ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LECTURE
LECTURE 2: BASIC CHEMISTRY
Jan Michael Robles Remolado
An ELEMENT is the simplest type of matter having unique
chemical properties. A list of the elements commonly found
in the human body. About 96% of the body’s weight results
from the elements oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen.
However, many other elements also play important roles in
the human body. For example, calcium helps form bones,
and sodium ions are essential for neuronal activity. Some of
these elements are present in only trace amounts but are still
essential for life.
SIGNIFICANCE/ROLE:
Oxygen (O)
→ a major component of both organic and inorganic
molecules
→ as a gas
→ essential to the oxidation of glucose and other food fuels,
during which cellular energy (ATP) is produced
Carbon
→ the primary element in all organic molecules, including
carbohydrates (CHO), lipids, proteins (CHON), and nucleic
acid
Hydrogen
→ a component of most organic molecules, as an ion (a
charged atom)
→ it influences the pH of body fluids
Nitrogen
→ a component of proteins and nucleic acids (genetic
materials)
Calcium
→ found as a salt in bones and teeth; in ionic form
→ required for muscle contraction, neural transmission, and
blood clotting
→ Enhances Bone Strength
→ Normalizes Cardiac Muscle Activity
→ Balances Hormone Levels
Food Sources:
→ milk, yogurt, buttermilk, cheese, broccoli, cabbage,
spinach, orange, kiwi, papaya, almonds, walnuts, brazil nuts,
bean and sprout varieties, cereals, juices, breads are
incorporated with calcium
Deficiencies:
→ When calcium levels in the blood and bones decrease
tremendously, it is referred to as hypocalcemia.
→ This negatively affects bone strength, hormonal balance,
nerve signal transmission as well as cardiac muscle
functioning.
→ low calcium levels invariably result in osteoporosis and
arthritis
Toxicity:
When calcium levels in the body rise above normal, it results
in gas, bloating, constipation and even kidney and heart
complications.
Phosphorus
→ present as a salt, in combination with calcium, in bones
and teeth
→ also present in nucleic acids and many proteins
→ form parts of the high-energy compound ATP
→ chiefly, this mineral is present in the bodily tissues as
phosphate ions, which is basically phosphorous combined
with oxygen to result in an electrolyte.
→ phosphorous is an integral component of ATP –
adenosine triphosphate, the major energy-generating
molecule in the system. It, therefore, plays a crucial role in
preserving the metabolism of all macronutrients – carbs,
proteins, fats and particularly assures processing of
carbohydrates into simple sugars.
→ assisting in the contraction of muscles
→ ridding the system of toxins, food wastes via the kidneys
→ transmission of nerve signals between cells, tissues and
organs
→ improving muscle recovery and strength post intense
physical workouts
→ producing the main genetic components of all cells and
tissues – DNA and RNA
→ preserving normal heartbeat
→ fortifying bones, teeth with increased mineral density
Food Sources:
dairy products like cheese, milk, yoghurt, cottage cheese,
vegetables and plant produce namely potato, tofu, garlic,
soy, nuts and seeds such as sunflower seeds, cashews,
pistachios, pumpkin seeds, almonds, whole grains and
cereals consisting of wheat, oats, rice, quinoa (Links to an
external site.), lentils and beans comprising kidney beans,
chickpeas, sprouts, animal sources of poultry, seafood, eggs,
meat
Deficiency:
→ The most common consequence of low intake of
phosphorous is hypophosphatemia, which implies a decline
in phosphate levels in the blood
→ This deficiency condition invariably leads to decreased
energy levels, besides severe fatigue, lethargy, exhaustion,
muscle injuries and weakness
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LECTURE
LECTURE 2: BASIC CHEMISTRY
Jan Michael Robles Remolado
→ An individual with hypophosphatemia also finds it difficult
to engage in routine exercises, due to abnormal ATP and
energy-associated biochemical mechanisms in the system
→ When phosphorous levels in the body drop well below
normal, along with that of calcium and vitamin D, the health
of bones, muscles and joints is vastly affected, causing pain
and frequent injuries
Toxicity:
→ High levels of phosphorous in the body trigger an
abnormality known as hyperphosphatemia. While in the
initial stages, this condition only prompts aching in bones
and muscles, advanced phases result in serious
consequences
→ Hyperphosphatemia in severe levels leads to
malfunctioning of kidneys, heart complications such as
cardiac arrest, irregular heartbeat and extreme fragility of
bones. It is hence necessary to visit a doctor immediately if
any such symptoms of elevated body phosphorous levels are
observed, to guarantee timely treatment and optimal
recovery
Potassium
→ in its ionic form, the major intracellular cation
→ necessary for the conduction of nerve impulses for muscle
contraction
→ maintaining normal blood pressure
→ transmitting nerve signals between organs
→ controlling muscle contractions
→ ensuring optimal water balance within the system
→ balancing pH in the body between acidity and alkalinity
→ upholding accurate heart rate i.e. pulse
→ regulating proper digestion processes
→ preventing stroke and heart disease
→ sustaining regular heart muscle activity
Food Sources:
Vegetables like green leafy cruciferous plants – spinach, kale
broccoli, as well as carrots, potatoes, cucumbers, sweet
potatoes and beetroots
Fruits such as bananas, apricots, oranges and grapefruit
Whole grains like brown rice, wheat bread and oat bran
Seeds and nuts including hazelnuts, pistachios, sunflower
seeds, flax and almonds
Deficiency:
A person with hypokalemia displays prominent external
indications including exhaustion, extreme fatigue even after
resting, soreness in muscles and problems with digestion like
bloating, flatulence and constipation
Toxicity:
When the potassium quantities in the system rise to
alarmingly high levels, between 5.1 – 6 mmol per liter, it is
considered to be excessive, leading to hyperkalemia.
Hyperkalemia usually occurs only when potassium
supplements are consumed in excess and rarely due to too
much intake from dietary sources.
Sulfur
→ a component of CHONs (particularly contractile proteins
of muscle)
Food Source:
→ Meat and poultry: especially beef, ham, chicken, duck,
turkey, and organ meats (Links to an external site.) like heart
and liver
→ Fish and seafood: most types of fish, as well as shrimp,
scallops, mussels, and prawns
→ Legumes: especially soybeans, black beans, kidney
beans, split peas, and white beans
→ Nuts and seeds: especially almonds, Brazil nuts, peanuts,
walnuts, and pumpkin and sesame seeds
→ Eggs and dairy: whole eggs, cheddar, Parmesan and
gorgonzola cheese, and cow’s milk
→ Dried fruit: especially dried peaches, apricots, sultanas,
and figs
→ Certain vegetables: particularly asparagus, broccoli,
Brussels sprouts, red cabbage, leeks, onion, radishes, turnip
tops, and watercress
→ Certain grains: especially pearl barley, oats, wheat, and
flour made from these grains
→ Certain beverages: particularly beer, cider, wine, coconut
milk, and grape and tomato juice
→ Condiments and spices: especially horseradish, mustard,
marmite, curry powder, and ground ginger
→ Possible side effects of too much sulfur Diarrhea Gut
Inflammation
Sodium
→ as an ion, the major extracellular cation
→ important for water balance
→ conduction of nerve impulses
→ muscle contraction
→ the primary task of sodium in the system is to control and
regulate the volume of blood at any instance
→ Maintaining Optimal Blood Volume:
→ The total amount of sodium in the body affects the amount
of fluid in the blood (blood volume) and around cells. The
body continually monitors blood volume and sodium
concentration. When either becomes too high, sensors in the
heart, blood vessels, and kidneys detect the increases and
stimulate the kidneys to increase sodium excretion, thus
returning blood volume to normal.
→ When blood volume or sodium concentration becomes too
low, the sensors trigger mechanisms to increase blood
volume. These mechanisms include the kidneys stimulating
the adrenal glands to secrete the hormone aldosterone.
Aldosterone causes the kidneys to retain sodium and to
excrete potassium. When sodium is retained, less urine is
produced, eventually causing blood volume to increase.
→ Another biochemical process by which sodium balance in
the blood is preserved is by means of pituitary gland
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LECTURE
LECTURE 2: BASIC CHEMISTRY
Jan Michael Robles Remolado
secreting vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone. Vasopressin
causes the kidneys to conserve water.
Food Sources:
Sodium is basically ingested into the body as salt i.e. sodium
chloride, via processed foods and the table salt or iodized
salt used in cooking and seasoning.
While only negligible amounts of sodium are absorbed by
means of salt used in preparing dishes or flavoring salads,
soups, the major proportion of sodium consumed as part of
diet actually comes from packaged foods and enriched
products.
These comprise bread, pizza, frozen meat, oily and fried fast
food, as well as spicy snacks and savories such as chips,
popcorn, crackers, cookies, sauces, dips and ketchup.
Deficiency:
Hyponatremia usually develops when the body retains too
much fluid, as in the case of heart failure or liver disease. It is
very commonly observed in people who drink too many fluids
regularly, as well as those on diuretic medicines, to resolve
the health issue of kidneys not functioning optimally.
Toxicity:
→ Hypernatremia is an electrolyte and is indicated by a high
level of sodium in the blood.
Causes:
→ Dehydration or a loss of body fluids from prolonged
vomiting, diarrhea, sweating or high fevers.
→ Dehydration from not drinking enough water.
→ Drugs such as steroids, licorice, and certain blood
pressure lowering medicines.
→ Certain endocrine diseases such as diabetes (when very
frequent urination occurs) or aldosteronism.
→ You may eat a lot of salt.
→ Hyperventilation (breathing too fast).
Chlorine
in ionic (chloride) form, the most abundant extracellular anion
Magnesium
→ present in bones
→ an important cofactor for enzyme activity in a number of
metabolic reactions
→ strengthening bones and joints
→ preventing insulin resistance and lowering the risk of type
2 diabetes
→ enhancing cardiac muscle activity
→ averting frequent migraines by promoting neurotransmitter
synthesis in the brain
→ reducing the occurrence of depression and anxiety
→ decreasing the risk of acquiring severe heart and
neurological disorders like arrhythmia, cardiac arrest,
Alzheimer's and stroke
Food source:
→ Nuts and seeds like and pumpkin seeds
→ Dark green leafy vegetables such as spinach and kale
→ Whole wheat bread, oatmeal
→ Fruit such as figs, avocado, banana and raspberries
→ Legumes including black beans, chickpeas and kidney
beans
→ Vegetables such as peas, broccoli, cabbage, green
beans, artichokes, asparagus, brussels sprouts
→ Raw cacao
→ Dark Chocolate
→ Tofu
Deficiency:
nausea, vomiting, fatigue, muscle cramps
Toxicity:
when magnesium toxicity is detected in a person, grave
complications like kidney problems, central nervous system
malfunctioning and cardiac arrest can occur
Iodine
→ needed to make functional thyroid hormone
→ maintaining normal synthesis and operation of thyroid
hormone, by catalyzing the conversion of thyroid stimulating
hormone (TSH) into triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4),
thus uplifting immunity, heart wellness and metabolism
→ preventing the incidence of hypothyroidism, i.e. an
underactive thyroid gland
→ ensuring optimal neural development in the growing fetus
in pregnancy
→ lowering the risk of goitre which results in enlargement of
the thyroid gland
→ promoting memory, concentration, intelligence, rational
thinking and myriad other brain operations
→ averting the occurrence of thyroid cancers and other
autoimmune conditions like Graves’ disease
Food source:
→ Iodized salt, a manufactured seasoning wherein regular
sea salt is fortified with iodine
→ Dairy produce including milk, yoghurt, cheese
→ Eggs and seafood
→ Cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage,
cauliflower
→ Seaweed like kombu kelp, nori and wakame
→ Fruits consisting of dried plums, also known as prunes,
bananas
Deficiency:
→ The main deficiency disorder arising from low intake of
iodine on a routine basis is hypothyroidism (this is
characterized by a significant swelling in the thyroid gland, in
the neck, referred to as goiter)
→ Hypothyroidism also results in severe exhaustion,
fatigue and body weakness. Moreover, as the thyroid
hormone is essential for immune operations, energy
metabolism and facilitating digestion, all these mechanisms
are disrupted due to an iodine deficiency and eventual
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LECTURE
LECTURE 2: BASIC CHEMISTRY

Jan Michael Robles Remolado

situation of hypothyroidism. It, hence, gives rise to

constipation, frequent cough and cold, poor memory, body
weight fluctuations and decreased nervous system
functioning.

Toxicity:

→ Iodine is consumed in huge amounts for a prolonged

period of time, which causes excess accumulation of the
mineral in the body. This results in serious inflammatory
conditions of thyroiditis and even thyroid papillary cancer.
→ In rare occasions, iodine poisoning happens in the
system, which gives rise to painful, burning sensations in the
mouth, throat, stomach, abdominal complications of diarrhea,
vomiting and grave complications including a weakened
pulse and coma.

Iron

→ a component of the functional hemoglobin molecule

(which transports oxygen within red blood cells ) and some
enzymes
→ Forms a structural part of hemoglobin, a protein that is
crucial for carrying oxygen in the blood
→ Ensures a healthy and safe pregnancy, by meeting vital
nutrient requirements of both the expecting mother and the
developing fetus.
→ Boosts the system's innate immune activity
→ Helps cells meet energy requirements, to carry out routine
biochemical roles
→ Regulates body temperature, keeping it at the normal
range of 37 to 38 Celcius
→ Promotes digestion and gut health
→ Enhances brain function, memory and concentration

Food source:

→ Green beans and peas

→ Lentils such as moong dal, urad dal, toor dal, channa
→ Whole grains like ragi, oats, quinoa
→ Dark green vegetables such as spinach, broccoli, kale,
moringa leaves
→ Tofu
→ Potatoes
→ Cashew nuts

Deficiency:

The deficiency of iron in the body leads to alarmingly low

concentrations of healthy red blood cells. This, in turn,
causes severe complications such as a lack of hemoglobin,
wherein the muscles and other tissues do not receive oxygen
supply to carry out their normal functions. This is a condition
referred to as iron deficiency anemia, common symptoms of
which comprise fatigue, dizziness and difficulty breathing.

Toxicity:

Too much iron in the body can cause grave consequences

such as nausea, vomiting, upset stomach, internal bleeding
and in rare cases, even a coma.