Acceleration Measurement and

Applications
Prof. R.G. Longoria
Updated for Fall 2011

ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 Lab: choose a question to answer
1. How does material damping depend on length
of a cantilevered beam?

2. How do bungee cord characteristics influence

the peak acceleration at the extreme end of a
bungee drop?

3. How do you interpret acceleration signals from

the impact of a mass dropped into a sand target?

ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 Mass-spring-damper concept is key
Mass-spring-damper systems are ubiquitous in engineering, and understanding
their natural (unforced) and forced response lends insight into system dynamics
and provides tools to aid design of physical experiments and sensors.

Practical problems arise involving two different configurations:

Fixed-base – study Base-excited –response of

response x to m x
m x subject to forces
forces on mass x induced by motion of
base
This models many k b k b
simple vibration This is similar to a
problems vehicle suspension, and
y (t ) also models seismic
sensors
This case forms the basis for the simple This case forms the basis for understanding the
experiments we will conduct in lab. frequency response of seismic sensors,
particularly accelerometers.

ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 Fixed-base mass-spring-damper
A discussion of all cases of the mass-spring-damper system response
can be found in pre-lab readings (Ogata handout). From that
m x reading, you should review :
1. How undamped natural frequency (ωn) and damping ratio (ζ)
k b are defined from the basic 2nd order differential equation,
2. How the mass, stiffness and damping influence ωn and ζ,
3. How the response in each case depends on ωn , ζ, and the initial
conditions (initial position and initial velocity), and that these
are closed-form solutions you can use for basic design and
predictive calculations.
Unforced case, F(t) = 0
mxɺɺ + bxɺ + kx = 0 ζ = 0 ⇒ undamped
b k  0 < ζ < 1 = 0 ⇒ under-damped
ɺɺ
x +   xɺ +   x = 0


m 
m ζ = 1 ⇒ critically-damped
≜2ζωn ≜ωn2 ζ > 1 ⇒ over-damped
ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 No damping – harmonic motion

Useful measures:
xo = peak displacement
+x xoωn = peak velocity
xoωn2 = peak acceleration

Basic model: mxɺɺ + kx = 0 Initial conditions: x(0) = xo Vibration relations:

xɺ (0) = 0 Velocity
Response: x = xo cos(ωn t ) v = xɺ = − xoωn sin(ωnt )
ωn = k m = 'natural frequency' Acceleration
2π a = ɺɺ
x = − xoωn2 cos(ωn t )
Tn = = 'natural period'
ωn For additional information, see Ogata
handout.
ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 Now, introduce damping

ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 Measuring the damping ratio
The logarithmic decrement refers to the relationship between the
amplitude of the peaks in the response of an under-damped
system versus the cycle of oscillation.

This is a specific analysis of the response for the case where an

under-damped system is given an initial condition set: x(0) = x
o

xɺ (0) = 0
The response data allows you to determine the damping ratio, ζ,
without any other information about the system.

See the pre-lab readings for more details.

ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 Note on logarithmic decrement
• The logarithmic decrement helps you find the
damping ratio by measuring the slope of a line
formed by the natural log of the amplitude
ratios plotted against cycle number.
• If you plot this data, and it does not form a
straight line, we usually interpret this to mean
that the decay is NOT exponential. This means
that the assumption that the damping in the
system is linear is NOT valid – i.e., damping
must be nonlinear.
ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
Using logarithmic decrement to identify
dominant damping

ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 The following slides review the response of the base-
excited mass-spring-damper system to a sinusoidal
input.

This response is referred to as the harmonic or

frequency response.

This solution helps explain how the system responds

to a wide range of inputs with different frequency
components.

These concepts help define key sensor

specifications.
ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 Motion sensor dynamics
• Sensors used to measure motion rely on base-excited
mkb system configuration.
• A seismic mass is used and a displacement sensing
mechanism monitors the relative position between
the seismic mass and the housing.
Seismic
mass z z = relative position
m
Most sensing mechanisms
k b
y (t ) either detect or respond to z.

Sensing mechanisms are

discussed in the Appendix.
ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 Mathematical model
z = x− y Forcing function

mzɺɺ + bzɺ + kz = mω 2Y sin ωt = mω 2Y (t )

z (t ) = Z sin(ωt + φ )
If Y(t) is a sinusoid,
the response is also
2
ω  a sinusoid.
Amplitude response   Need to find
Z
=  ωn  amplitude and
phase, which
Y  ω   
2 2 2
ω depend on ω
1 −    +  2ζ 
ω
  n    ω n  phase response
ω
Appendix A shows how these functions are derived. 2ζ
ωn
Mostly it is important to see how the amplitude z(t) changes tan φ = 2
ω 
depending on frequency. This helps understand how 1−  
different types of seismic sensors are defined (next slide).  ωn 
ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 Frequency response function
Magnitude: |Z/Y|

Seismometers
operate in this
region

Accelerometers
operate in this
region

From Thomson (1993)

ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 ‘Seismometer’
Frequency response of Z to Y (displacement) input
2
ω 
 
Z (ω )
=  ωn 
Y (ω )  ω  2 2
  2
ω
1 −    +  2ζ 
  ωn    ω n 

This ratio is the ‘sensitivity’ – basically,

how much does the spring element
compress for a given displacement input. ω
Remember, the spring element represents a
sensing element of some type.
Z → Y for ≫1
ωn
i.e., mass does not move!
ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 ‘Accelerometer’
Frequency response of Z to Y (acceleration) input
2
First, note: ω 
 
Y (t ) = Y sin(ωt ) Then from the Z (ω ) =  ωn 
Yɺ (t ) = ωY cos(ωt ) frequency Y (ω ) 2
  ω 2   ω 
2

response:  1 −    +  2ζ 
Yɺɺ(t ) = −ω 2Y sin(ωt ) ω
  n    ω n 

For frequencies well below natural frequency of the sensor:

2
ωY ω
Z → 2 for ≪1
ωn ωn
This indicates that for this frequency range, Z (which is the sensed
variable) is proportional to acceleration of Y.
ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 Accelerometer – alternative function
2
Z (ω )  1  1 This is now a magnitude ratio
=  defining how Z depends on the
Ay (ω )  ωn   ω    2 2 2 acceleration. This ratio is the
ω
1 −    +  2ζ  sensitivity!
ω
  n    ω n  Bode Diagrams

From: U(1)
10

A magnitude plot helps us to 0 Magnitude response

-10
understand a critical specification

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

-20 The ‘flat region’ of the
for any sensor : response is where we
-30
want to operate. Bandwidth
-40
useful frequency range = bandwidth. 0

That is, we want to use the sensor in -50

To: Y(1)

a region of frequencies where the -100

Phase response
ratio is essentially constant. -150

-200
10-1 100 101

Frequency (rad/sec)
ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 SENSITIVITY

Calibration sheet for a Sensotec (Honeywell) JFT flat pack accelerometer

This is a piezoresistive-type accelerometer
ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 (Good) Sensors avoid the dynamics
• A good sensor should be designed so that the
forcing is in a frequency range well away from
the natural frequency.

• If we force it close to the natural frequency, we

induce ‘dynamics’ in the sensor. This is
generally not a good thing. You want to
‘operate in the flat region’.

ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 Summary
• Mass-spring-damper system models help understand a
wide range of problems and basic sensors.
• You can understand the underlying design of many
types of sensors such as accelerometers by
understanding 2nd order dynamics.
• The frequency response function for a sensor basically
shows you how the sensitivity is a function of the
input (forcing) frequency. It is essentially constant
within the bandwidth.

ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
Appendix A: How
the frequency
response is
derived

The frequency response

function can be
derived by:
1. Converting ODE to
s-domain
2. Letting s = jω
3. Deriving the
magnitude and phase
functions*

*These are functions of

frequency, ω

ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 Appendix B
• Types of accelerometers and specifications
• Discussion of some sensing mechanism:
– Capacitive
– Piezoresistive
– Piezoelectric

ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 Types of accelerometers
• A short note on accelerometers is provided in the
laboratory web documents.
• There are several types of accelerometers
distinguished by the type of sensing element used to
monitor displacement of the seismic mass.
• The type used in this lab will either be a capacitive or
piezoresistive accelerometer.
• These types give reasonably good low frequency
response, and both are made using micro-
electromechanical devices (MEMS).
ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 Capacitive sensing mechanism
• The measurand directly or indirectly causes a change in the capacitance.
• The easiest conceptualization is to imagine parallel plates.

εA d x•
C=
d q Energy is stored by virtue of
changes in q and x.
where ε is the permittivity, A is the v F
area, and d is the distance between •
q
C •
x
the plates.
v

•Typical scenarios leading to change in C:

–changing the distance between capacitor plates
–changes in the dielectric constant (e.g., due to humidity)
–changes in the area (e.g., a variable capacitor)

ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 Some C sensors
Pressure
dielectric
“fixed plate”

Level
insulating material

1 2
Humidity
chromium layer
fluid level pressure
Polymer
dielectric

glass
Tantulum layer
h H substrate
deflected diaphragm

Acceleration
flexible/support beam insulating material
ho

mass dielectric and

damping
“fixed plate”
motion of
case
ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 ADXL05 (capacitive) accelerometer
Note: the construction is
basically a mass-spring-damper
system, where the beam and
spring elements deflect
horizontally, and their position is
sensed by the capacitor plates.

However, it is not a simple

‘passive’ system, because there
is feedback in the operation.

ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 ADXL05 operation

You actively ‘null’ the output, then measure the Commonly used with other types of
voltage or current required. Contrast with how sensing/actuation
a Wheatstone bridge works.

ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 ADXL05 accelerometer
This accelerometer has the frequency response shown below.

This region defines the bandwidth of

this accelerometer. Strictly speaking,
the bandwidth is defined by the
frequency range for which the deviation
is 3 decibels from 0 dB.

This would dictate that you can use this

accelerometer to measure signals with
frequencies out to about 1000 Hz.

ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 Piezoresistive accelerometer
These devices rely on strain gauges that are
typically solid-state and directly
manufactured into the deflecting beam.

The basic design still relies on a seismic

mass (here labeled inertial mass).

The gauges monitor strain induced by

deflection during acceleration.

The calibration sheet for a piezoresistive

accelerometer from Honeywell (Sensotec)
is shown on the next slide.

ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
Calibration sheet for a Sensotec (Honeywell) JFT flat pack accelerometer
This is a piezoresistive-type accelerometer
ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 On sensitivity of accelerometers
We saw that the amplitude function for an accelerometer relates the
displacement response (Z) to the input.

If the displacement response represents the deflection of capacitor

plates or the bending of a beam with strain gauges, you can see
how the amplitude response is related to the sensor output,
typically in voltage. Hence, sensitivity is usually specified as the
ratio voltage/acceleration. Typical units are mV/g.

Further, the frequency response curve should give you a ‘picture’

of how this sensitivity varies with frequency, and as such helps
define the bandwidth by some appropriate measure (e.g., the 3 dB
point).
ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 Piezoelectric accelerometers
Many high grade accelerometers use piezoelectric material in shear
(left) and the other uses it in compression to form the sensing
element. (Diagram from Bruel & Kjaer). Can you see how
these are basic seismic devices in accelerometer form?

ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 Bruel & Kjaer PZT accelerometer
This particular specification is for a B&K
accelerometer used for structural response
studies.

ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
 “Home-made” solutions
Courtesy of F. Mims, “Sensor Projects” Mini-Notebook
Using a piezo-electric buzzer element, you can build your own vibration sensor.
Since the PZ material is self-generating you
will get “some” signal to drive the diode.

Mims claims that this setup

detected a train that was 1
mile away.

ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin
http://www.sparkfun.com/datasheets/Sensors/Flex/MiniSense_100.pdf

See technical manual at sparkfun.com

ME 144L – Prof. R.G. Longoria Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory The University of Texas at Austin