CHAPTER I:

INTRODUCTION TO GLOBALIZATION

GLOBALIZATION

 is the process in which people, ideas and goods spread throughout the world, spurring more
interaction and integration between the world's cultures, governments and economies.

 is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments of
different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by
information technology. This process has effects on the environment, on culture, on political
systems, on economic development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in
societies around the world.

 is about growing worldwide connectivity.

 is the process of integration of economies across the world through cross-border flow of
factors product and information.

 is considered a multi-dimensional process involving economic, political, technological,

cultural, religious and ecological dimensions. It suggests a dynamic process of change that
results in either positive or negative development. It leads to the creation of something new;
it involves the multiplication of social connections and various activities that transgress
traditional and political, economic, cultural and geographical lines.

 One principal driver of globalization is technology.

 According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) globalization is the growing economic
interdependence of countries worldwide through increasing volume and variety of cross border
transactions in goods and services and of international capital flows and also through the more
rapid and wide diffusion of technology.

Attributes, Qualities or Characteristics of Globalization

 It involves both the creation of new social networks and the multiplication of existing
connections that cut across traditional, political, economic, cultural, and geographical
boundaries.
 Globalization is reflected in the expansion and the stretching of social relations, activities,
and connections.
 Globalization involves the intensification and acceleration of social exchanges and activities.
  Globalization processes do not occur merely or an objective, material level but they also
involve the subjective plane of human consciousness.

Historical Periods of Globalization

1. The Prehistoric Period (10000 BCE-3500 BCE)
In this earliest phase of globalization, contacts among hunters and gatherers – who were spread
around the world – were geographically limited. In this period due to absence of advanced forms of
technology, globalization was severely limited.
2. The Pre-modern Period (3500 BCE- 1500 CE)
In this period the invention of writing and the wheel were great social and technological boosts that
moved globalization to a new level. The invention of wheel in addition to roads made the
transportation of people and goods more efficient. On the other hand writing facilitated the spread
of ideas and inventions.
3. The Early Modern Period (1500-1750)
It is the period between the Enlightenment and the Renaissance. In this period, European
Enlightenment project tried to achieve a universal form of morality and law. This with the
emergence of European metropolitan centers and unlimited material accumulation which led to the
capitalist world system helped to strengthen globalization.
4. The Modern Period (1750-1970)
Innovations in transportation and communication technology, population explosion, and increase in
migration led to more cultural exchanges and transformation in traditional social patterns. Process
of industrialization also accelerated.
5. The Contemporary Period (from 1970 to present)
The creation, expansion, and acceleration of worldwide interdependencies occurred in a dramatic
way and it was a kind of leap in the history of globalization.

Dimensions of Globalization

1. Economic Dimension
This refers to the extensive development of economic relations across the globe as a result of
technology and the enormous flow of capital that has stimulated trade in both sources and goods.

2. Political Dimension
This refers to an enlargement and strengthening of political interrelations across the globe.
3. Cultural Dimension
This refers to the increase in the amount of cultural flows across the globe.

 Cultural interconnections are at the foundations of contemporary globalization

 Individualism and consumerism which are the dominant cultural characteristics of our age
and the drive for economic success stimulated by the internet and other technological
devices circulate much more easily than they did in earlier periods.

 Cultural diversity often results hybridization- a constructive interaction process between

global and local characteristics which is often visible in food, music, dance, film, fashion,
and language.

4. Religious Dimension

Religion is a personal or institutionalized set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices relating to or

manifesting faithful devotion to an acknowledged ultimate reality or deity
 Commutative justice
This aims at fulfilling the terms of contracts and other promises on both
personal and social level.
 Distributive justice
This ensures a basic equity in how both the burden and the goods of society
are distributed and that ensures that every person enjoys a basically equal
moral and legal standing apart from differences in wealth, privilege, talent
and achievements

 Social justice
This refers to the creation of the conditions in which the first two categories
of justice can be realized and the common good identified and defended.

5. Ideological Dimensions
Ideology is a system of widely shared ideas, beliefs, norms and values among a group of
people. It is often used to legitimize certain political interests or to defend dominant power
structures. Ideology connects human actions with some generalized claims
 UNIT II : THE STRUCTURES OF GLOBALIZATION
Session 2.1 : THE GLOBAL ECONOMY

THE GLOBAL ECONOMY 

Economic globalization refers to the increasing interdependence of world economies as

a result of the growing scale of cross-border trade of commodities and services, flow of
international capital and wide and rapid spread of technologies. It reflects the continuing expansion
and mutual integration of market frontiers, and is an irreversible trend for the economic development
in the whole world at the turn of the millennium.  
According to the International Monetary Fund economic globalization is a
historical process, the result of human innovation and technological progress. It refers to the
increasing integration of economies around the world, particularly through the movement of goods,
services, and capital across borders. It also refers to the movement of people (labor) and knowledge 
(technology) across international borders.  

International Monetary Systems and Gold Standard  

International monetary system (IMS) refers to a system that forms rules and standards for 
facilitating international trade among the nations. It helps in reallocating the capital and investment 
from one nation to another. It is the global network of the government and financial institutions  that
determine the exchange rate of different currencies for international trade. It is a governing  body
that sets rules and regulations by which different nations exchange currencies with each  other. IMS
as rules, customs, instruments, facilities, and organizations for effecting international  payments with
the main task of facilitating cross-border transactions, especially trade and  investment. It also
reflects economic power and interests, as money is inherently political, an  integral part of high
politics or diplomacy. 

Evolution of the International Monetary System

Gold was believed to guarantee a non-inflationary, stable economic environment, a means for
accelerating international trade and the gold standard functioned as a fixed exchange rate regime,
with gold as the only international reserve. Gold Standard is a system of backing a country’s
currency with its gold reserves. After World War I, the use of gold declined due to increased
expenditure and inflation which were caused by war. Major economic powers were on gold
standards but could not maintain it and failed because of the Great depression in 1931.

In 1944, 730 representatives of 44 nations met at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, United
States to create a new international monetary system called as the Bretton Woods system, the aim
of which is to create a stabilized international currency system and ensure a monetary stability for all
the nations. Since the United States held most of the world’s gold, all the nations would determine
the values of their currencies in terms of dollar. The central banks of nations were given the task of
maintaining fixed exchange rates with respect to dollar for each currency. The Bretton Woods
system ended in 1971 as the trade deficit and growing inflation undermined the value of dollar in the
whole world. In 1973, the floating exchange rate system, also known as flexible exchange rate
system was developed that was market based. To assess whether the gold standard was successful,
the following roles of a properly designed IMS must be considered: to lend order and stability to
foreign exchange markets, to encourage the elimination of balance-of-payments problems, and to
provide access to international credits in the event of disruptive shocks. The gold standard has never
worked satisfactorily in controlling inflation or maintaining equilibrium in international transactions

International Trade and Trade Policies  

International trade is the exchange of goods, services and capital across national borders.
This type of trade allows for a greater competition and more competitive pricing in the  market. The
two key concepts in the economics of international trade are specialization and  comparative
advantage. Comparative advantage comes in; so long as the two countries have  different relative
efficiencies, the two countries can benefit from trade – the country with absolute advantage will still
benefit by directing its resources to those goods where it is most productive  and trading for the
others while specialization refers to this process; countries as well as individual  businesses can
maximize their welfare by specializing in the production of those goods where they are most
efficient and enjoy the largest advantages over rivals.  

Trade policies on the other hand refer to the regulations and agreement of foreign countries. 
It defines standards, goals, rules, and regulations that pertain to trade relation between countries.

Focuses of Trade Policy in International Trade  

Tariffs  
These are taxes or duties paid for a particular class of imports or exports.

Trade barriers   
Theses are measures that governments or public authorities introduce to make imported 
goods or services less competitive than locally produced goods and services. They are state imposed
restrictions on trading a particular product or with a specific nation.

Safety   
This ensures that imported products in the country are of high quality. Inspection  regulations
laid down by public officials ensure the safety and quality standards of imported  products. 

Types of Trade Policies  

National Trade Policy  

This safeguards the best interest of its trade and citizen.  

Bilateral Trade Policy 

To regulate the trade and business relations between two nations, this policy is formed. 
International Trade Policy  
This defines the international trade policy under their charter like the International  economic
organizations, such as Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development  (OECD), World
Trade Organization (WTO) and International Monetary Fund (IMF). The best  interests of both
developed and developing nations are upheld by the policies. 

The World Trade Organization (WTO)  

The World Trade Organization (WTO) deals with the global rules of trade between nations 
with the main function of ensuring that trade flows smoothly, predictably and freely. It is the only 
global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations with WTO 
agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk of the world’s trading nations and ratified in their 
parliaments at its heart. WTO is viewed as the means by which industrialized countries can gain 
access to the markets of developing countries.  

Market integration refers to how easily two or more markets can trade with each other. It occurs
when prices among different locations or related goods follow similar patterns over a long period
of time.

International companies – operates of such companies lie on single home country as the base
center. They are mainly exporters and importers. The office is only existing in home country and
there is no foreign direct investment in other countries.

Transnational companies – companies operating in multiple countries having foreign direct

investment in all of them. Most of the company focus on adapting to the local culture and
demand of each country. Each country has power to make decisions and can even launch
products which might be not manufactured in the parent country.

Multinational companies – companies have direct operations in more than a single country.
Focused on adapting their products service to each individual local market.

Global companies – larger than multinational corporations. They market their products through
the use of the same coordinated image/brand in all markets.

CEO (Chief Executive Officer) - main role of overseeing the operations of the entire company.
CFO (Chief Financing Officer) – highest ranking finance professional in an
organization/company and responsible for the financial health of business.

The three functions can be created by CFOs

1. Financing
A group’s tax bill can be reduced by the CFO like borrowing in countries with high tax
rates and lending to operations in countries with lower rates.
2. Risk Management
Global firms can offset natural currency exposures through worldwide operations instead
of managing currency exposures through financial markets.

3. Capital budgeting
Getting smarter on valuing investment opportunities CFOs can add value.
THE GLOBAL INTERSTATE SYSTEM

Globalization and the Nation- States

Nation -  is a group of people with common history, culture, or language, and tradition.
State – is a group of people exercising permanent power within a specified territory.

In everyday political speech and media commentary, the terms nation and states are used
interchangeably. The term nation-state has a dual concept, with the modern state going back to the
Peace of Westphalia, and nationalism tracing back to Protestantism, the Enlightenment, the rise of
the vernacular, with both concepts of nation and state fused in the French Revolution. Nation –states
are territorial organizations characterized by the monopolization of legitimate violence (qua states)
while nation –states are membership associations with a collective identity and a democratic
pretension to rule (qua nation).

The State and the Economic Interdependence

The rising momentum of global free-market capitalism in the final decades of the 20th
century, the accompanying rise in transnational enterprises, and the resulting disparities between
easy flows of money and commodities across international boarders and the legal barriers and
logistical hurdles that keep most workers tied to their home communities are associated with
globalization.
The belief that globalization imposes a forced choice upon states either to conform to free
market principles or run the risk of being left behind is termed into a phrase called “Golden
Straitjacket” by Thomas Friedman, a neoliberalism journalist and advocate, to illustrate the forcing
of states into policies that suit the preferences of investment houses and corporate executives
(Electronic Herd) who swiftly move money and resources into countries favored as adaptable to the
demands of international business and withdraw even more rapidly from countries deemed
uncompetitive.
There are two things that will happen if a country is in Golden Straitjacket: the economy
grows and politics shrinks. It is a straitjacket because it narrows the political and economic policy
choices of those in power to relatively tight parameters.

Neoliberalism and Economic Sovereignty

Neoliberalism is the intensification of the influence and dominance of capital. It is the

elevation of capitalism as a mode of production into an ethic, a set of political imperatives, and a
cultural logic. It is a project to strengthen, restore, or, in some cases, constitute anew the power of
economic elites. It values market exchange as an ethic in itself capable of acting as a guide to all
human action and substituting for all previous held ethical beliefs. It emphasizes the significance of
contractual relations in the marketplace. It also holds that the social good will be maximized by
maximizing the reach and frequency market transactions, and it seeks to bring all human action into
domain of the market.
 Economic sovereignty on the other hand is the power or national governments to make
decisions independently of those made by other governments.

There are four different concepts of sovereignty. These include:

International Legal Sovereignty

It refers to the acceptance of a given state as a member of the international community.

Westphalian Sovereignty
It is based on the principle that one sovereign state should not interfere in the domestic
arrangements of another.

Interdependence Sovereignty
It is the capacity and willingness to control flows of people, goods and capital into and out of
the country.

Domestic Sovereignty
It is the capacity of a state to choose and implement policies within the territory.

Economic integration can be described as a process and a means by which a group of

countries strives to increase their level of welfare. It is an arrangement between different regions that
often includes the reduction or elimination of trade barriers, and the coordination of monetary and
fiscal policies. Reducing costs for both consumers and producers and increasing trade between the
countries involved in the agreement are the aims of economic integration.

Seven Stages of Economic Integration

Seven Stages of Economic Integration
 
1. Preferential trading area (PTA) – removal of tariff on selected goods imported between
members.
 
2. Free trade area - removal of tariff on all goods among members, but each country has own
policies for non-members.
 
  3. Customs union - removal of tariff barriers between members, and set common trade policy
against non-members.
 
4. Common market – removal of barriers to trade, labor, and capital among members and set
common trade policy against non-members.
 
5. Economic union – like common market, but members aim for common fiscal and monetary
policies (common currency)
 
6. Economic and monetary union – harmonization of economic policy (common currency and
monetary system)

7. Complete economic integration – final stage of economic integration in which member states
completely forego independence of both monetary and fiscal policies. (over all integration)
Theories of European Integration

Neo-functionalism
This theory focuses on the supranational institutions of the EU of which the main driving
forces of integration are interest group activity at the European and national levels, political party
activity, and the role of governments and supranational institutions. The European integration is
mostly seen as an upper class- driven process- driven by national and international political and
economic upper crusts. The core of neo-functionalism is the use of the concept ‘spill –over’,
situations when an initial decision by governments to place a certain sector under the authority of
central institutions creates pressures to extend the authority of the institutions into neighboring areas
of policy, such as currency exchange rates, taxation, and wages. This core claim meant that
European integration is self- sustaining: ‘spill-over’ triggers the economic and political dynamics
driving further cooperation.

Intergovernmentalism
This theory provides a conceptual explanation of the European integration process. The main
concept of the Intergovernmentalism is emphasizing on the role of national states in the European
integration; in another words it argues that "European integration is driven by the interest and actions
of nation states.

Liberal Intergovernmentalism
Liberal intergovermentalists stated that the bargaining power of member states is important
in the pursuit of integration, and package deals and side payments also occur in the process of
making deals.

Transnational Activism in States

Transnational activism can be defined as the mobilization of collective claims by actors

located in more than one country and/or addressing more than one national government and/or
international governmental organization or another international actor. It is a social movements and
other society organizations and individuals operating across state borders.

A social movement is a type of group action. It refers to the organizational structures and
strategies that may empower oppressed populations to mount effective challenges and resist the
more powerful and advantaged elites". They are large, sometimes informal, groupings of individuals
or organizations which focus on specific political or social issues. They carry out, resist, or undo a
social change. They provide a way of social change from the bottom within nations. A social
movement is a collective challenges to elites, authorities, other groups or cultural codes by people
with common purposes and solidarity in sustained interactions with elites, opponents and authorities.

The global justice movement describes the loose collection of individuals and groups often
referred to as a “movement of movements”, who advocate fair trade rules and are negative to current
institutions of global economics such as the World Trade Organization. The movement is often
labeled the anti-globalization movement by the mainstream media. Those involved, frequently deny
that they are anti-globalization, insisting that they support the globalization of communication and
people and oppose only the global expansion of corporate power. Anti- capitalist and universalist
perspective on globalization in also indicated in the term differentiating the movement from those
whose politics are based on a defense of conservative on national sovereignty as they identified
opponents of globalization.

Social Media and the State

Social media is a computer-based technology that facilitates the sharing of ideas and
information and the building of virtual networks and communities. By design, social media is
internet based and offers users easy electronic communication of personal information and other
content, such as videos and photos. Users engage with social media via computer, tablet or
smartphone via web-based software or web application, often utilizing it for messaging (98). It
“empowers” individuals to have a voice.
 UNIT II : THE STRUCTURES OF GLOBALIZATION

THE CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL GOVERNANCE 

Global governance or world governance is a product of neo-liberal paradigm shifts in 

international political and economic relations. It is a movement towards political integration of 
transnational actors aimed at negotiating responses to problems that affect more than one state or 
region. It tends to involve institutionalization. These institutions of global governance – the United 
Nations, the International Criminal Court, the World Bank, etc. – tend to have limited or
demarcated  power to enforce compliance.  
Global governance can be thus understood as the sum of laws, norms, policies, and
institutions  that define, constitute, and mediate trans-border relations between states, cultures,
citizens,  intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations, and the market. It embraces the
totality of  institutions, policies, rules practices, norms, procedures, and initiatives by which states
and citizens  try to bring more predictability, stability, and order to their responses to transnational
challenges-such  as climate change and environmental degradation, nuclear proliferation, and
terrorism which go  beyond the capacity of a single state to solve. 

The Roles and Functions of the United Nations 

As an intergovernmental organization, the United Nation is tasked to promote international
co operation and to create and maintain international order. It is the largest, most familiar, most 
internationally represented and most powerful intergovernmental organization in the world. 
The United Nations (UN) in the world of politics has the roles of preventing and managing 
conflicts, regulating armaments, championing human rights and international humanitarian law, 
liberating the colonized, providing economic and technical aid in newly liberated countries,
organizing  elections, empowering women, educating children, feeding the hungry, sheltering the
disposed and  displaced, housing the refugees, tending the sick and coordinating disaster relief and
assistance. In  policy motivation, peacekeeping is the most important feature of UN activity in peace
and security.  
The UN aims to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war; to reaffirm faith in 
fundamental human rights; to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the
obligations  arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained; and to
promote social  progress and better standards of life in larger freedom. 

Four Main Purposes of the UN Charter- a written grant by a country's legislative or

sovereign  power, by which an institution such as a company, college, or city is created and its rights
and  privileges defined.  

1. Maintaining worldwide peace and security. 

2. Developing relations among nations. 
3. Fostering cooperation between nations in order to solve economic, social, cultural, or
humanitarian  international problems. 
4. Providing a forum for bringing countries together to meet the UN's purposes and goals. 
 There were five stages or main gaps meet by UN in the 21 st century. These are knowledge, 
norms, policy, institutions and compliance. A critical hole in any of the five stages can cause efforts 
at problem solving to collapse.  

The Role of the Nation -State in Globalization  

Basic Elements of a State  

1. Territory  
2. People  
3. Sovereign Power  

Globalization’s Impact on the State  

Factors which lead to the increase and acceleration of movement of people, information, 
commodities and capital.  

1. Lifting of trade barriers  

2. Liberalization of world capital markets  
3. Swift technological progress (information technology, transportation and communication)  

Problems afflicting the world today which are increasingly transnational in naturethose that 
cannot be solved at the national level or State to State negotiations.  

1. Poverty 
2. Environmental pollution  
3. Economic crisis  
4. Organized crime and terrorism  

Effects of greater economic and social interdependence to national decision- making processes.  

1. It calls for a transfer of decisions to the international level. 

2. It requires many decisions to be transferred to local levels of government due to an increase in
the  demand for participation.  

The following can be guaranteed only by the States through independent courts:  

1. Respect of human rights and justice  

2. Promote the national welfare  
3. Protect the general interest  
 UNIT III : THE WORLD OF REGIONS

THE WORLD OF REGIONS 

Global Divides: The North and the South (focus: Latin America)  

Global South refers to the regions of Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania mostly low
income and often politically or culturally marginalized. It may also be called the "developing
World"  such as Africa, Latin America, and the developing countries in Asia, "developing
countries," "less  developed countries," and "less developed regions” including poorer "southern"
regions of wealthy  "northern" countries.  
In general, Global South refers to these countries' "interconnected histories of colonialism, 
neo-imperialism, and differential economic and social change through which large inequalities in 
living standards, life expectancy, and access to resources are maintained. Contemporary critics of
neo liberal globalization use the global south as a banner to rally countries victimized by the violent 
economic cures of institutions like the International Monetary Fund. 

Three Primary Concepts of Global South 

1. It refers to economically disadvantaged nation-states and as a post-cold war alternative to “Third 

World. 
2. The Global South captures a deterritorialized geography of capitalism’s externalities and means
to  account for subjugated peoples within the borders of wealthier countries, such that there are
economic  Souths in the geographic North and Norths in the geographic South.  
3. It refers to the resistant imaginary of a transnational political subject that results from a shared 
experience of subjugation under contemporary global capitalism.

Regionalization entails complex and dynamic interactions between and among governmental
and nongovernmental actors which resulted to hybrid East Asia. The main engines of hybridization
are explained by the successive waves of regional economic development that is powered by
developmental states and national and transnational capitalism that nurtured sizeable middle-classes
that share a lot in common in terms of professional lives and their lifestyles, in fashion, leisure, and
entertainment, in their aspirations and dreams. The middle-class occupies different positions in their
respective societies as well as in relation to their nation-states as they constitute the expanding
regional consumer market.
 UNIT IV: THE WORLD OF IDEAS

The Global Media Cultures  

Globalization and identity, globalization and human rights, globalization and culture,
or globalization and terrorism are some concepts related to the study of globalization by many
scholars.  Among these concepts, the one that offers special insights is globalization and media.
Changes in migration patterns where people move easily and advancement in media which brought
changes to human life heightens globalization. As a process, globalization worked silently for
millennia without having been given a name; as a trend it had been  with us since the beginning of
history and further argued that a multitude of threads connect us faraway  places from an ancient
time. 

Five Time Periods in the Study of Globalization and Media 

1. Oral Communication  
Of all forms of media, human speech is the oldest and most  enduring. Humans are allowed
to cooperate and communicate through language. Languages as a means to develop the ability to
communicate  across culture are the lifeline of globalization. Without language there would be no
globalization; and  vice versa, without globalization there would be no world languages. 

2. Script   
Writing is humankind’s principal technology for collecting, manipulating, storing,
retrieving,  communicating and disseminating information. Script is an important tool for
globalization as it considers the integration of economy, politics and culture to the world.

3. The Printing Press  

The printing press is a device that allows for the mass production of uniform printed matter, 
mainly text in the form of books, pamphlets and newspapers.

4. Electronic Media  
It refers to the broadcast or storage media that take advantage of electronic technology. On
going globalization processes such as economic, political, and cultural are revolutionized by a host
of new media in the beginning of the 19th century. These electronic media in the likes of telegraph,
telephone, radio, film, and television continuously open up new perspectives of globalization. In the
20th century, the only available mass media in remote villages was the radio while film was soon
developed as an artistic medium for great cultural expression. The most powerful and pervasive
mass media is television as it brought the visual and aural power of film with the accessibility of
radio. The introduction of television was a defining moment in globalization. Thus,the world is
proclaimed a global village because of television.

5. Digital Media   
Phones and television are now considered digital while computer is considered the most 
important media influencing globalization.
Popular Music and Globalization  

Music participates in the reinforcing of boundaries of culture and identity. Popular music 
explains the complex dynamics of globalization not only because it is popular but music is highly 
mediated, is deeply invested in meaning and has proven to be an extremely mobile and resourceful 
capital.  

The Globalization of Religion

Globalization implicates religions in several ways. It calls forth religious response and
interpretation. Religions played important roles in bringing about and characterizing globalization.
Among the consequences of this implication for religion is that globalization encourages religious
pluralism. Religions identify themselves in relation to one another, and they become less rooted in
particular places because of diasporas and transnational ties. Globalization further provides fertile
ground for a variety of noninstitutionalized religious manifestations and for the development of
religion as a political and cultural resource.

Perspectives on the Role of Religion in the Globalization Process 

1. The Modernist Perspective 

Its view is that all secularizations  would eventually look alike and the different religions
would all end up as the same secular and  “rational” philosophy.

2. Post-Modernist Perspective 
It rejects the Enlightenment, modernist values of rationalism, empiricism, and science, along 
with the Enlightenment, modernist structures of capitalism, bureaucracy, and even liberalism. The 
core value of post-modernism is expressive individualism. The post-modernist perspective can
include “spiritual experiences,” but only those without religious constraints. Post-modernism is
largely hyper- secularism, and it joins modernism in predicting, and eagerly anticipating, the
disappearance of traditional religions. Globalization, by breaking up and dissolving every traditional,
local, and national structure, will bring about the universal triumph of expressive individualism.

3. The Pre-Modernist Perspective 

Each religion has secularized in its own distinctive  way, which has resulted in its own
distinctive secular outcome. This suggests that even if globalization  brings about more
secularization, it will not soon bring about one common, global worldview.  
Secularization is understood as a shift in the overall frameworks of human condition; it
makes it possible for people to have a choice between belief and non belief in a manner hitherto
unknown.

Transnational Religion and Multiple Glocalization  

Throughout the 20th century migration of faiths across the globe has been a major
feature.  Transnational religion is a means of describing solutions to new-found situations that
people  face as a result of migration and it comes as two quite distinct blends of religious
universalism and  local particularism.  
1. It is possible for religious universalism to gain the upperhand, whereby universalism becomes the 
central reference for immigrant communities. In such instances, religious transnationalism is often 
depicted as a religion going global.  
2. It is possible for local ethnic or national particularism to gain or maintain the most important
place  for local immigrant communities.  

In such instances, transnational national communities are constructed and religious

hierarchies  perform dual religious and secular functions that ensure the groups’ survival.
Fundamentalist or  revivalist movement attempt to construct pure religion that sheds the cultural
tradition in which past  religious life was immersed. Transnational religion is used to describe cases
of institutional  transnationalism whereby communities living outside the national territory of
particular states  maintain religious attachments to their home churches or institutional. 
Indigenization, hybridization or glocalization are processes that register the ability of
religion  to mould into the fabric of different communities in ways that connect it intimately with
communal  and local relations. Global -local or glocal religion represents a genre of expression,
communication  and individual identities. It involves the consideration of an entire range of
responses as outcomes  instead of a single master narrative of secularization and modernization.  

Forms of Glocalization  
1. indigenization  
2. vernacularization 
3. nationalization 
4. transnationalization  
Take note for midterm:

Read the available PPT in our drive.