Highway and Airport Engineering (HAE)

Lecture Notes

Prepared by Abhijeet Singh

For the students of Pusa Institute of Technology, Delhi
1 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
1.1 Overview

➢ Highway engineering is an engineering discipline branching from civil

engineering that involves the planning, design, construction, operation, and
maintenance of roads to ensure safe and effective transportation of people and
goods.
➢ Highway engineers must take into account future traffic flows, design of highway
intersections/interchanges, geometric alignment and design, highway pavement
materials and design, structural design of pavement thickness, and pavement
maintenance.

1.2 Importance of Highway

➢ Following are the importance of roads or highway transportation

1. They provide conveyance to the people, goods, raw materials, etc., to reach
different parts of the country.
2. They are the only source of communication in hilly regions.
3. Helps in agricultural development.
4. Helps in dairy development.
5. Helps in tourism development.
6. Helps in fisheries development.
7. Helps in maintaining law and orders in a country.
8. Forestry development.
9. They improve the medical facilities.
10. They improve the land value.
11. They generate the more employment opportunities.
12. They play important role in defence activities.
13. They become the symbol of country's progress and development.

1.3 Indian Roads Congress (I.R.C.):

➢ The Indian Roads Congress was established by the Central Government in 1934
as per the recommendations of the Jayakar Committee. The I.R.C. was
constituted to provide a forum for the regular pooling the technical ideas,
 experiences and know-how for the panning of the development of the roads
throughout the country. I.R.C. provides the recommended specifications
regarding the design and construction of the roads in the country.

1.3.1 Functions
1. It provides a forum for the expression of the collective opinion of its members
for all matters affecting the construction and maintenance of roads in India.
2. It promotes the use of standard specifications and practices.
3. It provided with the suggestions for the better methods of planning, designing,
construction, administration and maintenance of roads.
4. It conducts periodical meetings to discuss technical problems regarding roads.
5. It makes the laws for the development, improvement and protection of the
roads.
6. It furnishes and maintains libraries and museums for encouraging the science
of road-making.

1.4 Central Road Research Institute (CRRI)

➢ CRRI was started by the Central Government in 1950, for the research work in
highway engineering. CRRI is a series of laboratories under the council of scientific
and industrial research in India.

1.4.1 Functions
1. Carries basic and applied research for the design, construction and
maintenance of the highways.
2. Carries research on traffic safety and transport economics.
3. Carries research on economical utilization of locally available materials for
construction and maintenance of roads.
4. Research for the development of the new machinery, tools equipment and
instruments for highway engineering.
5. To provide technical advice and consultancy services to various organizations.
6. To provide library and documentation services.
1.5 Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
(MoRTH)

➢ An apex organisation under the Central Government, is entrusted with the task of
formulating and administering, in consultation with other Central
Ministries/Departments, State Governments/UT Administrations, organisations
and individuals, policies for Road Transport, National Highways and Transport
Research with a view to increasing the mobility and efficiency of the road transport
system in the country. The Ministry has two wings: Road’s wing and Transport
wing.

1.5.1 Road Wing

➢ Deals with development and maintenance of National Highway in the country
➢ Main Responsibilities include:

1. Planning, development and maintenance of National Highways in the country.

2. Extends technical and financial support to State Governments for the
development of state roads and the roads of inter-state connectivity and
economic importance
3. Evolves standard specifications for roads and bridges in the country.
4. Serves as a repository of technical knowledge on roads and bridges.

1.5.2 Transport Wing

➢ Deals with matter relating to Road Transport
➢ Main Responsibilities:

1. Motor Vehicle legislation.

2. Administration of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988.
3. Taxation of motor vehicles.
4. Compulsory insurance of motor vehicles.
5. Administration of the Road Transport Corporations Act, 1950.
6. And promotion of Transport co-operatives in the field of motor transport.
7. Evolves road safety standards in the form of a National Policy on Road Safety
and by preparing and implementing the Annual Road Safety Plan.
8. Collects, compiles and analyses road accident statistics and takes steps for
developing a Road Safety Culture in the country by involving the members of
public and organising various awareness campaigns.
 9. Provides grants-in-aid to Non-Governmental Organisations in accordance
with the laid down guidelines.

1.6 National Highways Authority of India (NHAI)

➢ National Highways Authority of India was set up by an act of the Parliament, NHAI
Act, 1988 “An Act to provide for the constitution of an Authority for the
development, maintenance and management of national highways

1.6.1 Functions of NHAI

1. To develop, maintain and manage National Highways vested in it by the
Government.
2. To collect fees on National Highways, regulate and control the plying of
vehicles on National Highways for its proper management.
3. To develop and provide consultancy and construction services in India and
abroad and carry-on research activities in relation to the development,
maintenance and management of highways or any other facilities there at.
4. To advise the Central Government on matters relating to highways.
5. To assist on such terms and conditions as may be mutually agreed upon, any
State Government in the formulation and implementation of schemes for
highway development.
6. Construct offices or workshops and establish and maintain hotels, motels,
restaurants and rest-rooms at or near the highways
7. Construct residential buildings and townships for its Employees
8. Regulate and control the plying of vehicles on the highways
9. Provide facilities and amenities for the users of the highways necessary for the
smooth flow of traffic on such highways

1.7 Road classification:

1.7.1 Non-urban Roads

➢ Non-urban roads in the country are classified into following categories:

1. Freeways: These are access-controlled divided highways. Most freeways are

four lanes, two lanes each direction, but many freeways widen to incorporate
more lanes as they enter urban areas.
 2. Expressways: They are superior type of highways and are designed for high
speeds (120 km/hr is common), high traffic volume and safety. They are
generally provided with grade separations at intersections. Parking, loading
and unloading of goods and pedestrian traffic is not allowed on expressways.
3. National Highways: These are main highways running through the length
and breadth of the country connecting major ports, highways of neighboring
countries, State capitals, large industrial and tourist centers, etc.
4. State Highways: These are arterial routes of a state linking district
headquarters and important cities within the state and connecting them with
National Highways of the neighboring States.
5. Major District Roads: These are important roads within a district serving
areas of production and markets, and connecting these with each other or
with the main highways.
6. Other District Roads: These are roads serving rural areas of production and
providing them with outlet to market centers, taluka/tehsil headquarters,
block development headquarters or other main roads.
7. Village Roads: These are roads connecting villages or group of villages with
each other and to the nearest road of a higher category.

➢ Other District Roads and Village Roads have been combined and known as Rural
Roads.

1.7.2 Urban Roads

➢ Urban roads are classified into the following four categories:

1. Arterial Streets: This system of streets, along with expressways where they
exist, serves as the principal network for through traffic flows. Significant
intra- urban travel, such as, between central business district and outlying
residential areas or between major suburban centers take place on this
system. The arterial streets are generally divided highways with full or partial
access. Parking, loading and unloading activities are usually restricted and
regulated. Pedestrians are allowed to cross only at intersections.
2. Sub-arterial Streets: These are functionally similar to arterial streets but with
somewhat lower level of travel mobility.
3. Collector Streets: The function of collector streets is to collect traffic from
local streets and feed it to the arterial and sub-arterial streets or vice versa.
These may be located in residential neighborhoods, business areas and
 industrial areas. Normally, full access is allowed on these streets from
abutting properties. There are few parking restrictions except during the peak
hours.
4. Local Streets: These are intended primarily to provide access to abutting
property and normally do not carry large volumes of traffic. Majority of trips
in urban areas originate from or terminate on these streets. Local streets may
be residential, commercial or industrial, depending on the predominant use
of the adjoining land. They allow unrestricted parking and pedestrian
movements.
5. Non-Motorized Transport (NMT) Streets and Greenways: All motorized
traffic will be prohibited, using barrier and enforcement of regulations to
prevent their entry and encroachment of NMT space. Such streets will be
designed in compliance with universal accessibility guidelines with bicycle
parking and access for emergency response vehicles.

1.8 Major disciplines of Highway engineering

➢ Transportation engineering can be broadly consisting of the four major parts:

1. Transportation Planning
2. Traffic Engineering
3. Geometric Design
4. Pavement Design
2 HIGHWAY SURVEYS AND PLAN
2.1 Highway alignment

➢ Once the necessity of the highway is assessed, the next process is deciding the
alignment.
➢ After an alignment is fixed and constructed, it is not easy to change it.

2.1.1 The requirements of an ideal alignment

1. The alignment between two terminal stations should be short and as far as
possible be straight
2. The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain.
3. It should be safe both from the construction and operating point of view
4. The alignment should be economical.

2.1.2 Factors controlling alignment

➢ Bridge site: The bridge can be located only where the river has straight and
permanent path and also where the abutment and pier can be strongly founded.
➢ Mountain: While the alignment passes through a mountain, the various
alternatives are to either construct a tunnel or to go round the hills.
➢ Intermediate town: The alignment may be slightly deviated to connect an
intermediate town or village nearby.
➢ Religious places: These have been protected by the law from being acquired for
any purpose. Therefore, these points should be avoided while aligning.
➢ Very costly structures: Acquiring such structures means heavy compensation
which would result in an increase in initial cost. So, the alignment may be deviated
not to pass through that point.
➢ Lakes/ponds etc: The presence of a lake or pond on the alignment path would
also necessitate deviation of the alignment.
➢ Traffic: The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Based on the origin-
destination data of the area, the desire lines should be drawn. The new alignment
should be drawn keeping in view the desire lines, traffic flow pattern etc.
➢ Economy: The construction cost can be decreased much if it is possible to
maintain a balance between cutting and filling.
2.2 Topographic maps

➢ Topographic maps represent the locations of geographical features, such as hills

and valleys. Topographic maps use contour lines to show different elevations on a
map.
➢ A contour line is a line of equal elevation. If you walk along a contour line you
will not go uphill or downhill.

➢ While a road map shows where a road goes, a topographic map shows why. For
example, the road bends in order to go around a hill or stops at the top of a
mountain.
➢ Each contour line represents a specific elevation and connects all the points that
are at the same elevation.
➢ The contour lines run next to each other and NEVER cross. After all, a single point
can only have one elevation.
➢ Two contour lines next to one another are separated by a constant difference in
elevation (such as 20 ft or 100 ft). This difference between contour lines is called
the contour interval.

2.3 Interpreting Contour Maps

➢ Closely-spaced contour lines indicate a steep slope, because the elevation changes
quickly in a small area.
➢ Contour lines that seem to touch indicate a very steep rise, like a cliff or canyon
wall.
➢ Broadly spaced contour lines indicate a shallow slope.
2.4 Highway Surveys

1. Reconnaissance Survey
(i) Map Study
(ii) Aerial reconnaissance
(iii) Ground reconnaissance
2. Preliminary Survey
(i) Collection of general information about traffic, soil, subsoil and surface drainage,
etc.
(ii) Establishment of reference bench marks
(iii) Traverse survey
(iv) Fly levels and cross-sections
(v) Map Preparation
3. Determination of Final Centre Line in the Design Office
4. Final Location Survey
(i) Staking of final centre line
(ii) Establishment of permanent bench marks
(iii) Longitudinal and cross-sections
5. Survey of Economic Profile
(i) Road influence area’s economic profile
(ii) Transport system in the State
6. Traffic Surveys
(i) Study of data from record
(ii) Traffic counts, O-D. Surveys, etc.
(iii) Traffic projections
(iv) Collection of traffic particulars for railway level crossings and road junctions
(v) Axle load surveys
(vi) Analysis of accident records
7. Soil and Materials Surveys
(i) Study of available information
(ii) Soil investigations for low embankment sand demarcation of borrow areas
(iii) Special investigations for high embankment
(iv) Detailed investigations for flexible pavement/rigid pavement
(v) Survey and evaluation of naturally occurring aggregates
(vi) Manufactured aggregates/items
(vii) Water for construction purposes
8. Drainage Studies
(i) HFL and ponded water level
(ii) Depth of sub-soil water table
(iii) special investigations for cut sections and seepage flows
(iv) Surface run-off
9. Cross-drainage Structures
(i) Site selection
(ii) Collection of hydraulic and foundation data
3 ROAD GEOMETRICS
3.1 Overview

➢ The geometric design of highways deals with the dimensions and layout of visible
features of the highway.
➢ The features normally considered are
1. Cross-section elements
2. Sight distance
3. Horizontal alignment
4. Vertical alignment
5. Intersection

3.2 Cross sectional elements

➢ The features of the cross-section of the pavement influences the life of the
pavement as well as the riding comfort and safety.
➢ Cross section elements include:
1 Width of carriage way
2 Width of formation
3 Right of way
4 Camber
5 Kerbs
6 Road Margins

3.2.1 Width of carriage way

➢ Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement depends on the width of
the traffic lane and number of lanes.
➢ Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of the vehicle and the clearance.

3.2.2 Width of formation

➢ Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of the widths of pavements or
carriage way including separators and shoulders.

3.2.3 Right of way

➢ Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road, along
its alignment.
➢ It should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of the
highway and may reasonably provide for future development.

3.2.4 Camber
➢ Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in
the transverse direction to drain off rain water from road surface.
➢ The objectives of providing camber are:

1. Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads

2. Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
3. Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety

➢ Too steep slope is undesirable for it will erode the surface.

➢ Camber is measured in 1 in n or n% (E.g., 1 in 50 or 2%).

3.2.5 Kerbs
➢ Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or
footpath.
3.2.6 Road Margins
➢ The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be
generally called road margin.

3.2.6.1 Shoulders

➢ Shoulders are provided along the road edge and is intended for accommodation of
stopped vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicles and provide lateral
support for base and surface courses.
➢ A minimum width of 2.5 m is recommended for 2-lane rural highways in India.

3.2.6.2 Parking lanes

➢ Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking.

➢ Parallel parking is preferred because it is safe for the vehicles moving on the road.
➢ The parking lane should have a minimum of 3.0 m width in the case of parallel
parking.

3.2.6.3 Bus-bays

➢ Bus bays are provided by recessing the kerbs for bus stops.
➢ They are provided so that they do not obstruct the movement of vehicles in the
carriage way.

3.2.6.4 Service roads

➢ Service roads or frontage roads give access to access-controlled highways like

freeways and expressways.
➢ They run parallel to the highway and will be usually isolated by a separator and
access to the highway will be provided only at selected points.

3.2.6.5 Cycle track

➢ Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic is high.
➢ Minimum width of 2 meter is required.

3.2.6.6 Footpath

➢ They are provided for the safety of the pedestrians when both the pedestrian traffic
and vehicular traffic is high.
➢ Minimum width is 1.5 meter.
3.2.6.7 Guard rails

➢ They are provided at the edge of the shoulder usually when the road is on an
embankment.

3.3 Pavement surface characteristics

3.3.1 Friction
➢ Lack of adequate friction can cause skidding or slipping of vehicles.
➢ Skidding happens when the path travelled along the road surface is more than
the circumferential movement of the wheels due to friction.
➢ Slip occurs when the wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal
movement along the road.
➢ Various factors that affect friction are:
1. Type of the pavement (like bituminous, concrete, or gravel),
2. Condition of the pavement (dry or wet, hot or cold, etc),
3. Condition of the tyre (new or old), and Speed and load of the vehicle.
4. Speed and load of the vehicle.
➢ The frictional force that develops between the wheel and the pavement is the load
acting multiplied by a factor called the coefficient of friction and denoted as f. IRC
suggests the coefficient of longitudinal friction as 0.35-0.4 depending on the speed
and coefficient of lateral friction as 0.15.

3.3.2 Unevenness
➢ Unevenness affects the vehicle operating cost, speed, riding comfort, safety, fuel
consumption and wear and tear of tyres.
➢ Unevenness index is a measure of unevenness which is the cumulative measure
of vertical undulations of the pavement surface recorded per unit horizontal length
of the road.
➢ An unevenness index value less than 1500 mm/km is considered as good.
➢ Bump integrator is used to measure the unevenness of the road.
3.3.3 Light reflection
➢ White roads have good visibility at night, but caused glare during day time.
➢ Black roads have no glare during day, but has poor visibility at night
➢ Concrete roads have better visibility and less glare.

3.3.4 Drainage
➢ The pavement surface should be absolutely impermeable to prevent seepage of
water into the pavement layers.
➢ both the geometry and texture of pavement surface should help in draining out
the water from the surface in less time.

3.4 Sight distance

➢ The geometric design of the road should be done such that any obstruction on the
road length could be visible to the driver from some distance ahead. This distance
is said to be the sight distance.
3.4.1 Types of sight distance
1. Stopping sight distance (SSD)
2. Overtaking sight distance (OSD)
3. Sight distance at intersection
4. Intermediate sight distance (ISD)
5. Head light sight distance
➢ The most important consideration in all these is that at all times the driver
traveling at the design speed of the highway must have sufficient carriageway
distance within his line of vision to allow him to stop his vehicle before colliding
with a slowly moving or stationary object appearing suddenly in his own traffic
lane.

3.4.2 Factors affecting sight distance

3.4.2.1 Reaction time of the driver

➢ Reaction time of a driver is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to
the driver to the instant when the brakes are applied. IRC suggests a reaction time
of 2.5 secs.

3.4.2.2 Speed of the vehicle

➢ Higher the speed, more time will be required to stop the vehicle.
3.4.2.3 Efficiency of brakes

➢ The efficiency of the brakes depends upon the age of the vehicle, vehicle
characteristics etc.
➢ If the brake efficiency is 100%, the vehicle will stop the moment the brakes are
applied. But practically, it is not possible to achieve 100% brake efficiency.
➢ For safe geometric design, we assume that the vehicles have only 50% brake
efficiency.

3.4.2.4 Frictional resistance between the tyre and the road

➢ When the frictional resistance is more, the vehicles stop immediately. Thus, sight
required will be less.
➢ IRC has specified the value of longitudinal friction in between 0.35 to 0.4.

3.4.2.5 Gradient of the road.

➢ While climbing up a gradient, the vehicle can stop immediately. Therefore, sight
distance required is less.
➢ While descending a gradient, gravity also comes into action and more time will be
required to stop the vehicle. Sight distance required will be more in this case.

3.5 Stopping sight distance

➢ Stopping sight distance (SSD) is the minimum sight distance available on a

highway at any spot having sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle
traveling at design speed, safely without collision with any other obstruction.

SSD = lag distance + braking distance and given by:

where v is the design speed in m/sec2, t is the reaction time in sec, g is the
acceleration due to gravity and f is the coefficient of friction.

➢ The coefficient of friction f is given below for various design speed.

➢ The general equation is given by

3.6 Overtaking sight distance

➢ The overtaking sight distance is the minimum distance open to the vision of the
driver of a vehicle intending to overtake the slow vehicle ahead safely against the
traffic in the opposite direction.
➢ The overtaking sight distance or passing sight distance is measured along the
centre line of the road.

➢ The overtaking sight distance consists of three parts

1. d1 the distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during the reaction time t =

t1 − t0
2. d2 the distance travelled by the vehicle during the actual overtaking operation
T = t3 − t 1
 3. d3 is the distance travelled by on-coming vehicle C during the overtaking
operation (T).

OSD = d1 + d2 + d3

➢ It is assumed that the vehicle A is forced to reduce its speed to vb, the speed of the
slow-moving vehicle B and travels behind it during the reaction time t of the driver.
So d1 is given by:

➢ Then the vehicle A starts to accelerate, shifts the lane, overtake and shift back to
the original lane. The vehicle A maintains the spacing s before and after
overtaking. The spacing s in m is given by:

➢ Let T be the duration of actual overtaking. The distance travelled by B during the
overtaking operation is

➢ Also, during this time, vehicle A accelerated from initial velocity v b and overtaking
is completed while reaching final velocity v. Hence the distance travelled is given
by

➢ The distance travelled by the vehicle C moving at design speed v m/sec during
overtaking operation is given by
➢ The overtaking sight distance is

➢ The acceleration values of the fast vehicle depend on its speed and given in Table

➢ On divided highways, d3 need not be considered

➢ On divided highways with four or more lanes, IRC suggests that it is not necessary
to provide the OSD, but only SSD is sufficient.

3.6.1 Overtaking zones

➢ Overtaking zones are provided when OSD cannot be provided throughout the
length of the highway.
➢ These are zones dedicated for overtaking operation, marked with wide roads.
➢ The desirable length of overtaking zones is 5-time OSD and the minimum is 3-
time OSD.
3.7 Sight distance at intersections

➢ At intersections where two or more roads meet, visibility should be provided for
the drivers approaching the intersection from either side.
➢ Stopping sight distance for each road can be computed from the design speed.

3.8 Intermediate sight distance

➢ It is defined as twice SSD.

➢ It is provided when it is not possible to provide overtaking sight distance.

3.9 Headlight sight distance

➢ It is the distance visible to a driver during night driving under the illumination of
head lights.
3.10 Horizontal alignment

➢ Horizontal alignment design involves the understanding on the design aspects

such as design speed and the effect of horizontal curve on the vehicles.
➢ The horizontal curve design elements include design of super elevation, extra
widening at horizontal curves, design of transition curve, and set back distance.

3.10.1 Design Speed

➢ Indian Road Congress (IRC) has classified the terrains into four categories, namely
plain, rolling, mountainous, and steep based on the cross slope as given in table.
➢ Based on the type of road and type of terrain the design speed varies.
➢ The IRC has suggested desirable or ruling speed as well as minimum suggested
design speed and is tabulated in table.

3.10.2 Horizontal curve

➢ For proper design of the curve, an understanding of the forces acting on a vehicle
taking a horizontal curve is necessary.
➢ centrifugal ratio is given by

➢ The centrifugal force has two effects: A tendency to overturn the vehicle about the
outer wheels and a tendency for transverse skidding.
➢ Taking moments of the forces with respect to the outer wheel when the vehicle is
just about to override,

➢ At the equilibrium over turning is possible when

➢ for safety the following condition must satisfy:

➢ The second tendency of the vehicle is for transverse skidding i.e., When the
centrifugal force P is greater than the maximum possible transverse skid
resistance due to friction
➢ At equilibrium, when skidding takes place

➢ for safety the following condition must satisfy:

3.10.3 Analysis of super-elevation

➢ Super-elevation or cant or banking is the transverse slope provided at horizontal
curve to counteract the centrifugal force, by raising the outer edge of the pavement
with respect to the inner edge, throughout the length of the horizontal curve.

➢ In order to find out how much this raising should be, the following analysis may
be done.
➢ P is the centrifugal force acting horizontally out-wards through the centre of
gravity,
➢ W is the weight of the vehicle acting down-wards through the centre of gravity,
and
➢ F is the friction force between the wheels and the pavement, along the surface
inward.
➢ At equilibrium, by resolving the forces parallel to the surface of the pavement we
get,

➢ Dividing by W cos θ, we get:

➢ This is an exact expression for superelevation. But normally, f = 0.15 and θ < 4°,
(1 − f tan θ) ≈ 1,

3.10.4 Guidelines on superelevation

➢ While designing the various elements of the road like superelevation, we design it
for a particular vehicle called design vehicle which has some standard weight and
dimensions. But in the actual case, the road has to cater for mixed traffic.
➢ IRC suggests following design procedure:

3.10.5 Maximum and minimum super-elevation

➢ IRC specifies a maximum super-elevation of 7 percent for plain and rolling terrain,
while that of hilly terrain is 10 percent and urban road is 4 percent.
➢ The minimum super elevation is 2-4 percent for drainage purpose,
3.10.6 Attainment of super-elevation

➢ Attainment of superelevation may be divided into 2 parts:

a) Elimination of crown of the cambered section
b) Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation

3.10.6.1 Elimination of The Crown of The Cambered Section

➢ the outer half of the camber is rotated about the crown at the desired rate such
that the surface falls on the same plane as the inner half.
3.10.6.2 Rotation of Pavement to Attain Full Superelevation

➢ In this stage, superelevation is gradually provided over the full width of the
carriageway so that the required superelevation is available at the beginning of the
circular curve.

3.10.6.2.1 Revolving Pavement About the Centre Line

3.10.6.2.2 Revolving Pavement About the Inner Edge

3.10.7 Radius of Horizontal Curve

➢ The radius of the horizontal curve is an important design aspect of the geometric
design.
➢ The maximum comfortable speed on a horizontal curve depends on the radius of
the curve.
➢ Although it is possible to design the curve with maximum superelevation and
coefficient of friction, it is not desirable because re-alignment would be required if
the design speed is increased in future.
➢ Therefore, a ruling minimum radius Rruling can be derived by assuming maximum
superelevation and coefficient of friction.

➢ Ideally, the radius of the curve should be higher than Rruling.

➢ However, very large curves are also not desirable. Setting out large curves in the
field becomes difficult. In addition, it also enhances driving strain.
3.10.8 Extra widening

➢ Extra widening refers to the additional width of carriageway that is required on a

curved section of a road over and above that required on a straight alignment.
➢ This widening is done due to two reasons: the first and most important is the
additional width required for a vehicle taking a horizontal curve and the second is
due to the tendency of the drivers to ply away from the edge of the carriageway as
they drive on a curve.
➢ The first is referred as the mechanical widening and the second is called the
psychological widening.

3.10.8.1 Mechanical widening

➢ When a vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve, the rear wheels follow a path of
shorter radius than the front wheels.
➢ This phenomenon is called off-tracking, and has the effect of increasing the
effective width of a road space required by the vehicle.
➢ In addition, speeds higher than the design speed cause transverse skidding which
requires additional width for safety purpose.
➢ The mechanical widening (Wm) is given below:
3.10.8.2 Psychological widening

➢ There is a tendency for the drivers to drive close to the edges of the pavement on
curves. Some extra space is to be provided for more clearance for the crossing and
overtaking operations on curves.
➢ IRC proposed an empirical relation for the psychological widening at horizontal
curves (Wps):

➢ Therefore, the total widening needed at a horizontal curve We is:

3.10.9 Horizontal Transition Curves

➢ Transition curve is provided to change the horizontal alignment from straight to
circular curve gradually and has a radius which decreases from infinity at the
straight end (tangent point) to the desired radius of the circular curve at the other
end (curve point).
➢ There are five objectives for providing transition curve and are given below:

1. to introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the
beginning of the circular curve, avoiding sudden jerk on the vehicle. This
increases the comfort of passengers.
2. to enable the driver, turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and
security,
3. to provide gradual introduction of super elevation, and
4. to provide gradual introduction of extra widening.
5. to enhance the aesthetic appearance of the road.
3.10.10 Type of transition curve
➢ Different types of transition curves are spiral or clothoid, cubic parabola, and
Lemniscate. IRC recommends spiral as the transition curve because it fulfils the
requirement of an ideal transition curve, that is;

(a) rate of change or centrifugal acceleration is consistent (smooth) and

(b) radius of the transition curve is ∞ at the straight edge and changes to R at the
curve point and calculation and field implementation is very easy.

3.10.11 Length of transition curve

➢ The length of the transition curve should be determined as the maximum of the
following three criteria: rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, rate of change
of superelevation, and an empirical formula given by IRC.

3.10.11.1 Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration

➢ the length of the transition curve Ls1 in m is

➢ where c is the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration given by an empirical

formula suggested by by IRC as below:

3.10.11.2 Rate of introduction of super-elevation

➢ Raise (E) of the outer edge with respect to inner edge is given by E=eB=e(W+W e).
The rate of change of this raise from 0 to E is achieved gradually with a gradient
of 1 in N over the length of the transition curve (typical range of N is 60-150).
Therefore, the length of the transition curve Ls2 is:
3.10.11.3 By empirical formula

➢ IRC suggest the length of the transition curve is minimum for a plain and rolling
terrain:

➢ and for steep and hilly terrain is:

The length of the transition curve Ls is the maximum of these equations.

Ls = Max: (Ls1, Ls2, Ls3)

➢ And the shift (s) as:

4 ROAD MATERIALS
4.1 Soil

➢ Soil is the eventual point which supports the complete structure of the road.
➢ Soil is the primary material for the foundation, subgrade.
➢ It provides the essential flat base that offers the vital support for the road
structure.
➢ A process known as compaction, where soil particles are pressed together to
reduce pore space between them, is usually carried out on site to give the soil at
the base some higher resistance and greater stability.
➢ Being a natural material, soils have different qualities that need to be studied
carefully before building a road.
➢ Soils with more clay and silt particles, for example, are prone to erosion and
contraction if they come into contact with water. Such soils require special
treatment to avoid poor workmanship.

4.1.1 Desirable properties of soil

➢ The desirable properties of sub grade soil as a highway material are
1. Stability
2. Incompressibility
3. Permanency of strength
4. Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of
weather and ground water
5. Good drainage, and
6. Ease of compaction

4.1.2 Tests on soil

4.1.2.1 California Bearing Ratio Test

➢ California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test was developed by the California Division of
Highway as a method of classifying and evaluating soil-sub grade and base course
materials for flexible pavements.
➢ CBR test, an empirical test, has been used to determine the material properties
for pavement design.
➢ It is a penetration test wherein a standard piston is used to penetrate the soil at
a standard rate of 1.25 mm/minute.
➢ CBR value is expressed as a percentage of the actual load causing the penetrations
of 2.5 mm or 5.0 mm to the standard loads mentioned above. Therefore,

4.1.2.2 Plate Bearing Test

➢ Plate bearing test is used to evaluate the support capability of sub-grades, bases
and in some cases, complete pavement.
➢ Data from the tests are applicable for the design of both flexible and rigid
pavements.
➢ In plate bearing test, a compressive stress is applied to the soil or pavement layer
through rigid plates relatively large size and the deflections are measured for
various stress values.
➢ The plate-bearing test was originally meant to find the modulus of sub grade
reaction in the Westergaard’s analysis for wheel load stresses in cement concrete
pavements.

4.2 Aggregate

➢ Stone aggregate, also known as mineral aggregate, is easily the most important
component of road construction materials.
➢ It is made by breaking up naturally occurring rocks to form coarse aggregate (like
gravel) or fine aggregate (like sand).
➢ Aggregates are used for granular bases, sub-bases, as part of bituminous mixes
and cement concrete.
➢ They are also used as the primary material for relatively cheaper road, known as
water-bound macadam.
➢ Like soil, aggregates must be tested by a road engineer to ascertain that they are
strong enough and durable for a specific project. These properties are influenced
by their origin, mineral components and the nature of bond between the
components.

4.2.1 Types of Aggregates:

1. Crushed Stone: Crushed stones are the naturally found aggregate. In
mountainous, hilly, and streams, this type of aggregate is available in large
quantities. By the erosion, weathering, and denudation of bed rocks, this type
of aggregate is obtained. It is the cheapest (cost-wise) type of aggregate.
2. Gravel: Small pebbles of stone of size ranging from 1 cm to 1 inch are called
gravels. Gravel is obtained from natural sources as well as from the crushed
stones. Gravels are the basis of the concrete structure. Gravel is added with
other types of components to form a concrete mixture.
3. Boulder: The difference between the boulder and the gravel is their size
difference. The boulder is used in the construction of larger structures like
roads, bridge abutments, dams, canal beds, and other types of larger
structures. Boulder is either used with or without gravel. The size of boulder
ranges from 1 inch to several inches depending on type of structure to be
made of it.
4. Sand: Sand is the name of fine crystal particles of glass sand. Sand is
composed of 88 to 99 percent of Silica. Sand is used to fill the gaps among the
gravels and boulders. Sand mixed with cement and admixtures, flows and
sinks through the gaps among the stone pebbles, gravel and boulder. The
liquid mixture of sand cement has an adhesive quality, which sticks with the
surface of gravels and holds them tightly.
5. Light Weight Aggregate: Light weight aggregate, as the name mentions, are
lighter than the stone/rock aggregates. These can be obtained from the
natural resources as well as can be man-made. These types of aggregate are
made up of gravels of sedimentary rocks. Lower compacted sedimentary rocks
 are lighter than fully compacted sedimentary rocks, igneous rocks and the
metamorphic rocks. This type of aggregate has lesser specific gravity, thus the
structure composed of this type of aggregate, has less dead weight. However,
the strength of the concrete structure is not impacted by its low weight.
Strength remains high as desired. The light weight aggregate is porous and
pervious to the cement grout. The permeability allows the cement grout fully
absorbed in the aggregate, resulting higher strength.
6. Recycled Concrete Aggregate: Recycled concrete is obtained from the
broken concrete pieces of an existing concrete structure by breaking,
removing, and crushing it. It can be used as aggregate in new concrete
structures. Generally, the based layer, like floor and laying foundation, is
constructed by the recycled concrete aggregate. The recycled aggregate has,
comparatively, higher absorption quality. If properly not soaked with water, it
can cause higher drying shrinkage. Another drawback of this type of aggregate
is the large quantity of chloride. The excessive quantity of chloride is
concerning. The chloride concentration can result in corrosion of reinforced
material.

4.2.2 Sources of aggregate

1. Rock Quarries:

Quarry is place which aggregates, rocks, sand and mineral are extracted by means
of collection and excavation. The biggest source of obtaining aggregate is the rock
quarries. Rock quarries are natural sites, enriched with all of the above mentioned
materials.

2. Crushing Plant:

The crushing plants are the artificial method for obtaining the concrete gravels. The
crushing plants crush and grind the large sized stones into boulder, gravel of large
and fine sizes, coarse and sand. Today, the crushing plants are meeting 60 %
aggregate demand for the construction all through the globe.

3. Sand and Gravel Quarries:

Natural streams in the hilly and mountainous areas are enriched with sand and
gravel. Sand and gravel, being the fundamental constituents of civil construction are
obtained from natural quarries.

4. Marine Aggregate:
Marine aggregate is obtained from coasts of seas and continental shelves. Marine
aggregates are the gravels and sand dredged from the sea bed. However, the
aggregate may also be obtained from the land/continental land.

4.2.3 Desirable properties of aggregate

The aggregates used in top layers are subjected to
a. Stress action due to traffic wheel load,
b. Wear and tear,
c. crushing.

1. Strength: For a high quality pavement, the aggregates should posses high
resistance to crushing, and to withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel load.
2. Hardness: The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to
constant rubbing or abrasion due to moving traffic. The aggregates should be
hard enough to resist the abrasive action caused by the movements of traffic.
The abrasive action is severe when steel tyred vehicles moves over the
aggregates exposed at the top surface.
3. Toughness: Resistance of the aggregates to impact is termed as toughness.
Aggregates used in the pavement should be able to resist the effect caused by
the jumping of the steel tyred wheels from one particle to another at different
levels causes severe impact on the aggregates.
4. Shape of aggregates: Aggregates which happen to fall in a particular size
range may have rounded, cubical, angular, flaky or elongated particles. It is
evident that the flaky and elongated particles will have less strength and
durability when compared with cubical, angular or rounded particles of the
same aggregate. Hence too flaky and too much elongated aggregates should
be avoided as far as possible.
5. Adhesion with bitumen: The aggregates used in bituminous pavements
should have less affinity with water when compared with bitu- minous
materials, otherwise the bituminous coating on the aggregate will be stripped
off in presence of water.
6. Durability: The property of aggregates to withstand adverse action of weather
is called soundness. The aggregates are sub- jected to the physical and
chemical action of rain and bottom water, impurities there-in and that of
atmosphere, hence it is desirable that the road aggregates used in the
construction should be sound enough to withstand the weathering action
 7. Freedom from deleterious particles: Specifications for aggregates used in
bituminous mixes usually require the aggregates to be clean, tough and
durable in nature and free from excess amount of flat or elongated pieces,
dust, clay balls and other objectionable material. Similarly aggregates used in
Portland cement concrete mixes must be clean and free from deleterious
substances such as clay lumps, chert, silt and other organic impurities.

4.2.4 Aggregate tests

➢ In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction,
following tests are carried out:

4.3 Asphalt and Bitumen

➢ Asphalt and bitumen are often mistaken as being one and the same thing.
➢ However, while Bitumen is obtained through unfinished distillation of crude
petroleum, asphalt is manufactured in a factory that heats, dries and mixes
aggregate, bitumen and sand into a composite mix.
➢ The material is then applied on site using a paving machine at a nominated or
required thickness, depending on the type of project.

4.3.1 Types of Bitumen

➢ The bitumen can be classified into the following grade types:

1. Penetration Grade Bitumen

2. Oxidized Bitumen Grades
3. Cut Back Bitumen
4. Bitumen Emulsion
5. Polymer Modified Bitumen
4.3.1.1 Penetration Grade Bitumen

➢ The penetration grade bitumen is refinery bitumen that is manufactured at

different viscosities.
➢ The penetration test is carried out to characterize the bitumen, based on the
hardness. Thus, it has the name penetration bitumen.
➢ Recently, grading of bitumen is changed from penetration grade to viscosity grade.
➢ There are four types of bitumen based on viscosity at 60oC:

1. VG10
2. VG20
3. VG30
4. VG40

4.3.1.2 Oxidized Bitumen

➢ The refinery bitumen is further treated by the introduction of processed air. This
will give us oxidized bitumen.
➢ By maintaining a controlled temperature, the air is introduced under pressure
into soft bitumen.
➢ This harder mix has a lower ductility and temperature susceptibility.
➢ This air blown bitumen is, in general, considered unsuitable for road construction,
but used as roof waterproofing material or as a joint filler in the concrete
pavements.
4.3.1.3 Cutback Bitumen

➢ This type of bitumen has a temporarily reduced viscosity by the introduction of a

volatile oil.
➢ Once after the application, the volatile material is evaporated and bitumen gain
its original viscosity.
➢ In areas of road construction, it is necessary for the material to be fluid in nature
at the time of laying i.e., during surface dressing. It is also essential for the
material to regain back to its original hardness and property after setting. This is
ensured by cutback bitumen.
➢ The fluidity is obtained for any bitumen by raising the temperature. But when it
is necessary to have fluidity at lower temperatures during surface dressing,
cutback bitumen is employed.

4.3.1.4 Bitumen Emulsion

➢ This type of bitumen forms a two-phase system with two immiscible liquids.
➢ One of them is dispersed as fine globules within the other liquid.
➢ When discrete globules of bitumen are dispersed in a continuous form of water,
bitumen emulsion is formed.
➢ This is a form of penetration grade bitumen that is mixed and used for laying
purposes.
➢ An emulsifier having a long hydrocarbon chain with either a cationic or anionic
ending is used for dispersing the bitumen globules.
4.3.1.5 Polymer - Modified Bitumen

➢ Polymer modified bitumen is the type of bitumen obtained by the modification of

strength and the rheological properties of the penetration graded bitumen.
➢ For this 2 to 8% of polymer is added.
➢ The polymer used can be either plastic or rubber.
➢ These polymers vary the strength and the viscoelastic properties of the bitumen.
This is achieved by:

1. Elastic response increase

2. Improvement in cohesive property
3. Improvement in Fracture strength
4. Providing ductility

➢ Some of the examples of rubber polymers used are styrene block copolymers,
synthetic rubbers, natural and recycled rubbers. Plastics are also used.

4.3.1.5.1 Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen (CRMB)

➢ Crumb rubber is a recycled rubber produced from truck scrap tyres.

➢ When this treated crumb rubber is added into bitumen at high temperature,
Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen (CRMB) is formed.
➢ This results in:

1. Lower susceptibility to temp. variation

2. Higher resistance to deformation at high temperature
3. Better Age Resistance Properties
4. Higher Fatigue Life of Mixes
5. Better Adhesion Properties

4.3.2 Tests on bitumen

➢ The following tests are usually conducted to evaluate different properties of
bituminous materials.

1. Penetration test
2. Ductility test
3. Softening point test
4. Specific gravity test
5. Viscosity test
6. Flash and Fire point test
7. Float test
 8. Water content test
9. Loss on heating test

➢ properties as per BIS specifications

4.3.3 Penetration test

➢ It measures the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth in tenths
of a millimetre to which a standard loaded needle will penetrate vertically in 5
seconds.
➢ A grade of 40/50 bitumen means the penetration value is in the range 40 to 50 at
standard test conditions.
4.3.4 Ductility test
➢ Ductility is the property of bitumen that permits it to undergo great deformation
or elongation.
➢ Ductility is defined as the distance in cm, to which a standard sample or briquette
of the material will be elongated without breaking.

4.3.5 Softening point test

➢ Softening point denotes the temperature at which the bitumen attains a particular
degree of softening under the specifications of test.
➢ The test is conducted by using Ring and Ball apparatus.
4.3.6 Viscosity test
➢ Viscosity denotes the fluid property of bituminous material and it is a measure of
resistance to flow.
➢ Low or high viscosity during compaction or mixing has been observed to result in
lower stability values.
➢ At low viscosity instead of providing a uniform film over aggregates, it will lubricate
the aggregate particles.
➢ At high viscosity, it resists the compactive effort and thereby resulting mix is
heterogeneous, hence low stability values.
➢ The viscosity expressed in seconds is the time taken by the 50 ml bitumen material
to pass through the orifice of a cup, under standard test conditions and specified
temperature.
5 ROAD PAVEMENTS
5.1 Overview

➢ A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed

materials above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute
the applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade.
➢ The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to wheel load are
sufficiently reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing capacity of the sub-
grade.

5.2 Requirements of a pavement

➢ An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:

1. Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the
sub-grade soil,
2. Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it,
3. Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,
4. Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,
5. Produce least noise from moving vehicles,
6. Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility,
7. Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and
8. Long design life with low maintenance cost.

5.3 Types of pavements

➢ Based on the structural performance pavements can be classified into two

categories:

1. Flexible pavements
2. Rigid pavements.
5.4 Flexible pavements

➢ Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-
to-grain transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure.
➢ The wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the
stress decreases with the depth.
➢ Based on this, flexible pavement may be constructed in a number of layers and
the top layer has to be of best quality to sustain maximum compressive stress, in
addition to wear and tear.
➢ The lower layers will experience lesser magnitude of stress and low-quality
material can be used.
➢ Flexible pavement layers reflect the deformation of the lower layers on to the
surface layer (e.g., if there is any undulation in sub-grade then it will be
transferred to the surface layer).
5.4.1 Typical layers of a flexible pavement

5.4.1.1 Surface Course (Wearing Course)

➢ Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally
contains superior quality materials.
➢ They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt concrete (AC).
➢ The functions of this layer are to provide characteristics such as friction,
smoothness, drainage, etc. and also to prevent the entrance of excessive quantities
of surface water into the underlying base, sub-base and sub-grade.

5.4.1.2 Binder course

➢ Its chief purpose is to distribute load to the base course.

➢ The binder course generally doesn’t require quality as high as the surface course,
so replacing a part of the surface course by the binder course results in more
economical design.

5.4.1.3 Base course

➢ The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder
course and it provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-
surface drainage.
➢ It may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or
stabilized materials.
5.4.1.4 Sub-Base course

➢ The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the
primary functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce
the intrusion of fines from the subgrade in the pavement structure

5.4.1.5 Sub-grade

➢ The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses
from the layers above.
➢ It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed.
➢ It should be compacted to the desirable density, near the optimum moisture
content.

5.4.1.6 Seal Coat

➢ Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to provide
skid resistance.

5.4.1.7 Tack Coat

➢ It provides proper bonding between two layer of binder course and must be thin,
uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very fast.

5.4.1.8 Prime Coat

➢ Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent

surface like granular bases on which binder layer is placed.
➢ It provides bonding between two layers.
➢ prime coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a water
tight surface.

5.4.2 Failure of flexible pavements

➢ The major flexible pavement failures are fatigue cracking, rutting, and thermal
cracking.
➢ The fatigue cracking of flexible pavement is due to horizontal tensile strain at the
bottom of the asphaltic concrete.
➢ Rutting occurs only on flexible pavements as indicated by permanent deformation
or rut depth along wheel load path.
➢ Remedy is to limit the vertical compressive strain on the top of subgrade.
➢ Thermal cracking includes both low-temperature cracking and thermal fatigue
cracking.
5.5 Rigid pavements

➢ Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load
stresses to a wider area below.
➢ In rigid pavement, load is distributed by the slab action
➢ Compared to flexible pavement, rigid pavements are placed either directly on the
prepared subgrade or on a single layer of granular or stabilized material.
➢ Since there is only one layer of material between the concrete and the sub-grade,
this layer can be called as base or sub-base course.
5.6 Cross section of a typical concrete pavement

➢ Concrete slab may be placed directly over the subgrade, but the chances of mud
pumping being more, designers prefer to use a base course over the subgrade.
➢ The following are the reasons why a cemented base construction is preferred to
concrete pavement just over the subgrade:

1. It provides a working platform for the construction equipment.

2. Gives a uniform support to the pavement.
3. Reduces deflections at the joints, thereby ensures better load transfer.
4. To some extent, checks the effect of shrinkage and swelling of subgrade.
5. Resists erosion of subgrade due to mud pumping action.

5.6.1 Failure criteria of rigid pavements

➢ Fatigue cracking has been considered as the major criterion for rigid pavement
design.
➢ Apart from that mud pumping is identified as an important failure criterion.
➢ Pumping is the ejection of soil slurry through the joints and cracks of cement
concrete pavement, caused during the downward movement of slab under the
heavy wheel loads.

5.7 Differences Between Flexible and Rigid

Pavements

5.7.1 Advantages of Flexible Pavement

1. Can be applied during pre-construction stage
2. Repairs are easy and it can be opened and patched
 3. Materials are inexpensive
4. Frost heave and settlement can be easily repaired
5. Resists ice glaze formation
6. Short curation time means short traffic and business disruptions
7. No joints required during installation

5.7.2 Disadvantages of Flexible Pavement

1. Shorter lifespan than rigid pavement
2. Frequent maintenance required, which drives up the cost
3. Susceptible to oil stains and damage from other chemicals
4. Edges are weak and therefore require curb structures or edging

5.7.3 Advantages of Rigid Pavement

1. Longer lifespan
2. Maintenance costs are low
3. Allows for future asphalt resurfacing
4. Allows for wider load distribution with fewer base and sub base requirements
5. Can be installed on low- and high-quality soils

6. Strong edges that don’t require additional edging work or curbs

7. Resistant to damage from oil spills and chemicals

5.7.4 Disadvantages of Rigid Pavement

1. Initial installation fee is expensive
2. Cost of repairs is expensive
3. Low and very rough riding quality
4. Support joints are required for concrete contraction and expansion in various
conditions
6 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
6.1 Bituminous mix design

➢ The bituminous mix design aims to determine the proportion of bitumen, filler,
fine aggregates, and coarse aggregates to produce a mix which is workable, strong,
durable and economical.
➢ The requirements of the mix design and the two major stages of the mix design,
i.e., dry mix design and wet mix design will be discussed.

6.2 Objectives of mix design

➢ The objective of the mix design is to produce a bituminous mix by proportionating

various components so as to have:

1. sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable pavement,

2. sufficient strength to resist shear deformation under traffic at higher
temperature,
3. sufficient air voids in the compacted bitumen to allow for additional
compaction by traffic,
4. sufficient workability to permit easy placement without segregation,
5. sufficient flexibility to avoid premature cracking due to repeated bending by
traffic,
6. sufficient flexibility at low temperature to prevent shrinkage cracks.

6.3 Constituents of a mix

➢ Coarse aggregates: Offer compressive and shear strength and shows good
interlocking properties. E.g., Granite
➢ Fine aggregates: Fills the voids in the coarse aggregate and stiffens the binder.
E.g., Sand, Rock dust
➢ Filler: Fills the voids, stiffens the binder. E.g., Rock dust, cement, lime
➢ Binder: Fills the voids, cause particle adhesion and gluing and offers
impermeability. E.g., Bitumen, Tar
6.4 Types of mix

➢ Well-graded mix: - Dense mix, bituminous concrete has good proportion of all
constituents and are called dense bituminous macadam, offers good compressive
strength and some tensile strength.
➢ Gap-graded mix: - Some large coarse aggregates are missing and has good fatigue
and tensile strength.
➢ Open-graded mix: - Fine aggregate and filler are missing, it is porous and offers
good friction, low strength and for high speed.

6.5 Requirements of Bituminous mixes

6.5.1 Stability
➢ Stability is defined as the resistance of the paving mix to deformation under traffic
load.
➢ Stability depends on the inter-particle friction, primarily of the aggregates and the
cohesion offered by the bitumen.

6.5.2 Durability
➢ Durability is defined as the resistance of the mix against weathering and abrasive
actions.

6.5.3 Flexibility
➢ Flexibility is a measure of the level of bending strength needed to counteract traffic
load and prevent cracking of surface.

6.5.4 Skid resistance

➢ It is the resistance of the finished pavement against skidding which depends on
the surface texture and bitumen content.

6.5.5 Workability
➢ Workability is the ease with which the mix can be laid and compacted, and formed
to the required condition and shape.
6.6 Dry Mix Design

➢ The objective of dry mix design is to determine the amount of various sizes of
mineral aggregates to get a mix of maximum density.
➢ A dense mixture may be obtained when this particle size distribution follows Fuller
law which is expressed as:

➢ where, p is the percent by weight of the total mixture passing any given sieve sized,
D is the size of the largest particle in that mixture, n is the parameter depending
on the shape of the aggregate (0.5 for perfectly rounded particles).
➢ For example, Table provides a typical gradation for bituminous concrete for a
thickness of 40 mm.

6.7 Proportioning of aggregates

➢ After selecting the batches of aggregates and their gradation, proportioning of

aggregates has to be done.
➢ A system of equations is developed based on the gradation of each aggregates,
required gradation, and solved by numerical methods.

Example:
The gradation required for a typical mix is given in Table in column 1 and 2. The
gradation of available for three types of aggregate A, B, and C are given in column 3,
4, and 5. Determine the proportions of A, B and C if mixed will get the required
gradation in column 2.

Solution
Let x1, x2, x3 represent the proportion of A, B, and C respectively.

Solving this set of equations using solver tool in excel, we get x 1 = 0.05, x2 = 0.3, x3
= 0.65.
6.8 Marshall Mix Design (Wet Mix)

➢ Marshall mix design (wet mix) determines the optimum bitumen content.
➢ The Marshall stability and flow test provides the performance prediction for the
Marshall mix design method.
➢ Load is applied to the specimen till failure, and the maximum load is designated
as stability.
➢ During the loading, an attached dial gauge measures the specimen’s plastic flow
(deformation) due to the loading.
➢ The flow value is recorded at the same time when the maximum load is recorded.
Stability:

• Very low = less load bearing capacity

Flow value:

• very low = less plastic mix=stiff mix= premature cracking

 • very high = high plastic = permanent deformation at surface due to wheel load

Air void:

• very low = less space available for melted bitumen under traffic compaction =
bleeding
• very high = porous mix = less modulus of elasticity = low fatigue life

VFB:

• very low = insufficient bitumen for durability = very thin film of bitumen
• very high = bleeding

VMA:

• very low = insufficient space for bitumen to make thick film = high abrasion
due to traffic

Binder content:

• to ensure proper coating of aggregate after its absorption requirements

6.8.1 Theoretical specific gravity of the mix (Gt)
➢ Theoretical specific gravity Gt is the specific gravity without considering air voids.

➢ where, W1 is the weight of coarse aggregate in the total mix, W2 is the weight of
fine aggregate in the total mix, W3 is the weight of filler in the total mix, Wb is the
weight of bitumen in the total mix, G1 is the apparent specific gravity of coarse
aggregate, G2 is the apparent specific gravity of fine aggregate, G3 is the apparent
specific gravity of filler and Gb is the apparent specific gravity of bitumen.

6.8.2 Bulk specific gravity of mix (Gm)

➢ The bulk specific gravity or the actual specific gravity of the mix G m is the specific
gravity considering air voids.

𝑊𝑚
𝐺𝑚 =
𝑉𝑚 (𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠)

6.8.3 Air voids percent (Vv)

➢ Air voids Vv is the percent of air voids by volume in the specimen and is given by
6.8.4 Percent volume of bitumen (Vb)

𝐺𝑚
𝑉𝑏 % = × 𝑊𝑏 %
𝐺𝑏

6.8.5 Voids in mineral aggregate (VMA)

➢ Voids in mineral aggregate VMA is the volume of voids in the aggregates, and is
the sum of air voids and volume of bitumen

6.8.6 Voids filled with bitumen (VFB)

➢ Voids filled with bitumen VFB is the voids in the mineral aggregate frame work
filled with the bitumen,
7 RIGID PAVEMENT
7.1 Joints in concrete pavements

➢ Joints in concrete pavements are used to:

(i) Release stresses induced due to temperature variation

(ii) Provide proper bonding between two portions of concrete slabs, where
there is a time lapse between the two phases of construction.
7.1.1 Longitudinal Joints
➢ These joints are made to catch the shrinkage cracks.
➢ Tie bars are used to attach two concrete panels firmly.

7.1.2 Transverse Joints

7.1.2.1 Contraction joints

➢ Contraction joints are provided to take care of shrinkage of concrete slabs.

➢ They are provided along the transverse direction, at regular intervals of 4 to 4.5m.
➢ A dummy groove (or partial cut) is placed as a contraction joint.

7.1.2.2 Expansion joints

➢ Concrete expands with increase in temperature.

➢ Unless there is a provision for expansion, the concrete slab may buckle outwards
and break.
➢ Dowel bars are placed across the expansion joints to take care of the load transfer.
➢ One side of the dowel bar is fixed with one concrete slab while the other side is
generally lubricated and put inside an expansion cap placed within the other
concrete slab.
➢ Expansion joints are generally provided at every 40 to 60m stretch.
7.1.2.3 Construction joints

➢ Construction joints are the joints between pavement sections that are constructed
at different periods of time.
➢ A construction joint could be along the longitudinal direction or the transverse
direction, and an effort is made such that it coincides with the locations of other
joints.
7.2 Types of concrete pavements

7.2.1 Plain concrete pavement

➢ Plain concrete pavements are constructed without any reinforcement.
➢ The load transfer at the joints takes place through aggregate interlock.
➢ Steel tie bars are sometimes used longitudinally for providing a warping joint
between two lanes.

7.2.2 Plain dowelled concrete pavement

➢ This pavement is constructed with plain concrete, except at transverse joints
where steel dowel bars are provided for load transfer.
➢ Tie bars are used as longitudinal joints.

7.2.3 Continuously reinforced concrete pavement

➢ This type of concrete pavement is reinforced throughout, and is without any
contraction or expansion joint.
➢ The pavements develop transverse cracks, and the reinforcement bars of steel act
as load transfer devices at these cracks

7.2.4 Prestressed concrete pavement

➢ The design thickness of the prestressed concrete pavements is less than that of
the plain concrete pavements.
➢ Prestressed concrete pavements have been used on experimental basis at some
airports, but are not popular for use on highways.
7.3 Stresses in Concrete Pavements

7.3.1 Stresses due to wheel load

➢ Westergaard gave the stress equations for the three locations on the slab.

7.3.1.1 Radius of relative stiffness (l)

➢ A concrete pavement slab under load, deforms in a saucer shape.

➢ The extent of deformation depends upon flexural stiffness of slab as well as
supporting medium.
➢ Westergaard defined the term radius of relative stiffness is given by the equation
7.3.1.2 Modulus of sub-grade reaction

➢ Modulus of sub-grade reaction K given by

➢ It is a measure of stiffness of subgrade.

➢ Determined by plate load test.
7.3.1.3 Equivalent radius of resisting section

➢ Westergaard’s gives a relation for equivalent radius of the resisting section in cm

in the equation

➢ where a is the radius of the wheel load distribution.

➢ Due to loading, the maximum stress is induced at the corner, being discontinuous
in two directions.
➢ The edge stress is lower than that at the corner, being discontinuous in one
direction, while the interior stress is the minimum among all these.

7.3.2 Stresses due to temperature

7.3.2.1 Warping stress

➢ The concrete pavement undergoes temperature changes throughout the day.

➢ The temperature at the top surface is maximum during daytime.
➢ Similarly, during night-time, the bottom of the pavement has the highest
temperature.
➢ There always exists a temperature gradient across the thickness of the concrete
pavement.
7.3.2.2 Frictional stresses

7.4 Critical Combination of stresses

8 PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
8.1 BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION

➢ The layers in a bituminous pavement are named as: subgrade, sub-base, base,
binder course, and wearing course.
➢ The binder course and the wearing course are together called bituminous
surfacing.
➢ Depending upon the design, sometimes only the base course is provided instead
of the base and the sub-base course.

8.1.1 Subgrade
➢ After the vegetation and organic dirt are removed from the earth surface, it
requires mild compaction (two passes of 80-100 kN smooth wheeled roller, or
equivalent, as per the recommendations).
➢ Soil is spread in uniformly in layers with thickness not exceeding 200 mm and is
then compacted.
➢ Motor grader is used for maintaining a suitable grade during construction.
➢ If the moisture content is low, requisite amount of water is added uniformly with
the help of a sprinkler system.
 Motor grader

8.1.1.1 Subgrade stabilization

➢ It is the process of improving certain properties of the ordinary soil such as shear
strength, density, plasticity, compressibility, water content etc. to achieve
following purposes:

• Improving bearing capacity of soil

• Stability of slope
• Reducing deformations under the load
• Reducing project cost by utilizing stabilized native soil.

Types of subgrade stabilization

1. Mechanical soil stabilization

➢ Mechanical stabilization involves the use of physical processes.

➢ It changes only the physical properties of soil through compaction.
➢ The mechanical stabilization involves addition of different grades of materials to
achieve a dense packed material and addition of small amount of fine materials
as binders.
➢ Geosynthetic materials such as geogrids and geotextiles are used in mechanical
stabilization to improve soil strength through particle interlocking, confinement,
frictional resistance and tensile strength.
➢ Besides this, graded aggregate materials are added to soils to decrease soil
plasticity.

2. Chemical stabilization

➢ Chemical stabilization alters the chemical properties of the soil through the use of
admixtures such as Portland cement, quicklime or hydrated lime, fly ash, calcium
chloride and bitumen etc.

Lime stabilization

➢ Slaked lime is most often used in the stabilization of subgrades and road bases,
particularly in soil that is clay-like or highly plastic.
➢ it strengthens the soil to make it more stable.
➢ It reduces the plasticity index and hence the compressibility of the soil.

Cement stabilization

➢ Once the soil has been mixed with cement, it’s known as soil cement.
➢ This material can be used in a variety of soil types, making it extremely versatile.
➢ Often, other materials such as lime, sodium sulfate, or fly ash are added to the
cement and soil to improve stabilization.
➢ The amount of cement required, depends upon the type of soil.

Fly ash stabilization

➢ There are two types of fly ash, Class C and Class F.

➢ Class C has self-cementing properties and is used in the production of concrete
as a substitute for Portland Cement.
➢ Class C can be used directly as a chemical stabilizing agent to dry and strengthen
poor soils.
➢ Class F has very little self-cementing properties, but can be combined with
additives such as quicklime, hydrated lime, or cement to create cementitious
compounds for the same purposes.

8.1.2 Granular sub-base (GSB)

➢ Construction of granular sub-base consists of laying and compacting suitably
selected aggregate material over the formed subgrade.
➢ The materials of construction can be natural sand, moorum, crushed stone,
crushed concrete, brick metal, crushed slag, and so on.
➢ The materials as per the specified gradation with requisite water should be spread
with the help of a motor grader.
➢ Rolling should be done by a 80-100 KN static roller with plain drum, or by a
200-300 KN pneumatic roller.

static roller with plain drum

pneumatic roller
8.1.3 Base Course
➢ Common type of base course materials used are:

1. Water Bound Macadam

2. Wet Mix Macadam

8.1.3.1 Water Bound Macadam

➢ Water Bound Macadam (WBM) is constituted with a compacted layer of clean,

crushed aggregates and screening material laid on a properly prepared subgrade,
base or sub- base course.
➢ Binding material, which is fine grained material such as lime stone dust or kankar
nodules having plasticity index 4 to 8, is used wherever necessary and water is
added for proper compaction.
➢ Rolling can be done with a vibratory roller, or any other roller suitable for the job
decided,
➢ The job is assumed to be complete when no further screening can be forced into
the void space of the coarse aggregates.
➢ Water and binder material (if necessary) are applied and the surface is swept with
brooms.
➢ After completion, the pavement is allowed to dry overnight. Further construction
over WBM can only take place after WBM is completely dry.
Vibratory Roller
8.1.3.2 Wet Mix Macadam (WMM)

➢ The construction of Wet Mix Macadam (WMM) consists of laying and compacting
clean, crushed, and graded aggregates, premixed with water.
➢ WMM is prepared in a mixing plant, in which aggregates and water with suitable
proportion are mixed together.
➢ The optimum moisture content of the mix is determined in the laboratory.
➢ The aggregates, immediately after mixing, are laid on the surface.
➢ After the completion of the construction, setting time is given, during which it is
desirable that not even construction equipment should pass over the surface.
➢ Compaction shall be done with a vibratory roller
➢ After final compaction of WMM course, the road shall be allowed to dry for 24
hours.
8.1.4 Bituminous Binder Course
➢ The commonly used binder courses include

1. Bituminous Macadam (BM):

• It has a high level of voids and therefore it is pervious to water.
• It can also be used as a base course, or as a profile corrective course.
• During the summer season, its stiffness becomes too low.
• Thus, guidelines restrict that it should be used only for the roads whose design
life is less than 5 msa.
2. Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM):
• Aggregates are mixed according to the specifications and the optimum
bitumen content (OBC) is found out from the Marshall requirements as per
the guidelines.

➢ Before laying, the surface should be thoroughly cleaned and any loose materials
should be removed. This can be done using mechanical brooms or high pressure
air jets.
➢ The bituminous mixes for pavement construction are produced in the bituminous
mixing plants.
➢ A stationary plant manufactures bituminous mixes at the place of its location
(away from site), and the mixes are then transported through dump trucks.
➢ In a portable plant, bituminous mixes are manufactured near the pavement
construction site itself, and after the completion of construction at that location,
the plant is shifted to the next location.
➢ The dump trucks used for transportation of mixes should have an insulation
system to prevent heat loss.
➢ A thin coating of lubricating oil is sometimes applied to the inner surface to
prevent sticking of bituminous mixes.
➢ After laying of bituminous mixes, compaction is immediately done.
➢ Vibratory rollers of 80-100 kN dead weight and pneumatic tyred rollers of 120-
150 kN with nine wheels are generally specified for this compaction.
➢ The finish rolling is done using 60-80 kN smooth wheeled rollers.

8.1.5 Bituminous wearing course (Surface Course)

➢ Some of the commonly used wearing (Surface) courses are

1. Bituminous Concrete (BC),

 2. Semi Dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC),
3. Closed graded premix carpet - Mix Seal Surfacing,
4. Open graded premix carpet,
5. Surface Dressing,
6. Mastic Asphalt

8.1.5.1 Bituminous Concrete:

➢ It is the mix of coarse and fine aggregate with bitumen prepared as per specified
job mixed formula and specified gradation of aggregate as shown in tables:
8.1.5.2 Semi-dense Bituminous concrete:

The gradation and Marshall specifications for Semi dense bituminous concrete is
tabulated below:
8.1.5.3 Closed graded premix Carpet (Mix seal surfacing)

➢ It consists of 20 mm thickness layer composed of graded aggregates premixed with

a bituminous binder on a previously prepared surface.
➢ The quantity of binder used for premixing in terms of straight-run bitumen shall
be 22.0 kg and 19.0 kg per 10 square metre area for Type A and Type B surfacing
respectively.

8.1.5.4 Open graded Premix Carpet

➢ This consists of the preparation, laying and compaction of an open-graded premix

surfacing material of 20 mm thickness composed of small-sized aggregate
premixed with a bituminous binder on a previously prepared surface.
➢ Bitumen can be either penetration grade or bituminous emulsion.
➢ For this course, a seal coat is also required.

8.1.5.5 Surface Dressing

➢ Surface dressing may be constituted with single or double layers. Each layer is
constructed by spraying bitumen over the prepared base, then spreading
aggregates, and finally rolling and compacting.
➢ After spraying a predetermined quantity of bitumen over the top surface, the single
size aggregates, as per specification, are spread over it.

➢ Aggregate particles, after compaction and passage of traffic, lie evenly on their
flattest side, which is called the Average Least Dimension, ALD.
➢ The quantity of bitumen is so adjusted that it occupies 3/4th of ALD

8.1.5.6 Mastic asphalt

➢ In mastic asphalt, well-graded aggregates, filler, and bitumen are mixed in such a
proportion that a dense, almost voidless mixture is obtained.
➢ The acceptability of mastic asphalt is judged by the hardness number.
➢ The skid resistance of mastic asphalt can be low, therefore, immediately after the
construction when the surface is still hot, hard stone chips of specific dimensions
are spread over the surface, and rolled.

8.2 Cement Concrete Pavement Construction

8.2.1 Subgrade
➢ Where the concrete layer is laid directly over the subgrade, it should be ensured
that the subgrade is moist at the time of laying.
➢ If the subgrade is dry, water can be sprinkled over the surface before laying the
concrete course.
➢ Alternatively, concrete can be laid over a waterproof polyethylene sheet, and in
that case moistening the subgrade surface becomes redundant.
➢ This polyethylene sheet acts as a capillary cut-off layer.

8.2.2 Sub-base and Base course:

➢ Sub-base for concrete pavement can be constituted with brick flat soling, WBM,
granular aggregates, crushed concrete, slag, stabilized soil, and so on.

8.2.2.1 Dry lean cement concrete sub-base

➢ Dry lean cement concrete (DLC) is sometimes used as a sub-base for concrete
construction with a recommended thickness of 100 mm or 150 mm.
➢ The maximum aggregate to cement ratio is 15:1.
➢ The average compressive strength of DLC cubes after 7 days should not be less
than 10 MPa.
➢ The construction of the cement concrete pavement can only start after 7 days of
sub-base construction.

8.2.3 Concrete Surfacing

➢ The proportion between the cement, aggregate, and water is determined by the
standard concrete mix design technique.
➢ Mixing is done in a batch mixer for uniform distribution of materials.
➢ The spreading of concrete should be done uniformly and with care such that no
segregation of materials takes place.
➢ A separation membrane, made up of an impermeable plastic/polyethylene sheet
(150 microns thick) is preferably laid over the sub-base without any creases in it,
on to which concrete is laid.
➢ Concrete should be rolled with appropriate equipment such that the formation of
honeycombs or voids is avoided.
➢ Texturing of the surface is done by brooming over the laid surface of the pavement
along transverse direction.
➢ A curing compound with high water retentivity should be spread over the finished
surface and it should not react chemically with concrete.
➢ For final curing, continuous ponding should be done for about a fortnight.
➢ After curing is over and before opening the road to traffic, the temporary seal
material is removed, and the joints are filled with the recommended joint sealing
compound.
9 HILL ROADS
➢ A hill road may be defined as the one which passes through a terrain with a cross
slope of 25% or more.

9.1 Special problems in Design and Construction of

Hill roads

➢ Design and Construction of roads in hills and mountain are more complex than
in plain terrain because of following points:

1. A hilly or mountainous area unnecessarily increases road length due to

multiple elevation differences.
2. The geological condition varies from place to place.
3. Hill slopes may become unstable during construction due to increased
human activities.
4. Due to characteristics of rocks, various special structures may be constructed
at different places which increases the cost of the construction.
5. Due to altitude difference, precipitation increases at greater height etc.
6. High-speed runoff occurs due to the presence of high cross slopes.
7. Filling may overload the weak soil underneath which may trigger new slides.
8. The need of design of hairpin bends to attain heights.
 Unstable hill slope

High runoff causes erosion

Hair pin Bend
9.2 Basic Consideration Governing a Highway
Alignment on hilly area

➢ In addition to alignment requirements discussed in chapter 2, hill roads have

some other basic requirements

9.2.1 Drainage
➢ Drainage of the road must be kept in mind and it must be ensured that enough
drainage structures can be built on the route.
➢ As far as possible alignment must avoid the drainage works means it must have
the minimum numbers of the drainage works.

9.2.2 Economy
➢ The economy is governed by the numbers of the drainage works, cutting filling
and the gradient.

9.2.3 Safety
➢ Safety is governed by the sight distance, superelevation and the design radius of
the curves.
➢ Gradient must be kept below the ruling gradient.
➢ In hill roads, special attention must be given to the side slopes, and thorough
geological surveys must be carried out to ensure safety, while construction as well
as while traffic movement.

9.2.4 Minimum Resisting Length

➢ The unnecessary increased length due to rise and fall of the gradient is termed as
resisting length which must be minimized to reduce the cost of road.
9.3 Typical cross section of a Hill road
9.4 Components parts of Hill Roads

1. Road Bed
2. Side Drain
3. Parapet Wall
4. Catch Water Drains
5. Brest Wall
6. Retaining Wall
7. Cross Drains
9.4.1 Road Bed
➢ The pavement portion of hill road is called road bed.
➢ Function: To resist stresses developed due to moving traffic.

9.4.2 Side Drain

➢ Drain provided on the sides of road is called side drain.
➢ Side drains runs parallel to the length of road.
➢ Function: To collect and drain off rain water collected from camber of road.

9.4.3 Parapet Wall

➢ Wall which is provided above the formation level in the down side slope is called
parapet well.
➢ Function: Protection to the traffic against falling down the hill slope.

9.4.4 Catch Water drain

➢ It is drain provided on higher slope running parallel to the length of road.
➢ Function: To make intercept for runoff coming from top of hill and divert water in
to nearby cross drains.

9.4.5 Brest Wall

➢ The wall constructed to up-side slope is called retaining wall.
➢ Function: Protect road from sliding of up-side slope.

9.4.6 Retaining Wall

➢ The wall constructed to down side slope of road is called retaining wall.
➢ Function: To protect down slope from sliding.

9.4.7 Cross Drains

➢ The drains which are laid along width of road is called cross drains.
➢ Function: to drain off rain water collected in side drains and catch drains.

9.5 Formation of Hill Road

➢ Formation of hill road done in following situation:

9.5.1 Wholly in Cutting:
➢ Formation width of pavement of hill road is constructed fully in cutting.

9.5.2 Partially in Cutting and Partially in embankment:

➢ Formation width of hill road is constructed partly in cutting and partly in
embankment.
9.5.3 Wholly in embankment:
➢ Formation width of hill road constructed fully in filling (embankment).

9.6 Landslide

➢ The downward movement of soil mass or rock along the slope due to gravity is
called landslide.
9.6.1 Causes of Landslide

9.6.1.1 Natural Causes of landslide

1. Climate-Heavy Rainfall
2. Geology and Topography
3. Earthquake
 4. Weathering of Rock
5. Erosion of Soil and Rock
6. Volcanos
7. Forest Fires

9.6.1.2 Human causes of Landslides

1. Mining
2. Blasting
3. Increase in traffic load

9.6.2 Effect of landslide

1. Lead to economic declination or loss
2. Damage of infrastructure
3. Loss of life
4. Affects beauty of landscapes
5. Impact on river ecosystem

9.6.3 Control measures for landslide

1. Provide benching on side slope.
2. By providing proper drainage system.
3. By constructing retaining wall and breast wall.
4. By soil stabilization techniques.
5. By cement grouting or concrete lining.
6. By rock nailing.
7. By increasing vegetation on side slope.
8. By fixing geosynthetics such as geo-grid or geo-net net on sloping side.
9.7 DRAINAGE STRUCTURE

➢ Surface water flowing from the hill slope towards the roadway is one of the main
problems in drainage of hill roads.
➢ It is desirable that the water from the hill side is not allowed to flow into side
drains due to the problems in maintaining the side drains intended for water from
the roadway.
➢ The drainage of hill road consists of the following systems:
 1. Surface drainage
2. Sub-surface drainage

9.7.1 Surface Drainage:

➢ In hill roads, surface water causes erosion to the road surface and hill sides and
may result in erosion and landslides.
➢ A surface drainage system of a hill road consists of the following works.

1. Catch water drain

2. Sloping drain
3. Road side drain
4. Cross drainage structures
9.7.1.1 Catch water drains or intercepting drains

➢ The catch water drains are provided higher upon the hill slope side, parallel to the
road.
➢ The main function of the catch water drain is to intercept the rain water from the
hill slope, which would otherwise rush onto the road and wash it away, and then
to divert the same into a nearby cross drainage work with the help of sloping
drains.

9.7.1.2 Sloping drains

➢ It carries the water from catch drain and collects it to catch pit which is further
carried by nearby cross drainage work.
9.7.1.3 Road side drain

➢ Provided only on the hill side of the road. (Not both sides)
➢ They are shaped such that vehicles may utilize its part for overtaking and parking
in such a narrow formation width of the hill road.

9.7.1.4 Cross drainage structures

➢ The cross-drainage system prevents side drain from overflowing and flooding the
road surface.
➢ The provision of cross drainage structure at frequent intervals also helps in
reducing the size of side drains as well as of catch water drains.
➢ Cross drainage is provided by constructing the structures like smah under drains,
scuppers, causeways, culverts, and minor or major bridges, according to their
suitability.
9.7.2 Sub-surface drainage
➢ The variation in moisture content of subgrade can be caused by fluctuating water
table, seepage flow, percolation of rain water, movement of capillary water.
➢ In subsurface drainage measures, we try to remove these causes.

9.7.2.1 Lowering of water table

9.7.2.2 Control of seepage flow
9.7.2.3 Granular capillary Cutoff
10 AIRPORT ENGINEERING
10.1 Airport

➢ An airport is a facility where passengers connect from ground transportation to

air transportation.
➢ It is a location where aircraft such as airplanes, helicopters take off and land.
➢ Aircraft may also be stored or maintained at an airport.
➢ An airport should have runway for take-offs and landings, buildings such as
hangars and terminal buildings.

10.2 Airport layout

10.3 Some terminologies related to airport

10.3.1 Runways
➢ A runway is the area where an aircraft lands or takes off.
➢ It can be grass, or packed dirt, or a hard surface such as asphalt or concrete.
➢ Runways have special markings on them to help a pilot in the air to tell that it is
a runway (and not a road) and to help them when they are landing or taking off.
➢ Runway markings are white.
10.3.2 Taxiway
➢ A taxiway is a path on an airport connecting runways with ramps, apron,
terminals and other facilities.
➢ They mostly have hard surface such as asphalt or concrete, although smaller
airports sometimes use gravel or grass.
➢ Taxiway markings are yellow.
10.3.3 Aprons
➢ Aircraft aprons are the areas where the aircraft park. Aprons are also sometimes
called ramps.
➢ They vary in size, from areas that may hold five or ten small planes, to the very
large areas that the major airports have.
➢ Unlike the runways or taxiways, vehicles can use aprons.
10.4 Airport Site Selection

➢ Factors affecting the selection of suitable site for airport are:

10.4.1 Airport Use:

➢ The selection of site depends upon airport use i.e., Whether for civilian or military
used.

10.4.2 Proximity to Other Airports:

➢ The selected site should be at considerable distance from existing airport so that
landing and take-off operations are not interfered.

10.4.3 Topography
➢ A raised ground (example hill top) are ideal site for airports due to less obstruction
and more uniform wind, natural drainage and better visibility due to less fog.

10.4.4 Obstruction and Visibility:

➢ In landing and take-off operations, aircraft loses or gains altitude very slowly,
therefore, long clearance area should be provided on either side of runway.
➢ Poor visibility lowers the traffic capacity of airports, so site selected should be free
from fog, smoke and haze etc.
➢ Fog generally settles in the area where wind blow is minimum.

10.4.5 Future Development:

➢ Based on future traffic growth, the selected site should be capable of
accommodating new runway and other facilities.

10.4.6 Drainage and Soil Characteristics:

➢ Natural drainage should be available at selected site.
➢ Most desirable is one which contains reasonable amount of sand and gravels.

10.5 Airport Engineering

➢ Airport Engineering encompasses the planning, design, and construction of

terminals, runways, and other facilities of an airport.
➢ Airport engineers use the analysis of predominant wind direction to determine
runway orientation, determine the size of runway border and safety areas and also
account for the impacts and demands of aircraft in the design of airport facilities.

10.6 Necessity of study of airport engineering

➢ The airways transportation is being used rapidly in modern world.

➢ There are various advantages of airways over other modes of transportation which
necessitate the study of airport engineering.
➢ Some of the advantages are mentioned here:

1. It tries to improve the accessibility to inaccessible areas.

2. Provides continuous connectivity over water and land.
3. Provide relief during emergencies better than other modes of transport.
4. Saves productive time, spent in journey
5. Increases the demand of specialized skill work force
6. Helps tourism, generates foreign reserves
7. Can be used for arial photography
8. Can be used for agricultural spraying and forest fire extinguishing.
10.7 Aviation transport scenario in India

➢ Airport Authority of India (AAI) controls overall air navigation in India.

➢ It is constituted by an act of parliament on 1st April, 1995.
➢ It was formed by merging NAA (National Airport Authority) and IAAI (International
Airport Authority of India)

10.7.1 Functions of AAI

➢ Control and management of the Indian airspace extending beyond the territory
limits.
➢ Design, development and operation of domestic and international airports
➢ Construction and management of facilities.
➢ Development of cargo ports and facilities.
➢ Provision of passenger facilities and information systems
➢ Expansion and strengthening of operating area
➢ Provision of visual aids
➢ Provision of communication and navigational aids (ex: Radar systems)