692 15

 Kaasa 1122 20 50
 Siniesi 640 15
Bawku East Ninkongo–Pusiga–Sugudi 7.2 km  Ninkongo 3711 40
 Pusiga 7242 70 150
 Sugudi 3354 40

Upper West Wa Dorimon–Nyose 6.0 km  Dorimon 1089 20

 Mase 87 5 40
 Nyose 446 15
Busa–Kpanamuna 21.0 km  Busa 2772 25
 Kpaglehi 432 18 83
 Kpanamuna 2339 40
Field Survey, 2007.

Please cite this article in press as: Asomani-Boateng, R., et al., Assessing the socio-economic impacts of rural road improvements in
Ghana: A case study of Transport Sector Program Support (II). Case Stud. Transp. Policy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.cstp.2015.04.006
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8 R. Asomani-Boateng et al. / Case Studies on Transport Policy xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Table 4 5.1.1. Food crop outputs

Distribution of questionnaires by category.
Type of questionnaire
Household survey questionnaire
Community level questionnaire
Passenger/vehicle users questionnaire
Vehicle operators
Health institution questionnaire
Educational institution questionnaire
Total
Field Survey, 2007.
control for inflationary effects. Estimates expressed in monetary
amounts, including household income, crop prices, and freight and
passenger charges, were adjusted for inflationary effects based
upon the inflation rate of the given year. Inflation rates used in this
process were based upon World Bank estimates (World Bank,
2015). The World Bank measures inflation based upon the
consumer price index.
5. Results
This study analyzed the benefits of improved transportation
services based on a before-and-after project impact assessment
method that used a wide range of direct and indirect impact
variables. The findings presented are based on positive and
negative parameters, as well as the significance of these
parameters, that influenced a development project by analyzing
the magnitude of the impact of the road improvement interven-
tion. The findings are grouped into positive and negative
parameters. Positive impacts include productivity, performance,
and networks, while negative impacts focused on transport costs.
5.1. Productivity
Productivity focused on increased output and distribution from
the improved access in terms of food crop outputs, income, and
expenditure.
Road improvements resulted in dramatic increases in produc-
Number tion and output levels for most food crops in the affected
administered (n) communities in Phase 1. For example, average output for yams
426 increased from 35 to 1140 metric tons. However, in Phase 2 output
18 increased modestly for millet, beans and maize in comparison to
5 Phase 1; output decreased in rice, guinea corn, and yams. These
5
findings are depicted in Table 5.
18
18
490 5.1.2. Income and expenditure
Other major findings classified under positive impacts are
income and expenditure. With increased access to higher order
markets due to the road improvement program, farmers, who are
the major workforce in the study area, are able to sell their food
crops for better prices and are able to spend on clothing, energy,
and other essential commodities to improve their standard of
living. As indicated in Table 6, household income increased
consistently at both monitoring stages of the study and along all
road corridors, with an average change in the aggregate of
+444,152 (Cedi ¢) or +318.8%. This corresponded to an aggregate
average change of expenditure of +251,678 (Cedi ¢) or over Phases
1 and 2. On the average, expenditure increased by 152% (see
Table 7). However, expenditure trends along certain corridors
fluctuated between both monitoring periods.
5.2. Access to social services
Social services address the most fundamental needs of the
country’s welfare. These needs include education and health care.
If TSPS-2 is accomplishing its intended outcomes, access to
educational and health care facilities should improve.
5.2.1. Travel to school
The researchers observed a greater increment in the percentage
of pupils traveling shorter times (0–30 min) to school at the first
and second monitoring phases in comparison to the baseline. As
seen in Table 8, 57% of school children traveled 30 min or less to
school during the baseline survey, but this increased to about 72%
during the first monitoring (representing a 25% increment), and

Table 5
Ex-ante and ex-post output by crop type.

Crop type Baseline Phase 1 Change % Change Phase 2 Change % Change Change X̄ % Change X̄
output (metric ton) output (metric ton) output (metric ton)

Millet 0.1 6.5 +6.4 +6400 7.2 +0.7 +11 +3.55 +3205.5
Groundnut 0.2 11.8 +11.6 +5800 9.3 2.5 21 +4.55 +2889.5
Beans 0.1 5 +4.9 +4900 22.3 +17.3 +346 +11.1 +2623
Rice 0.7 35 +34.3 +4900 0 35 100 0.35 2400
Guinea Corn 0.1 17.2 +17.1 +17,100 9.4 7.8 45 +4.65 +8527.5
Maize 0.1 8.5 +8.4 +8400 13.3 +4.8 +56 +6.6 +4228
Yam (tuber) 35.0 1140 +1105 +3157 862 278 24 +413.5 +1566.5
X̄ 5.2 175 +169.8 3265 132 43 25 63.4 1620
Household Survey, 2008.

Table 6
Ex-ante and ex-post household income by road corridor.

Road Corridor Household income (Cedi ¢)

Baseline Phase 1 Change % Change Phase 2 Change % Change Change X̄ % Change X̄

Ninkongo–Pusiga–Sugudi 104,149 129,473 +25,324 +24.3 636,604 +507,131 +391.7 +266,228 +208.0
Bamvim–Buhija 93,897 580,207 +486,310 +517.9 1,695,301 +1,115,094 +192.2 +800,702 +355.1
Zion–Dingoni–Kpachelo 101,960 158,933 +56,973 +55.9 608,298 +449,365 +282.7 +253,169 +169.3
Balansa–Kaasa–Siniensi 105,112 215,306 +110,194 +104.8 1,170,086 +954,780 +443.5 +532,487 +274.1
Busa–Kpanamuna 86, 494 788,381 +701,887 +811.5 1,012,605 +224,224 +28.4 +463,056 +420.0
Dorimon–Nyose 32,252 299,357 +267,105 +828.2 730,792 +431,435 +144.1 +349,270 +486.2
X̄ 87,311 361,943 +274,632 +390.4 975,614 +613,672 +247.1 +444,152 +318.8
Household Survey, 2008.

Please cite this article in press as: Asomani-Boateng, R., et al., Assessing the socio-economic impacts of rural road improvements in
Ghana: A case study of Transport Sector Program Support (II). Case Stud. Transp. Policy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.cstp.2015.04.006
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R. Asomani-Boateng et al. / Case Studies on Transport Policy xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 9

Table 7
Ex-ante and ex-post expenditure by road corridor.

Road corridor Expenditure (Cedi ¢)

Baseline Phase 1 Change % Change Phase 2 Change % Change Change X̄ % Change X̄

Ninkongo–Pusiga–Sugudi 549,970 685,737 +135,767 +24.7 771,624 +85,887 +12.5 +110,827 +18.6
Bamvim–Buhija 571,520 696,859 +125,339 +21.9 970,604 +273,745 +39.3 +199,542 +30.6
Zion–Dingoni–Kpachelo 606,704 826,502 +219,798 +36.2 806,360 19,872 2.4 +99,963 +16.9
Balansa–Kaasa–Siniensi 430,344 221,929 208,415 48.4 1,061,786 +839,857 +378.4 +315,721 +165.0
Busa–Kpanamuna 270,990 1,053,864 +782,874 +288.9 1,028,720 +25,144 2.4 +378,865 +143.3
Dorimon–Nyose 54,682 75,561 +20,879 +38.2 864,977 +789,416 +1044.7 +405,148 +541.5
X̄ 414,035 593,409 +179,374 +60.2 917,390 +323,982 +245.0 +251,678 +152.6
Vehicle Operator Survey, 2008.

then to 78% during the second monitoring (representing an
increment of approximately 9%). Reductions in longer travel
categories of 30–60 min and 60+ min were also observed. The
increase in intervals that represent shorter travel times and fewer
decreases in intervals that represent longer travel times reflect
road improvement and effective usage of motorized transport. As
the road conditions improved, the use of motorized transport
decreased travel time significantly when compared to walking and
intermediate means of transport.
Table 9 provides transport costs to school facilities in Cedi/kg
for each corridor segment. A detailed examination of Table 9
reveals that the cost per kilometer to basic schools reduced during
the first monitoring stage but increased along all road corridors
during the second monitoring phase. This could be attributed to
deterioration in road conditions during the second monitoring
phase or increased petroleum prices, or both. During the study
period, the price of diesel fuel in Ghana soared dramatically from
0.20 USD/L in 2000 to 0.86 USD/L in 2006, representing an increase
of 330%. This averages to an increase of approximately 47% per
year, making the cost of motorized transport prohibitive.
5.2.2. Access to health facilities
Respondents were asked about the health facilities they had
access to both before and after the road improvement project. Each
health facility was ranked by the level of health care offered, which
ranged from small health posts to health centers and hospitals.
Responses indicated a slight increase in access to hospitals; this
was indicated by the increase in the percentage of respondents
who accessed hospitals before their respective road improvement
project, 23.1–32.9% a year after the road improvement project (see
Table 10). While increases were noted in ‘‘other’’ types of health
care facilities, decreasing access was noted in smaller facilities,
such as health centers, clinics and health posts. This situation will
worsen with the extreme level of poverty in the study area.

Table 8
Travel time for round trip to school.

Time intervals (min) Baseline (%) Phase 1 (%) Change % Change Phase 2 (%) Change % Change Change X̄ % Change X̄

0–30 57.4 71.8 +14.4 +25 78.0 +6.2 +8.6 +10.3 +16.8
31–60 41.4 28.2 13.2 32 22.0 6.20 22.0 9.7 +25.1
60+ 1.2 0 1.2 100 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.60 50.0
Total 100 100 100
Educational Institution Survey, 2008.

Table 9
Ex-ante and post-ante comparison between transport charges to primary school facility: cost/km (Cedi ¢).

Road corridor Transport charges to primary school in cost/km (Cedi ¢)

Baseline Phase 1 Change % Change Phase 2 Change % Change Change X̄ % Change X̄

Ninkongo–Pusiga–Sugudi 35.2 21.2 14.0 39.8 44.8 +23.6 +111.3 +4.8 +35.8
Bamvim–Buhija 37.8 28.9 8.9 23.5 58.1 +29.2 +101.0 +10.2 +38.7
Zion–Dingoni–Kpachelo 56.4 23.8 32.6 57.8 68.3 +44.5 +187.0 +6.0 +64.6
Balansa–Kaasa–Siniensi 78.7 70.0 8.7 11.1 91.0 +21.0 +30.0 +6.2 +9.5
Busa–Kpanamuna 36.2 26.3 9.9 27.3 42.6 +16.3 +62.0 +3.2 +17.3
Dorimon–Nyose 46.3 21.2 25.1 54.2 60.5 +39.3 +185.4 +7.1 +65.6
X̄ 48.4 31.9 16.5 35.6 60.9 +29.0 +112.8 +6.2 +38.6
Educational Institution Survey, 2008.

Table 10
Type of health facilities visited.

Health facility visited Baseline (%) Phase 1 (%) Change % Change Phase 2 (%) Change % Change Change X̄ % Change X̄

Health Center 28.1 26.0 2.1 7.5 36.4 +10.4 13.0 4.2 10.3
Hospital 23.1 32.9 +9.8 +42.0 29.4 3.5 11.0 3.2 15.5
Clinic 42.9 38.4 4.5 10.0 25.4 13.0 34.0 8.8 22.0
Health Post 5.5 0 5.5 100.0 0 0.0 0.0 2.8 50.0
Others 0.4 2.7 2.3 +5.7 8.8 +6.10 +226.0 4.2 +115.9
Total 100 100 100
Health Institution Survey, 2008.

Please cite this article in press as: Asomani-Boateng, R., et al., Assessing the socio-economic impacts of rural road improvements in
Ghana: A case study of Transport Sector Program Support (II). Case Stud. Transp. Policy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.cstp.2015.04.006
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10 R. Asomani-Boateng et al. / Case Studies on Transport Policy xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

5.3. Market network efficiency
Market network efficiency examines how much the road
improvement program has enabled new interactions and main-
tained existing interactions among different geographic locations.
5.3.1. Type of market transaction
The road improvement program has expanded the reach of
beneficiary communities’ markets. This is indicated in the ability of
farmers to access higher-order markets and the associated benefit
of better pricing for food commodities. For instance, the percentage
of respondents who sell their farm produce at district markets
increased from 0% before the road improvement program to 22.5%
a year after the road intervention (see Table 11 below). The
improved access to higher-order markets is also reflected in the
price of food crops, as the majority of them increased during both
monitoring phases (see Table 12).
5.3.2. Cost of transport to nearest market
Another major finding in market network efficiency was the
increased price in both average passenger and freight cost per
kilometer. A detailed look at Tables 13 and 14 below reveals that
the majority of road corridors recorded both increases in passenger
and freight cost per kilometer. Generally, the unit cost of
transportation by both passengers and freight increased signifi-
cantly before and after the road improvement program, contrary to
the expectation that improved road conditions reduce transport
costs. This was not the case in this study. The reason for the
significant increase in the cost of transportation by both freight and
passengers could be attributed to an increase in global petroleum

Table 11
Ex-ante and post-ante type of market transaction.

Type of market Baseline (%) Phase 1 (%) Change % Change Phase 2 (%) Change % Change Change X̄ % Change X̄

Selling at Home 75.0 43.2 31.8 42.0 36.7 6.5 15.0 19.2 28.5
Village Market 25.0 27.5 +2.5 10.0 22.7 4.8 17.0 1.2 3.5
District Market 0.0 22.5 +22.5 n/a 25.0 +2.5 11.0 +12.5 n/a
Regional Market 0.0 6.4 +6.4 n/a 8.8 +2.4 38 +4.4 n/a
Community Level Survey, 2008.

Table 12
Ex-ante and post-ante average crop/unit value.

Road corridor Average crop price (Cedi ¢)

Baseline Phase 1 Change % Change Phase 2 Change % Change Change X̄ % Change X̄

Millet 135,605 269,133 +133,528 +98.5 567,800 +298,667 +111.0 +216,098 +104.7
Groundnuts 285,870 461,007 +175,137 +61.3 390,530 70,477 15.3 +52,330 +23.0
Guinea Corn 205,240 264,039 +58,799 +28.6 301,018 +36,979 +14.0 +47,889 +21.3
Maize 271,210 178,290 92,920 34.3 292,250 +113,960 +63.9 +10,520 +14.8
Yam 5,351 8,405 +3,054 +57.1 25,217 +16,812 +200.0 +9,933 +128.5
Passenger/Vehicle User Survey, 2008.

Table 13
Ex-ante and post-ante comparison between passenger transport charges: cost/km (Cedi ¢).

Road corridor Passenger charges in cost/km (Cedi ¢)

Baseline Phase 1 Change % Change Phase 2 Change % Change Change X̄ % Change X̄

Ninkongo–Pusiga–Sugudi 191 187 4 2.1 309 +122 +65.2 +59 +31.6

Bamvim–Buhija 235 450 215 91.5 518 +68 +15.1 +142 +53.3
Zion–Dingoni–Kpachelo 271 306 35 12.9 426 +120 +39.2 +78 +26.1
Balansa–Kaasa–Siniensi 135 187 52 38.5 443 +256 +136.9 +154 +87.7
Busa–Kpanamuna 213 323 110 51.6 493 +170 +52.6 +140 +52.1
Dorimon–Nyose 198 127 71 35.9 576 +449 +353.5 +189 +158.8
X̄ 207 263 56 26 461 +198 +110 +127 +68
Passenger/Vehicle User Survey, 2008.

Table 14
Ex-ante and post-ante comparison between freight transport charges of goods: cost/kg/km (Cedi ¢).

Road corridor Freight charges of goods in cost/kg/km (Pesewa)

Baseline Phase 1 Change % Change Phase 2 Change % Change Change X̄ % Change X̄

Ninkongo–Pusiga–Sugudi 3.6 3.4 0.2 5.6 4.4 +1.0 +29.4 +0.4 +11.9
Bamvim–Buhija 3.2 8.2 +5.0 156.3 9.9 +1.7 +20.7 +3.4 +88.5
Zion–Dingoni–Kpachelo 3.4 7.7 +4.3 126.5 6.3 1.4 18.2 +1.5 +54.1
Balansa–Kaasa–Siniensi 2.9 7.1 +4.2 144.8 13.9 +6.8 +95.8 +5.5 +120.3
Busa–Kpanamuna 2.1 5.2 +3.1 147.6 8.8 +3.6 +69.2 +3.4 +108.4
Dorimon–Nyose 6.1 9.1 +3.0 49.2 9.5 +0.4 +4.4 +1.7 +26.8
X̄ 3.6 6.8 +3.2 103.1 6.8 +2.0 +33.6 2.6 +68.3
Passenger/Vehicle User Survey, 2008.

Please cite this article in press as: Asomani-Boateng, R., et al., Assessing the socio-economic impacts of rural road improvements in
Ghana: A case study of Transport Sector Program Support (II). Case Stud. Transp. Policy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.cstp.2015.04.006
G Model
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R. Asomani-Boateng et al. / Case Studies on Transport Policy xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
prices during this study, which is believed to have affected the
prices of fuel in Ghana. This will inhibit economic development and
prevent beneficiary communities from improving their standards
of living.
6. Discussion
The Government of Ghana and its donor partners continue to
invest resources towards rural road improvement projects. These
investments are usually expected to yield benefits that will help
eradicate poverty and improve the living standards of beneficiary
communities. Benefits of economic growth were apparent in this
analysis; however, our findings indicate that the government is
unable to sustain the derived benefits of rural road improvement
over the study period.
Economic growth along the road corridors was evident, as
indicators such as increased household income and expenditures
were apparent. During the implementation of TSPS-2, household
income grew dramatically along the road corridors over Phase 1 at
an average rate of 390.4%. This corresponded to an increase in
expenditure along the corridors to an average rate of 60.2%. This
supports the need to further develop and maintain feeder roads in
the three regions of Ghana under study (Northern, Upper West, and
Upper East). Positive changes were observed in crop output,
especially in the first phase. Changes in Phase 2 for most indicators
were either not as pronounced or in decline.
We also noted some progress in the region’s access to social
services, but in very specific areas. In the case of schools, travel
time decreased for students. But, this was counteracted by
increasing transport charges, which have increased throughout
the program. Access to health facilities did not increase, except for
limited and specific types of facilities.
Regardless of the changes, transport charges increased. Reasons
include financial constraints to undertake periodic maintenance,
lack of capacity, energy costs, and technical deficiencies. The
inability of the Government of Ghana to sustain the benefits of
rural road improvement over long periods is a problem that needs
to be addressed.
According to Donnges et al. (2007), rural road maintenance is a
local activity that affects local inhabitants. We therefore recom-
mend the government to decentralize the responsibility for
implementing maintenance of rural roads. At the local level, the
population knows their land better than distant government
officials, and they know what locations they require access to the
most. Further, the growth of farm-based organizations and agri-
coops as a form of collective action in rural areas extends
opportunities for citizen participation (Salifu et al., 2010). Hence, it
is important to involve local stakeholders in monitoring the
performance and maintenance of the roads. Decision makers in
Ghana should understand the importance of promoting road
maintenance on existing rural roads. Preserving existing roads
through maintenance should be made a priority, rather than using
the limited funds for new construction or rehabilitation projects,
which they believe bring services to their electorates.
In developing countries such as Ghana, there are always limited
funds for the maintenance of rural roads. Hence, in the allocation of
budget for development, funds for maintaining rural roads are not
considered important. However, there is a need to include funds for
rural road maintenance in the annual budgets of local level
institutions (district assemblies) responsible for rural road
maintenance to help them maintain roads periodically.
The Department of Feeder Road offices at the district level
should be well equipped to enable locals to perform efficient and
timely maintenance. This usually involves their ability to plan and
carry out projects at the right time, preserving investments with
Please cite this article in press as: Asomani-Boateng, R., et al., Assessing the socio-economic impacts of rural road improvements in
Ghana: A case study of Transport Sector Program Support (II). Case Stud. Transp. Policy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.cstp.2015.04.006
11
solutions that are cost-effective, and thereby utilizing available
funding resources optimally.
The road database and Geographic Information System maps of
the 42,000 km of feeder roads in Ghana should be periodically
updated and disseminated to all local offices for easy access. Staff
should be trained to operate the Geographic Information System
software.
Soaring fuel prices in Ghana during the implementation of
TSPS-1 and TSPS-2 potentially resulted in higher transportation
costs. This calls for an initiative that would develop alternative fuel
vehicles. Ghana’s natural resources provide an opportunity. The
Jubilee oil field, discovered off Ghana’s coast in 2007, is the largest
off-shore oil source discovered in Africa in over a decade (Burgess,
2014). The oil field also serves as a major reserve of natural gas. A
program that eventually adopts the use of alternative fuel vehicles
could make transport less vulnerable to oil market fluctuations and
reduce Ghana’s carbon debt.
7. Conclusion
This analysis reveals that transportation is considered a derived
benefit for many local economies within Ghana. The impacts of
road development projects are broadly classified as positive and
negative benefits. First, transportation infrastructure contributes
to economic growth or improvements in living standards. The
positive impacts are those that significantly contribute to
economic growth and improvement in the standard of living of
beneficiary communities. The negative impacts are those that
inhibit economic growth and improvement in living standards.
Rural roads in developing countries are often seen as the least
important linkage of the road transport system. However, these
rural roads provide access for countless rural communities and
their inhabitants. The poor conditions or inadequacies of rural
roads, seasonal or permanent, coupled with higher petroleum
prices, deprive rural communities’ access to basic services such as
education, primary health care, potable water supply, local
markets, and other social and economic opportunities. In addition,
the lack of adequate, reliable transport penalizes households that
want to pursue cash and food crop farming, non-farm employment
opportunities, and access to social services.
As road improvements signify progress, they must also be
considered in a holistic fashion. This involves not only basing
decisions within a geographic, economic, and environmental
context but also coordinating various facets of government to
respond to the needs of its constituents. The evaluation and
successful implementation of a program hinges upon how well
decision makers view the framework of transportation systems
and how it addresses community-expressed outcomes. As Ghana
looks to its international partners for support, it must also look at
its own ministries to coordinate local and regional planning.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to acknowledge Professor Kwasi Kwafo
Adarkwa and Dr. Paulina Agyekum for their support and
encouragement.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary material related to this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.cstp.2015.04.006.
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