ACS133 - Physical Systems

Lecture 6: Translational Mechanical Systems

(Interconnecting Laws and Model Development)

Ross Drummond

ross.drummond@sheffield.ac.uk

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Mechanical Systems

1. Translational Mechanical Systems - continued

2. In-class test
3. Rotational Mechanical Systems

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Interconnecting laws
Translational Mechanical Systems

1. Law of reaction forces - Newton’s third law

For any force applied from one element to another, there is a
reaction force on the first element of equal magnitude and
opposite direction.

2. Law of displacements
If the ends of two elements are connected, those ends move
with the same displacement and velocity.

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Interconnecting laws
3. D’Alembert’s Law
▶ When the mass of a single element system is constant →
Re-statement of Newton’s second law:
X dv X dv
(fext )i = M ⇐⇒ (fext )i − M = 0.
dt dt
i i

▶ Can be considered as overall equilibrium if M dv

dt is
assumed as an additional force.
▶ The minus sign indicates that the additional (or inertial)
force acts in the opposite direction to the sum of the
applied forces.
▶ This additional ‘force’ is known as D’Alembert’s force, and
the following equation as D’Alembert’s Law:
X
fi = 0 (1)
i
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Interconnecting laws
Translational Mechanical Systems

3. D’Alembert’s Law
▶ Fundamentally the same as Newton’s second law.
▶ Identical for a single element system with constant mass.
▶ Easier to get the sign right(!)
▶ Can be applied at any point (e.g. junctions).
▶ Better for:
▶ Multi-body systems.
▶ Non-inertial reference frames.
▶ Non-constant mass systems.

fK fa
M
fB fI
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Developing a system model
Translational Mechanical Systems

Steps to applying D’Alembert’s laws:

1. Free body diagram - consider frame of reference.
2. D’Alembert’s law to each mass/junction.
3. Express all forces as functions of displacement (use
element laws).
4. Derive ODEs (to describe the system’s motion).

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Developing a system model
Translational Mechanical Systems

Notes on applying D’Alembert’s principle:

▶ Pre-suppose directions for all displacements (something
that makes sense, but be consistent!).
▶ Consistency in free body diagram directions and
displacements is key to deriving meaningful equations.
x y

K K
M fa M fa

B B

fa-Mx-Bx-Kx = 0 -fa+My+By+Ky = 0

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Translational Mechanical Systems

Example: Simple mass-spring-damper system

Consider the horizontal motion x v
of a mass as depicted in the
figure. Assuming that the mass
K
will move to the right, develop a
system model for the M fa
mass-spring-damper system. B

1. Free body diagram - consider frame of reference

fK fa
M
fB fI

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Translational Mechanical Systems
Example: Simple mass-spring-damper system
2. D’Alembert’s law to the mass
fa (t) − fI (t) − fB (t) − fK (t) = 0.

3. Express all forces as functions of displacement

fI (t) = M ẍ.
fB (t) = B ẋ.
fK (t) = Kx.
D’Alembert’s law becomes

fa (t) − M ẍ + B ẋ − Kx = 0.

4. Derive ODEs
fa (t) = M ẍ + B ẋ + Kx
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Relative displacement - motion
Translational Mechanical Systems

▶ Often it is more convenient to measure motion with respect

to some moving reference frame.
▶ If this moving reference frame is either accelerating or
rotating, it is not an inertial reference frame and some care
is required in deriving accurate ODEs.
▶ If this is the case, then an extra inertial force is required to
account for the acceleration of the reference frame itself.

x v y x v

K K
M fa M M fa

B B

Intertial reference frame Non-intertial reference frame

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Relative displacement - motion
Translational Mechanical Systems

Example: Non-zero steady state spring-damper system

In this example, we will model a
spring-damper system and
measure the displacement with
respect to two sets of
coordinates: B K
▶ one such that the values of x
the displacement variables
are zero when the springs M v
are neither stretched nor
compressed.
▶ with respect to static fa
equilibrium.

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Relative displacement - motion
Translational Mechanical Systems

Example: Non-zero steady state spring-damper system

Let us assume the displacement x is measured
with respect to the spring being neither stretched
or compressed. For this case, the free body
diagram is shown on the right side. Kx Bx Mx
D’Alembert’s law then gives the differential
equations
M
M ẍ + B ẋ + Kx − fa (t) − Mg = 0
M ẍ + B ẋ + Kx = Mg + fa (t).
fa (t) Mg
Note that these differential equations feature the
gravitational force Mg.

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Relative displacement - motion
Translational Mechanical Systems

Example: Non-zero steady state spring-damper system

To measure the motion with respect to steady state (static
equilibrium) we start by supposing that the mass in not moving
(fa (t) = 0). In this case we have that x = x0 , there x0 is the
constant displacement caused by gravity. Since x0 is constant
we have: ẋ0 = ẍ0 = 0.
Applying D’Alembert’s law for x = x0 gives Kx0 = Mg.
Therefore, the extension of the spring at static equilibrium is:

Mg
x0 =
K

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Relative displacement - motion
Translational Mechanical Systems

Now, let’s consider fa (t) ̸= 0 and denote the displacement x by

x = x0 + z, where z is the additional displacement caused by
the force fa (t).
Making this substitution in D’Alembert’s law gives:

M(ẍ0 + z̈) + B(ẋ0 + ż) + K (x0 + z) = Mg + fa (t)

which is equivalent to

M z̈ + B ż + K (x0 + z) = Mg + fa (t)
M z̈ + B ż + Kz = fa (t)

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Adjustable suspension of a sports car
Driver C3 Seat-back friction

M3 z
Seat
Seat Seat spring
damping
C1 K1 y
M2 Chasis
Shock absorbers Springs
C2 K2 x
M1 Wheels, axles, etc

r K3 Tyre

Ground

▶ r is the displacement of the ground.

▶ x is the spacing of mass M1 with respect to the ground.
▶ y is the spacing of mass M2 with respect to the mass M1 .
▶ x is the spacing of mass M3 with respect to the mass M2 .
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Developing the model for the driver’s seat

Note that z is the displacement of M3

with reference to the displacement of
M2 . Applying D’Alembert’s law:
X
fi = 0
i

which is equivalent to

−fC3 − fC1 − fK1 − fI3 = 0

which yields

−C3 ż − C1 ż − K1 z − M3 (z̈ + ÿ + ẍ + r̈ ) = 0

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Developing the model for the chassis

Note that y is the displacement of M2

with reference to the displacement of
M1 . Applying D’Alembert’s law:
X
fi = 0
i

which is equivalent to

fC3 + fC1 + fK1 − fK2 − fC2 − fI2 = 0

which yields

C3 ż + C1 ż + K1 z − K2 y − C2 ẏ − M2 (ÿ + ẍ + r̈ ) = 0

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Developing the model for the suspension

Note that x is the displacement of M1

with reference to the road surface
displacement r . Applying
D’Alembert’s law:
X
fi = 0
i

which is equivalent to

fK2 + fC2 − fK3 − fI1 = 0

which yields

K2 y + C2 ẏ − K3 x − M1 (ẍ + r̈ ) = 0

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Developing the model for the whole system
Full model described by the three equations:

 −C3 ż − C1 ż − K1 z − M3 (z̈ + ÿ + ẍ + r̈ ) = 0.

C3 ż + C1 ż + K1 z − K2 y − C2 ẏ − M2 (ÿ + ẍ + r̈ ) = 0.

K2 y + C2 ẏ − K3 x − M1 (ẍ + r̈ ) = 0.


To analyse these equations, we need to use the Laplace

Transform (L ) - week 6 in ACS132.

Laplace Transform
ODEs
Mathematical models Transfer function

Inverse Laplace Transform

Time domain Frequency domain

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Developing the model for the whole system
The Laplace transform of a signal f (t) is given by:
Z ∞
L{f (t)} = F (s) = f (t)e−st dt.
0

With zero-initial conditions, some common Laplace transform

operations are:

Time domain Frequency domain

Signal 1 f (t) F (s)
df (t)
Derivative dt sF (s)
th d n f (t)
n derivative dt n sn F (s)
Rt 1
Integration 0 f (τ )τ dτ s F (s)

1 s
Time scaling f (at) aF a
Time shifting f (t − a) e−as F (s)
Signal 2 u(t) U(s)
Rt
Convolution 0 f (t − τ )τ u(τ )dτ F (s)U(s)
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Developing the model for the whole system

Laplace transforms of certain signals:

Time domain Frequency domain

Dirac delta δ(t) 1
1
Unit step ustep (t) s
ω
Sine sin(ωt) s +ω 2
2

How to solve Laplace transform problems:

▶ Repeated integration by parts.
▶ Computing the Inverse Laplace transform is more
complicated. Requires look-up tables.

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Basic Laplace transforms
Assuming initial conditions zero: y (0) = 0 and ẏ (0) = 0, then:
L
y (t) −→ Y (s).
L
ẏ (t) −→ sY (s).
L
ÿ (t) −→ s2 Y (s).

Example of basic Laplace transform

Given the ODE

M ÿ + C ẏ + Ky = 0.

Applying the Laplace transform gives

Ms2 + Cs + K Y (s) = 0.

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 Developing the model for the whole system

 −C3 ż − C1 ż − K1 z − M3 (z̈ + ÿ + ẍ + r̈ ) = 0.

C3 ż + C1 ż + K1 z − K2 y − C2 ẏ − M2 (ÿ + ẍ + r̈ ) = 0.

K2 y + C2 ẏ − K3 x − M1 (ẍ + r̈ ) = 0.


Using the Laplace transform with zero initial conditions gives


2 2 2 2
 −C3 sZ − C1 sZ − K1 Z − M3 (s Z + s Y + s X + s R) = 0.

C3 sZ + C1 sZ + K1 Z − K2 Y − C2 sY − M2 (s2 Y + s2 X + s2 R) = 0.

K2 Y + C2 sY − K3 X − M1 (s2 X + s2 R) = 0.


We need to derive the equation for each displacement


Z = ?

Y =?

X =?


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 Developing the model for the whole system

 −C3 ż − C1 ż − K1 z − M3 (z̈ + ÿ + ẍ + r̈ ) = 0.

C3 ż + C1 ż + K1 z − K2 y − C2 ẏ − M2 (ÿ + ẍ + r̈ ) = 0.

K2 y + C2 ẏ − K3 x − M1 (ẍ + r̈ ) = 0.


Using the Laplace transform with zero initial conditions gives


2 2 2 2
 −C3 sZ − C1 sZ − K1 Z − M3 (s Z + s Y + s X + s R) = 0.

C3 sZ + C1 sZ + K1 Z − K2 Y − C2 sY − M2 (s2 Y + s2 X + s2 R) = 0.

K2 Y + C2 sY − K3 X − M1 (s2 X + s2 R) = 0.


We need to derive the equation for each displacement


Z = ?

Y =?

X =?


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Developing the model for the whole system

2 2 2 2


 Z − M3 s − C3 s −
C1 s − K1 − M3 (s Y +
s X + s R) = 0.

Z C3 s + C1 s + K1 − Y K2 + C2 s + M2 s2 − M2 (s2 X + s2 R) = 0.

Y K2 + C2 s − X K3 + M1 s2 − M1 s2 R = 0.


Which yields

M3 s2
Z =− Y +X +R
M3 s2 + (C1 + C3 )s + K1

M2 s 2 (C1 + C3 )s + K1
Y =− X +R 2
+Z
M2 s + C2 s + K2 M2 s2 + C2 s + K2
C2 s + K2 M1 s2
X =Y − R
M1 s2 + K3 M1 s2 + K3

▶ We have a linear relationship for the displacements

(X , Y , Z ) in terms of the reference R.
▶ Frequency domain analysis allows us to get the algebraic
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Developing the model for the whole system

Using the notations on the right side, the model becomes

M3 s2


Z = − Y + X + R G1 .
G1 =
M3 s2 + (C1 + C3 )s + K1


Y = − X + R G2 + ZG3 .
X = YG4 − RG5 . M2 s2
G2 =
M2 s2 + C2 s + K2
(C1 + C3 )s + K1
G3 =
M2 s2 + C2 s + K2
C2 s + K2
G4 =
M1 s2 + K3
M1 s2
G5 =
M1 s2 + K3

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Developing the model for the whole system
The Laplce transform allows us to think of the ODEs of the
mathematical model

 −C3 ż − C1 ż − K1 z − M3 (z̈ + ÿ + ẍ + r̈ ) = 0.

C3 ż + C1 ż + K1 z − K2 y − C2 ẏ − M2 (ÿ + ẍ + r̈ ) = 0.

K2 y + C2 ẏ − K3 x − M1 (ẍ + r̈ ) = 0.


in terms of the feedback interconnection of signals:

r M 1s 2 M 2s 2
M1s2+K3 M2s2+C2s+K2
G5 G2
C2s+K2
M1s2+K3
x G4
-M3s2 (C1+C3)s+K1
M3s2+(C1+C3)s+K1 z M2s2+C2s+K2
y
G1 G3
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Implementing the model in Simulink

Z = − Y + X + R G1


Y = − X + R G2 + ZG3
X = YG4 − RG5

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Simulating the model

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Full racing track simulation

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Global performance measures

For a number of N samples (N points in time for which we know

the reference and the actual response) we can use:
▶ Root Mean Square Error (RMSE)
s
PN
i=1 (actuali − referencei )2
RMSE =
N
▶ Mean Absolute Error (MAE)
PN
i=1 |actuali − referencei |
MAE =
N

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In-class test - Week 7

▶ Test your knowledge and understanding of the material

covered so far with exam-like questions:
▶ Introduction to modelling and analysis of dynamic systems.
▶ Mechanical Systems.
▶ Work through the questions in the first hour of the lecture.
▶ We will go through example solutions and peer mark your
work in the second part of the lecture.
▶ Your score does not count towards your final mark.

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Lecture 6: Take-home points

▶ Translational lumped mechanical systems - continued:

▶ Inter-connecting laws.
▶ Relative motion.
▶ Free-body diagrams and deriving equations of motion.
▶ Application of Laplace transforms to convert ODE’s to
polynomial equations.
▶ Global performance measures.
▶ Complete the in-class test before week 7 live session.

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