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Journal of Consumer Research
This paper argues for the recognition of important experiential aspects of con-
sumption. Specifically, a general framework is constructed to represent typical
consumer behavior variables. Based on this paradigm, the prevailing information
processing model is contrasted with an experiential view that focuses on the
symbolic, hedonic, and esthetic nature of consumption. This view regards the
consumption experience as a phenomenon directed toward the pursuit of fanta-
sies, feelings, and fun.
In its brief history, the study of consumer behavior has sciousness with a variety of symbolic meanings, hedonic
evolved from an early emphasis on rational choice (mi- responses, and esthetic criteria. Recognition of these im-
croeconomics and classical decision theory) to a focus on portant aspects of consumption is strengthened by contrast-
apparently irrational buying needs (some motivation re- ing the information processing and experiential views.'
search) to the use of logical flow models of bounded ra-
tionality (e.g., Howard and Sheth 1969). The latter ap- CONTRASTING VIEWS
proach has deepened into what is often called the OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
"information processing model" (Bettman 1979). The in-
formation processing model regards the consumer as a log- Our bases for contrasting the information processing
ical thinker who solves problems to make purchasing de- experiential views appear in the Figure. This diagram is
cisions. The information processing perspective has become all-inclusive. It simply represents some key variables t
so ubiquitous in consumer research that, like fish in water, ically considered in logical flow models of consumer be-
many researchers may be relatively unaware of its perva- havior. In brief, various environmental and consumer inputs
siveness. (products, resources) are processed by an intervening re-
Recently, however, researchers have begun to question sponse system (cognition-affect-behavior) that generates
the hegemony of the information processing perspective on output consequences which, when appraised against crite-
the grounds that it may neglect important consumption phe- ria, result in a learning feedback loop. Individual differ-
nomena (e.g., Olshavsky and Granbois 1979; Sheth 1979). ences, search activity, type of involvement, and task defi-
Ignored phenomena include various playful leisure activi- nition affect the criteria by which output consequences are
ties, sensory pleasures, daydreams, esthetic enjoyment, and evaluated.
emotional responses. Consumption has begun to be seen as Though the Figure neglects some variables that have in-
involving a steady flow of fantasies, feelings, and fun en- terested consumer researchers,2 it reflects the general view-
compassed by what we call the "experiential view." This point embodied by most popular consumer behavior
experiential perspective is phenomenological in spirit and models. Moreover, the diagram facilitates the intended
regards consumption as a primarily subjective state of con- comparison between approaches by distinguishing between
132
? JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH * Vol. 9 0 September 1982
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the phenomena of primary interest to the information pro- make use of verbal stimuli. However, many products pro-
cessing perspective (left side of slash marks) and those of ject important nonverbal cues that must be seen, heard,
central concern to the experiential view (right side of slash tasted, felt, or smelled to be appreciated properly. Indeed,
marks). In the following sections, we discuss these distinc- in many consumption situations (viewing a movie, eating
tions as they pertain to (1) environmental inputs, (2) con- at a restaurant, playing tennis), several sensory channels
sumer inputs, (3) intervening responses, and (4) output con- operate simultaneously. Yet scant research on nonverbal
sequences, criteria, and learning effects. multisensory properties has been reported in the literature.
Accordingly, the experiential perspective supports a more
ENVIRONMENTAL INPUTS energetic investigation of multisensory psychophysical re-
lationships in consumer behavior.
Products Turning one's attention from primarily verbal to nonver-
bal sensory cues requires a very different mode of present-
Much consumer research has focused on the tangible
ing experimental stimulus objects. While verbal descrip-
benefits of conventional goods and services (soft drinks,
tions have often sufficed in conventional research on
toothpaste, automobiles) that perform utilitarian functions
consumer preferences, an experiential outlook must involve
based on relatively objective features (calories, flouride,
subjects in consumption-like experiences based on real-or
miles per gallon). By contrast, the experiential perspective
at least realistic-product samples.
explores the symbolic meanings of more subjective char-
acteristics (cheerfulness, sociability, elegance).
All products-no matter how mundane-may carry a
Communication Content
symbolic meaning (Levy 1959, 1980). In some cases, the
symbolic role is especially rich and salient: for example, Content analyses of communication in consumer research
entertainment, the arts, and leisure activities encompass have more often focused on drawing inferences about the
symbolic aspects of consumption behavior that make them source of a message than on explaining its effects (Kassar-
particularly fertile ground for research. These areas have jian 1977). When the latter perspective has been consid-
recently received increased attention from consumer re- ered, it has generally involved an information processing
searchers concerned with products like musical recordings, orientation toward the study of consumer responses to the
singers, fashion designs, architectural styles, paintings, semantic aspects of communication content (Shimp and
museum exhibitions, novels, concerts, performing arts se- Preston 1981). Focusing on effects attributable to the syn-
ries, and associated patterns of leisure activity (Hirschman tactic aspects of message content-that is, their structure
and Holbrook 1981). The growth of research on leisure, and style-is more germane to the experiential perspective.
entertainment, and the arts reflects a shift of attention to- In other disciplines, message syntax has often been found
ward the experiential side of the distinctions shown in the to exert a direct effect on hedonic response. This concept
Figure. is central, for example, to the so-called "Wundt curve"
Methodologically, this shift promotes certain advantages. and its relationship to collative stimulus properties such as
One benefit stems from the tendency for leisure, entertain- uncertainty or complexity (Berlyne 1971). This information
ment, and arts products to prompt high levels of interest theoretic perspective has been applied at length in analyses
and involvement among their target markets. The growing of emotional responses to music and other art forms by
body of work in these areas suggests that respondents can researchers exploring its relevance to the esthetic process
typically provide meaningful data on perceptions and pref- (Platt 1970).
erences across a broad array of relevant objects or activities. Work on syntactic structure in consumer research is less
Hence, applications of multivariate methods may be more well developed. However, Taylor's (1953) "Cloze" tech-
valid with this type of product than with some low-involve- nique has been used to measure subjective verbal uncer-
ment consumer nondurables, such as detergents or canned tainty in English prose (Wallendorf, Zinkhan, and Zinkhan
peas, for which consumers may be unable to make valid 1981) and advertising copy (Zinkhan and Martin 1981).
perceptual or affective distinctions among more than a few
different brands. For this reason, many of our available
statistical procedures-especially those directed toward in- CONSUMER INPUTS
traindividual analysis across brands-may actually be more
appropriate within the context of experiential consumption Resources
than for the frequently purchased nondurables to which they
have typically been applied. In examining the resources that a consumer brings to the
exchange transaction, conventional research has generally
focused on monetary income constraints and the effects of
Stimulus Properties
prices. In more recent economic analysis, this money-ori-
Traditional consumer research paradigms have concen- ented focus has been expanded to acknowledge the funda-
trated on product attributes that lend themselves to verbal mental role played by the consumer's allocation of time
descriptions. Both conjoint analysis and multiattribute resources to the "household production function" (Becker
models, for example, have relied heavily on designs that 1976). In this view, households both produce and consume
"commodities" that combine inputs of goods and time to one s own life and the stimulus, explicitly excluding com-
maximize overall utility, subject to resource constraints. ponents such as attention, interest, or excitement. This early
The investigation of subjective time resources may help view has proven most congenial to information processing
to unravel the mysteries of the psychotemporal expenditures proponents, who define involvement in terms of personal
involved in experiential consumption. Studying the nature relevance or multiplicity of cognitive responses (Leavitt,
and allocation of discretionary time deserves high priority. Greenwald, and Obermiller 1981). Attention, interest, ex-
Movement in this direction has appeared in several review citement, and so forth bear more directly on the experiential
articles, in special conference sessions, and in a recent issue view by emphasizing degree of activation or arousal, with
of the JCR devoted to the subject of time in consumer consequent implications for the availability of psychobio-
behavior (March 1981). logical indices (Kroeber-Riel 1979). Krugman's (1971)
later work on brain-wave patterns has moved in this direc-
Task Definition tion and thus appears to represent a shift toward the exper-
iential model.
In making assumptions concerning the consumer's task
Further, any argument that involvement is primarily a
definition, the information processing and experiential per-
left-brain phenomenon refers implicitly to cognitive re-
spectives envision different kinds of consumption behavior.
sponses associated with analytic, logical, problem-oriented
The information processing view conjures up an image of
cerebration (Hansen 1981). If one referred instead to "in-
the consumer as a problem solver engaged in the goal-di-
volvement" in the sense of the orientation reflex, its arousal
rected activities of searching for information, retrieving
component might be more closely associated with right-
memory cues, weighing evidence, and arriving at carefully
brain phenomena related to emotion.
considered judgmental evaluations. Freud called such men-
The use of psychobiological indices of arousal and the
tal activities "secondary process" thinking. It is "second-
interest in right-brain hemispheric specialization have
ary" in the sense that it reflects the way our mental pro-
prompted increased attention from consumer researchers.
cesses function as a result of socialization (Hilgard 1962).
Numerous problems arise when interpreting the results of
By contrast, the experiential view emphasizes the im-
these physiological approaches. Ryan (1980) has chal-
portance of primary process thinking in accord with the
lenged the construct validity of psychobiological measures.
pleasure principle. Primary process thinking involves a task
In this light, Olson, Reynolds, and Ray's (1982) findings
definition oriented toward hedonic response and is "pri-
on psychophysiological advertising effects raise almost as
mary" in the sense that it hearkens back to the way a baby
many questions as they answer. Similarly, Hansen and
pursues immediate pleasure or gratification (Hilgard 1962).
Lundsgaard (1981) have reported rather discouraging con-
This type of consumption see1s fun, amusement, fantasy,
vergent validities among various indices of brain laterali-
arousal, sensory stimulation, and enjoyment. Indeed, the
zation. Taken together, these difficulties point out that work
evidence suggests that consumers typically spend the ma-
on the physiological components of consumption remains
jority of their lives eating, sleeping, chatting with friends,
in its infancy and needs further conceptual and methodo-
making love, and watching television (Robinson 1977, p.
logical development in measures of arousal and hemispheric
35). Surely, any meaningful attempt to model such rela-
involvement.
tively pleasure-oriented consumption must pay attention to
its hedonic components.
Regarding consumption as a primary process directed Search Activity
toward the hedonic pursuit of pleasure raises certain meth-
odological issues. These include: (1) the need to develop The nature of the associated search activity is closely tied
better measures of hedonic response-especially valid and to involvement issues. Here, proponents of the information
operational definitions of what constitutes "pleasure"; (2) processing perspective adopt various strategies for the study
the fact that hedonic responses are likely to be unusually of information acquisition. Those inclined toward labora-
susceptible to fluctuations across situations, thereby posing tory methods have developed ingenious techniques to study
problems of reliability and validity; and (3) the difficulty how cues are acquired (Russo 1978). Meanwhile, survey
of using available indices of chronic hedonic energy, such researchers have investigated the general characteristics of
as sensation seeking, in the context of explaining acute, information seekers at the cross-cultural level (Thorelli,
volatile, sensory-emotive phenomena. The experiential Becker, and Engledow 1975).
view performs a useful role by insistently calling attention By contrast, an experiential view of search activity might
to these conceptual and methodological problems. draw more heavily from the work by psychologists on ex-
ploratory behavior (Berlyne 1960). For example, Howard
and Sheth (1969) consider stimulus ambiguity, working
Type of Involvement
through arousal, as a determinant of specific exploration
We focus here not on the degree of involvement (low via what they call "overt search." More diversive explo-
versus high), but rather on its type (engagement of cognitive ration-such as that involved in exposure to entertainment
responses versus orientation reaction involving arousal). media-has sometimes been explained as a form of play,
Krugman's (1965) early definition of involvement empha- as in the "ludic" theory of mass communication (Huizinga
sized the tendency to make personal connections between 1970; Stephenson 1967).
The full gamut of relevant emotions includes such diverse commentary on whatever cognitive material the subject is
feelings as love, hate, fear, joy, boredom, anxiety, pride, aware of" (Hilgard 1980).3
anger, disgust, sadness, sympathy, lust, ecstasy, greed, A recent state-of-the-art review of theory, method, and
guilt, elation, shame, and awe. This sphere of human ex- application in the study of conscious experience has been
perience has long been neglected by psychologists, who are provided by Singer (1981/1982). Comparable approaches
just beginning to expand early work on arousal in order to in conventional consumer research would include problem-
develop systematic and coherent models of emotion (Plut- solving protocols, thought-generation techniques, and sim-
chik 1980). ilar ideation-reporting procedures. It remains for the ex-
Such psychological conceptualizations of emotion are periential perspective to extend this cognitively oriented
still in their seminal stages and, understandably, have not work toward the investigation of all aspects of the con-
yet cross-pollinated the work of consumer researchers. Yet, sumption experience. In such a phenomenological ap-
it is clear that emotions form an important substrate of proach, experience is "acknowledged as a part of the psy-
consumption and that their systematic investigation is a key chological universe and addressed as an object of study"
requirement for the successful application of the experien- (Koch 1964, p. 34):
tial perspective.
The phenomenologist . . . accepts, as the subject-matter of
his inquiry, all data of experience . . Colors and sounds
are data; so are impressions of distance and duration; so are
Behavior feelings of attraction and repulsion; so are yearnings and
fears, ecstasies and disillusionments; . . . . These are data,
At the behavioral level, traditional consumer research has given in experience, to be accepted as such and wondered
focused almost exclusively on the choice process that gen- about (MacLeod 1964, p. 51).
erates purchase decisions culminating in actual buying be-
havior. Thus, brand purchase is typically viewed as the MacLeod's statement comes close to encapsulating our
central theme-namely, that the conventional approach to
most important behavioral outcome of the information pro-
cessing model.
consumer research addresses only a small fraction of the
phenomenological data that compose the entire experience
A quarter of a century ago, however, Alderson (1957)
drew a sharp distinction between buying and consuming. of consumption. Investigation of the remaining components
This contrast was further elaborated in Boyd and Levy's of the consumption experience should serve as one key
target of future methodological developments in consumer
(1963) discussion of the consumption system with its em-
research.
phasis on brand-usage behavior. By focusing on the con-
figuration of activities involved in consumption, this view- One qualitative approach, advocated by Levy, "accepts
introspection as data" and involves the use of personal
point calls attention to the experiences with a product that
narratives: "A protocol in which a consumer tells the story
one gains by actually consuming it.
Few consumer researchers have followed this lead, al- of how the product is consumed can be examined for how
though the study of product usage and related activities is the consumer interprets the consumption experience"
clearly a requisite cornerstone to the development of the (1981, p. 50). Such relatively unstructured procedures may
experiential model. The importance of such study is rein- be usefully complemented by more structured quantitative
forced by the emphasis on entertainment-, arts-, and leisure- methods.4 Toward this end, Pekala and Levine argue for
related offerings, which often depend more on the alloca- a "phenomenological or introspective approach" to inves-
tion of time than of money. Given the operation of the tigate the "structure of conscious experience" (1981/1982,
pleasure principle in multisensory gratification, exciting pp. 30-31) and present a Phenomenology of Consciousness
fantasies, and cathected emotions, one's purchase decision Questionnaire (PCQ) consisting of 60 Likert-type items
is obviously only a small component in the constellation of drawn from 15 different content areas. Factor analysis of
events involved in the overall consumption experience. the PCQ suggests the existence of nine important dimen-
In exploring the nature of that overall experience, the sions: altered experience, awareness, imagery, attention/
approach envisioned here departs from the traditional pos- memory, negative affect, alertness, positive affect, voli-
itivist focus on directly observable buying behavior and
devotes increased attention to the mental events surrounding
3The recently accumulating studies on the stream of consciousness serve
the act of consumption. The investigation of these mental
also to introduce the new introspectionism. In this light, consider the
events requires a willingness to deal with the purely sub- avowed objective of the new journal entitled Imagination, Cognition and
jective aspects of consciousness. This exploration of con- Personality: "An important purpose of this journal is to provide an inter-
sumption as conscious experience must be rigorous and disciplinary forum for those interested in the scientific study of the stream
scientific, but the methodology should include introspectiveof consciousness, directly relevant to theory, research, and application"
(Pope and Singer 1981/1982, p. 2).
reports, rather than relying exclusively on overt behavioral 4Levy (1981) views his analysis as "structural." The distinction be-
measures. The necessary methodological shift thus leads tween "structured" and "unstructured" methods pursued here refers to
toward a more phenomenological approach-i.e., "a free the type of data-collection procedure.
vital but previously neglected issues concerning (1) the role Dichter, Ernest (1960), The Strategy of Desire, Garden City, NY:
of esthetic products, (2) multisensory aspects of product Doubleday.
enjoyment, (3) the syntactic dimensions of communica- Friedman, Meyer and Ray H. Rosenman (1974), Type A: Your
tion, (4) time budgeting in the pursuit of pleasure, (5) prod- Behavior and Your Heart, New York: Knopf.
Hansen, Flemming (1981), "Hemispherical Lateralization: Im-
uct-related fantasies and imagery, (6) feelings arising from
plications for Understanding Consumer Behavior," Journal
consumption, and (7) the role of play in providing enjoy-
of Consumer Research, 8 (June), 23-36.
ment and fun. This is the point of asking questions con-
and Niels Erik Lundsgaard (1981), "Brain Lateralization
cerning the nature of experiential consumption-questions and Individual Differences in People's Reaction to Mass
such as: Communication," working paper, Copenhagen School of
Economics and Business Administration.
* "Which painting is the most beautiful?"
Hilgard, Ernest R. (1962), "Impulsive Versus Realistic Thinking:
* "Which tastes better, chocolate or strawberry?" An Examination of the Distinction Between Primary and Sec-
* "What makes Beethoven great?" ondary Processes in Thought," Psychological Bulletin, 59
* ''How much do you watch television?" (6), 477-488.
(1980), "Consciousness in Contemporary Psychology,"
* "What do you see when you turn out the lights?"
Annual Review of Psychology, 31, 1-26.
* "What makes you happy?" Hirschman, Elizabeth C. (1982), "Religious Affiliation and Con-
* "How did you spend your vacation?" sumption Processes: An Initial Paradigm," forthcoming in
Research in Marketing.
In sum, the purpose of this paper has been neither to and Morris B. Holbrook, eds. (1981), Symbolic Consumer
advocate a "new" theory of consumer behavior nor to re- Behavior, Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Re-
ject the "old" approach, but rather to argue for an enlarged search.
view that avoids any adherence to the "-isms" or "-olo- Howard, John A. and Jagdish N. Sheth (1969), The Theory of
gies" that so often constrict scientific inquiry. One cannot Buyer Behavior, New York: John Wiley.
reduce the explanation of human behavior to any narrowly Huizinga, Johan (1970), Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Ele-
ment in Culture, New York: Harper & Row.
circumscribed and simplistic model, whether that model be
Kassarjian, Harold H. (1977), "Content Analysis in Consumer
behavioristic or psychoanalytic, ethological or anthropo-
Research," Journal of Consumer Research, 4 (June), 8-18.
morphic, cognitive or motivational: the behavior of people Klinger, Eric (1971), Structure and Functions of Fantasy, New
in general and of consumers in particular is the fascinating York: Wiley-Interscience.
and endlessly complex result of a multifaceted interaction Koch, Sigmund (1964), "Psychology and Emerging Conceptions
between organism and environment. In this dynamic pro- of Knowledge as Unitary," in Behaviorism and Phenome-
cess, neither problem-directed nor experiential components nology, ed. T. W. Wann, Chicago: University of Chicago
can safely be ignored. By focusing single mindedly on the Press, 1-45.
consumer as information processor, recent consumer re- Kroeber-Riel, Werner (1979), "Activation Research: Psychobio-
logical Approaches in Consumer Research," Journal of Con-
search has tended to neglect the equally important exper-
sumer Research, 5(March), 240-250.
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Krugman, Herbert E. (1965), "The Impact of Television Adver-
standing of consumer behavior. Future research should
tising: Learning Without Involvement," Public Opinion
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Leavitt, Clark, Anthony G. Greenwald, and Carl Obermiller
(1981), "What Is Low Involvement Low In?" in Advances
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