Special characteristics of different selected home gardens

Kandyan homegardens
Landreth, Nicholas, and Osamu Saito. "An ecosystem services approach to
sustainable livelihoods in the homegardens of Kandy, Sri Lanka." Australian
Geographer 45.3 (2014): 355-373.
At an average size of 0.4 ha, the 82 563 homegardens in Kandy District cover about 32 per cent of its
land area and are attached to about 70 per cent of households (Forestry Department 2009; Mohri et al.
2013). Households without homegardens are likely to be in urban centres (11 per cent of Kandyan
households) or share homegardens with relatives in neighbouring households.

Kandyan homegardens are socio-ecological systems characterised by deliberate human interactions

balancing household livelihoods with environmental function.

The most distinctive physical features of Kandyan homegardens are

 multi-storeyed canopy cover- Top-level tree canopy includes valuable, mature timber species,
such as sandalwood, teak, mahogany, and jak, and coconut trees. The layer below includes
smaller fruit, ornamental, medicinal and spice trees, such as nutmeg and clove. The lowest layer
consists of wild ground cover and cleared patches for cultivating annuals and vegetables
 high natural and cultivated species diversity - Species are generally planted without specific
arrangement, but there is significant correlation between crop and tree species, such as
introduced Gliricidia trees cultivated to support pepper vines and provide highnutrient compost.
Regular labour required is typically low but varies by degree of commercial cultivation,
household size, season (harvesting), and environmental threats (especially wild animals)
 steep hillside gradients..).
 Family labour is usually sufficient for regular maintenance, but labour is often hired for
intensive seasonal operations, such as harvesting cash crops (including cloves, pepper, and
coconuts) or drainage maintenance.
 Regular homegarden labour primarily includes: cultivating annual crops; harvesting; canopy
pruning; clearing excess seedlings and undergrowth; nurturing naturally germinated seedlings
and new plantings; enhancing soil nutrients (fertilising); controlling pests; and digging lock-and-
spill drainage ditches. Figure 1 is a view of a typical Kandyan homegarden based on land-use
maps developed from the first stage of this research, showing arrangements and layering of
cultivation around the home
Study area selection:

 differing climates- Different ‘wet’ and ‘intermediate’ climate zones were selected to compare
climate and water scarcity variables in similarly structured homegardens. The wet zone receives
a mean annual rainfall of over 2500 mm, and the drier intermediate zone between 1750 and
2500 mm. Godammuna is 14 km south-east of Kandy city in the drier intermediate zone.
Kulugammana is 8 km north-west of Kandy city in the wet climate zone. Kumburegama is 16 km
north-east of Kandy in the wet zone
 income,- Income variables were also targeted—Godammuna is in one of 119 sub-district
divisions targeted by the national development agency as a result of an aboveaverage poverty
headcount. Kumburegama included 18 internationally certified organic and fair trade
homegardens, earning premiums 30–100 per cent higher from export than conventional traders.
shows that Kulugammana homegardens tended to be less than half the size of average
homegardens in other areas. Drier Godammuna had the largest average homegarden size, but
also the lowest income, suggesting a stronger correlation of income with rainfall than land area.
Certified wet zone Kumburegama households had the highest household income, even with
relatively fewer householders available to work the homegarden or otherwise earn income.
 and market access in Kandy District In 2012, a preliminary field survey and biodiversity stocktake
was conducted in 70 households across five villages in the mountainous Kandy District of Sri
Lanka’s Central Province (Figure 3). In January 2013, follow-up surveys were conducted among
31 households chosen at random in the Godammuna area (14 households from Godammuna
and Talatuoya villages), Kulugammana area (12 households from Kulugammana and Haloluwe
villages), and Kumburegama village (5 households)—2.4 per cent of the total 1272 households in
the study area. The surveys provided information on changes in household demography, drivers
of land management choices, homegarden productivity, market dependency for household
staples, and ecosystem services valued for household well-being. A focus group with students at
the nearby University of Peradeniya was also conducted to compare livelihood preferences and
ecosystem values with the next generation of homegardeners. Price surveys were conducted in
local produce markets to determine the replacement value of food and crops produced by
homegardens. Grama Niladhari (village representatives appointed by the national government),
Samurdhi (a national poverty alleviation program), United Nations Development Programme,
World Bank, and Food and Agriculture Organisation officials were interviewed on the national
and international significance of homegardens. Figures cited in this paper relate to the second
2013 sample set of 31 households, unless otherwise indicated.

Homegardens: a significant part of diverse livelihood strategies The study identified 75 different plant
species harvested by study area homegardens for income, food, fuel, medicine, construction and fibre,
livestock fodder, fertiliser, or communal sharing. Figure 4 shows an average of 25 per cent of annual
income across all homegardens, including 23 per cent of households that reported no direct income
derived from homegardens over the last year. Spices grown for income were allocated the largest
amount of land in all three areas, with nutmeg and clove trees the dominant crops in wetter
Kulugammana and Kumburegama, and pepper vines dominating in more water-scarce and drought-
prone Godammuna. Other typically Some 36 per cent of households relied on homegardens as their
primary source of income, which was typically one component in a diverse livelihood strategy. On
average, each household reported three significant sources of income (only one reported homegardens
as the sole source). Combinations of livelihood components provide diverse income streams and safety
nets, most commonly a mix of: other agriculture (such as paddy cultivation of rice and commercial
vegetables or upland tea, pepper and timber plantations); off-farm labour (such as tourism, small-scale
home manufacturing, or full-time professional work); non-labour income (such as pensions or from
rented paddies); or financial family support (such as remittances from children who work or are in
military service). Godammuna had a higher average of four different income streams per household,
partly as a result of greater vulnerability to water shortages, making risk reduction through multiple
income sources more of a necessity. Most households with off-farm employment worked at home, in
small urban centres, or in Kandy city.

Mohri, Hideyuki, et al. "Assessment of ecosystem services in homegarden systems

in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam." Ecosystem Services 5 (2013): 124-136

3.1.1. Scale

Spatial scale. In terms of land area, the spatial scale under homegardens varies depending upon the
climate, soil type, topography, rainfall, economic activity, and culture. 70% of households in the Kandy
area have homegardens. while they occupy 30–40% of the total cultivated area in Sri Lanka (Verheij,
1982; Ensing et al., 1985).

Temporal scale. This refers to the time and labor spent in managing homegardens as a subsidiary
activity along with the primary activity of farming. In general, homegardens require minimal labor, which
is mostly provided by household members with flexible schedules. In Kandy, apart from household
members, labor is hired for skilled operations (Jacob and Alles, 1987) such as harvesting cash crops such
as cloves, black pepper, and tea.

3.1.2. Structure of homegarden systems Homegarden gardens’ vertical and horizontal structure changes
depending on the local communities’ communal, financial, cultural, and ecological attributes (Abdoellah
et al., 2001). The Javanese and Kandyan homegardens represent complex horizontal zoning and vertical
stratification at different heights with a high diversity of species, resulting in intimate plant association in
a virtually closed canopy structure.

3.1.3. Vertical structure of homegarden systems- Perera and Perera (1997a) study on the relative
frequency of occurrence suggests that in Kandyan homegardens, the highest canopy layer is dominated
by jackfruit and coconut trees, followed by areca nut, fishtail palm, gliricidia, mango, and cloves in the
next canopy, and coffee in the lower canopy. In the ground layer, the species vary from one garden to
another. However, recently it has been observed that the homegarden structure can be affected by
factors such as population density, socioeconomics, proximity to the market area, owners’ preference,
and management objectives. Horizontal structure of homegarden systems. A large number of species
are randomly arranged without specific geometrical patterns and are planted in order to achieve
maximum space utilization and fulfill their light, water, and fertility requirements (Christanty et al.,
1986). Apart from these factors, managementassociated aspects are also important to determine the
horizontal zoning in the front, back, and sides of the house. In Kandyan homegardens, the horizontal
zoning of planting is random, without any specific pattern or arrangement, but a significant correlation
exists between different species with tree species dominating (McConnell, 2003).
Haan, R. de, Hambly Odame, H., Thevathasan, N., & Nissanka, S. P. (2020). Local knowledge and
perspectives of change in homegardens: A photovoice study in Kandy District, Sri Lanka. Sustainability
(Switzerland), 12(17). https://doi.org/10.3390/SU12176866

What makes the Kandyan homegarden often exceptional is its thick tree canopy and plant layers
encompassing structural complexity and biodiversity that are comparable to natural tropical forests. For
this reason, they are sometimes called Kandyan Forest Gardens [1,33]. They are predominantly situated
in the Kandy district which has a high population density and wet zone climatic conditions, and they are
characterized by the steep slopes of the area [33]. Kandyan homegardens are usually accompanied by
other land uses such as paddy field farming and tea plantations, and they may border natural forests
and protected areas. The homegarden is usually made up of tall timber trees in the top canopy layer,
followed by fruit, ornamental, and/or spice trees in the layers below. Vines spread throughout the
garden as well, such as pepper (Piper nigrum) that climb Gliricidia trees (Gliricidia sepium). In the lower
strata, vegetables, tubers, and various medicinal plants cover the ground. For a list of common species
found in Kandyan Homegardens see [1,21]. All together, the landscape surrounding homegardens forms
a distinct socio-ecological agroforestry mosaic [33]. The site and community selection for this research
was based on recommendations from staff

members at the University of Peradeniya. The research was conducted in three neighboring villages:
Elladetta (latitude 7.215443, longitude 80.577747), Petiyagoda (latitude 7.217104, longitude
80.584694), and Lankatikala village (latitude 7.233482, longitude 80.568335) in Kandy District, in the
Central Province of Sri Lanka (Figure 1). All three villages are in the agro-ecological region of the
midcountry (elevation range of about 500–550 m amsl) wet zone (annual rainfall > 2200 mm) of MW2b.
Average annual maximum, minimum, and mean temperatures are around 28, 20, and 24.5 ◦C,
respectively. The terrain is mountainous, with a steeply dissected, hilly, and rolling topography. Major
soil types in the regions are Low Humic Gley soil, Red Yellow Podzolic soil, Mountain Regosol soil, and
Lithosol soils [34,35]. All three villages are located approximately 15 km from the city of Kandy and are
densely populated. These villages were purposively selected as study sites based on the criterion that
local residents rely on homegardening, in varying degrees, to meet their livelihood needs.

Baul, T. K., Chakraborty, A., Nandi, R., Nath, T. K., & Mohiuddin, M. (2021). Phytosociological attributes
and ecosystem services of homegardens of Maheshkhali island of Bangladesh. Trees, Forests and
People, 5, 100092. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tfp.2021.100092

Caballero-Serrano, V., Onaindia, M., Alday, J. G., Caballero, D., Carrasco, J. C., McLaren, B., & Amigo, J.
(2016). Plant diversity and ecosystem services in Amazonian homegardens of Ecuador. Agriculture,
Ecosystems & Environment, 225, 116–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGEE.2016.04.005

Calvet-Mir, L., Gómez-Baggethun, E., & Reyes-García, V. (2012). Beyond food production: Ecosystem
services provided by home gardens. A case study in Vall Fosca, Catalan Pyrenees, Northeastern
Spain. Ecological Economics, 74, 153–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ECOLECON.2011.12.011

Ciftcioglu, G. C. (2017). Social preference-based valuation of the links between home gardens,
 ecosystem services, and human well-being in Lefke Region of North Cyprus. Ecosystem Services, 25,
227–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ECOSER.2017.05.002

Ewuketu Linger. (2014). Agro-ecosystem and socio-economic role of homegarden agroforestry in

Jabithenan District, North-Western Ethiopia: implication for climate change adaptation.
SpringerPlus, 3(154), 1–9.

Gajaseni, J., & Gajaseni, N. (1999). Ecological rationalities of the traditional homegarden system in the
Chao Phraya Basin, Thailand. Agroforestry Systems, 46(1), 3–23.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006188504677

Jeyavanan, K., Sivachandiran, S., & Pushpakumara, D. K. N. G. (2017). Ecosystem Services of Homegarden
Agroforestry in Jaffna Peninsula. Journal of Dry Zone Agriculture, 3, 56–68.
http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/xmlui/handle/123456789/1458

Kumar, B. M. (2006). Carbon sequestration potential of tropical homegardens BT - Tropical

Homegardens: A Time-Tested Example of Sustainable Agroforestry (B. M. Kumar & P. K. R. Nair
(eds.); pp. 185–204). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4948-4_11

Landreth, N., & Saito, O. (2014). An Ecosystem Services Approach to Sustainable Livelihoods in the
Homegardens of Kandy, Sri Lanka. Https://Doi.Org/10.1080/00049182.2014.930003, 45(3), 355–
373. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049182.2014.930003

Mohri, H., Lahoti, S., Saito, O., Mahalingam, A., Gunatilleke, N., Irham, Hoang, V. T., Hitinayake, G.,
Takeuchi, K., & Herath, S. (2013). Assessment of ecosystem services in homegarden systems in
Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam. Ecosystem Services, 5, 124–136.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ECOSER.2013.07.006

Mohri, H., Landreth, N., Lahoti, S., Saito, O., Hitinayake, G., Gunatilleke, N., Irham, Van Thang, H., &
Takeuchi, K. (2018). Ecosystem Services of Traditional Homegardens in South and Southeast Asia BT
- Resilient Asia: Fusion of Traditional and Modern Systems for a Sustainable Future (K. Takeuchi, O.
Saito, H. Matsuda, & G. Mohan (eds.); pp. 95–121). Springer Japan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-
431-56597-0_6
Functional diversity of home gardens and their agrobiodiversity
conservation benefits in Benin, West Africa
Study area The study was carried out in Benin (Fig. 1). Benin is about 114.763 km2 [49], with three main
agro-ecological zones (AEZs) ranging from humid to semi-arid which are distinguishable [50] with
contrasting ecological (Table 1) and socio-economic characteristics. All the three zones were
considered in this study. The resident population of about 10,008,749 inhabitants is unequally
distributed [49], with 60% of the population concentrated in 20% of the territory [51]. The
population is mainly young (more than 40% is under 15 years old) and slightly female-biased
(51.2%) [49]. Thirty-three percent of the population has at least basic education (primary school or
alphabetization in local languages) while the remaining part of the population can neither read nor
write [51]. Rainfall distribution in Benin shows two types of climates with a region of transition. In
the south (humid and sub-humid zones), the climate is tropical humid with two rainfall maxima
corresponding to two rainy seasons: March–July and September–November. The remaining
months are dry [52, 53]. In the northern part (semi-arid zone), the climate is sudanian with one
rainy season covering May to October and a long dry season covering November to May [52, 53].

Table 1 Characteristics of the three agro-ecological zones of Benin

Agro-ecological zones
Parameters Semi-arid Semi-humid Humid zone Sources
Location 9°45′–12°25′ N 7°30′–9°45′ N 6°25′–7°30′ N Sinsin et
al. [52]
Rainfall (mm) < 1000 900–1110 1200 Judex et
al. [51]
Climate type Dry tropical Humid tropical Humid tropical Judex et
al. [51]
Density of population†† 33–49 51–162 191–8593 INSAE
[49]
Days in growing season 90–100 180–270 270–365 Jahnke
and Jahnke [50
Beyond food production: Ecosystem services provided by
home gardens. A case study in Vall Fosca, Catalan
Pyrenees, Northeastern Spain
Research was conducted in Vall Fosca, northeastern Spain, between 2008 and 2010. Vall Fosca
is a Pyrenean valley of glacial formation of about 200 km2 and 1000 inhabitants lying along
the Flamisell River. At the administrative level, it is constituted by the municipality of La
Torre de Capdella and partially by the municipality of Senterada (Fig. 1). Most inhabitants
in the valley have worked as cattle dealers until recent years, when they have started to
combine traditional production activities with tourism services, offering accommodation
and food for urban visitors. Nowadays the division of the employed population by sector
shows a clear predominance of the tertiary sector, with an occupancy rate of 60.5% versus
15.8% in the primary sector or 15.5% of the secondary. The construction sector employs
8.2% of the population (IDESCAT, 2007). Due to high altitudes and marked slopes, which
made it difficult to engage in intensive agriculture, home gardens have traditionally been the
most characteristic form of agriculture in Vall Fosca, an area mostly devoted to pastures.
Thus, the absence of shops and the limited accessibility to the town markets, especially in
winter, traditionally gave home gardens in Vall Fosca an important role as a complement
for food supply, hosting a wide diversity of species and varieties for household
consumption. As part of their household activities, women have customarily been in charge
of home gardens, as men spent much of their time outside the household in charge of cattle.
Previous ethnographic interviews in the area suggest that, traditionally, seed exchange was
the most common way to acquire seeds (Calvet-Mir et al., 2011a). Despite the low
predominance of the primary sector as main economic activity, our ethnographic data show
that most households still manage a home garden for self-consumption. Our previous
research suggest that some of the traditional features of home gardens are only partially
present since, for example, currently in Vall Fosca 43.39% of the home gardens studied are
managed by men, whereas 37.73% by women and 18.86% are shared home gardens. This
previous research has also shown that home gardens have a mean area of 147.25 m2 and are
mainly organically managed. Specifically, it found that about 75% of the studied home
gardens received manure or organic products as main fertilizers and organic or manual
management methods as main practices to control weeds and pests. Some gardeners also
reported that they did not use any method to control weeds and pests. Moreover, 95% of
home garden tenders at the study area practiced crop rotation, a practice that consists in
growing a series of dissimilar types of crops in the same area in sequential seasons for
various benefits such as the replenishment of nutrients in the soil. However, only 16% of
them applied crop associations; a practice that consists in growing some plants together to
increase synergies. that favor their development. Also, the presence of 39 landraces in Vall
Fosca was recorded, highlighting the important role of home gardens for in situ
agrobiodiversity conservation (Calvet-Mir et al., 2011a). Finally, this research also found
that women, retired people, owners of organic gardens, and experienced gardeners were
those who maintained more landraces. Women, retired people and experienced gardeners
also hold more knowledge on landraces than people without those sociodemographic
characteristics.
Drivers of plant biodiversity and ecosystem service production in
home gardens across the Beijing Municipality of China
The Beijing municipality of the northeast coast of China spans 16,800 sq. km, and has a population of
over 20 million people, which is a 54% increase since 2001 (National Bureau of Statistics 2010;
Beijing Bureau of Statistics 2012). Of these, 86 % of total residents reside in urbanized Beijing, and
over 35% of the total population are migrants from other provinces (Beijing Bureau of Statistics
2012). Residents living in exurban areas in China earn less than half much as their urban
counterparts (Zimmer and Kwong 2004), and are more likely to get

Home gardens in Sri Lanka

Characteristics of different Home Gardens (HG)
Baul, T. K., Chakraborty, A., Nandi, R., Nath, T. K., & Mohiuddin, M. (2021).
Phytosociological attributes and ecosystem services of homegardens of Maheshkhali island
of Bangladesh. Trees, Forests and People, 5, 100092.
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tfp.2021.100092
Caballero-Serrano, V., Onaindia, M., Alday, J. G., Caballero, D., Carrasco, J. C., McLaren, B., &
Amigo, J. (2016). Plant diversity and ecosystem services in Amazonian homegardens of
Ecuador. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 225, 116–125.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGEE.2016.04.005
Calvet-Mir, L., Gómez-Baggethun, E., & Reyes-García, V. (2012). Beyond food production:
Ecosystem services provided by home gardens. A case study in Vall Fosca, Catalan
Pyrenees, Northeastern Spain. Ecological Economics, 74, 153–160.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ECOLECON.2011.12.011
Ciftcioglu, G. C. (2017). Social preference-based valuation of the links between home gardens,
ecosystem services, and human well-being in Lefke Region of North Cyprus. Ecosystem
Services, 25, 227–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ECOSER.2017.05.002
Ewuketu Linger. (2014). Agro-ecosystem and socio-economic role of homegarden agroforestry
in Jabithenan District, North-Western Ethiopia: implication for climate change adaptation.
SpringerPlus, 3(154), 1–9.
Gajaseni, J., & Gajaseni, N. (1999). Ecological rationalities of the traditional homegarden system
in the Chao Phraya Basin, Thailand. Agroforestry Systems, 46(1), 3–23.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006188504677
Jeyavanan, K., Sivachandiran, S., & Pushpakumara, D. K. N. G. (2017). Ecosystem Services of
Homegarden Agroforestry in Jaffna Peninsula. Journal of Dry Zone Agriculture, 3, 56–68.
http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/xmlui/handle/123456789/1458
Kumar, B. M. (2006). Carbon sequestration potential of tropical homegardens BT - Tropical
 Homegardens: A Time-Tested Example of Sustainable Agroforestry (B. M. Kumar & P. K.
R. Nair (eds.); pp. 185–204). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-
4948-4_11
Landreth, N., & Saito, O. (2014). An Ecosystem Services Approach to Sustainable Livelihoods
in the Homegardens of Kandy, Sri Lanka. Https://Doi.Org/10.1080/00049182.2014.930003,
45(3), 355–373. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049182.2014.930003
Mohri, H., Lahoti, S., Saito, O., Mahalingam, A., Gunatilleke, N., Irham, Hoang, V. T.,
Hitinayake, G., Takeuchi, K., & Herath, S. (2013). Assessment of ecosystem services in
homegarden systems in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam. Ecosystem Services, 5, 124–
136. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ECOSER.2013.07.006
Mohri, H., Landreth, N., Lahoti, S., Saito, O., Hitinayake, G., Gunatilleke, N., Irham, Van
Thang, H., & Takeuchi, K. (2018). Ecosystem Services of Traditional Homegardens in
South and Southeast Asia BT - Resilient Asia: Fusion of Traditional and Modern Systems
for a Sustainable Future (K. Takeuchi, O. Saito, H. Matsuda, & G. Mohan (eds.); pp. 95–
121). Springer Japan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-56597-0_6

Calvet mir…northeastern spain

they sequester C in biomass and soil, reduce fossil-fuel burning by promoting woodfuel production,
help in the conservation of C stocks in existing forests by alleviating the pressure on natural forests
and ensure greater synergy with the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Moreover, there is
no complete removal of biomass from the homegardens (Gajaseni and Gajaseni, 1999), signifying
the permanence of the system. While lack of stability or permanence of the C sequestered being a
major concern in LULUCF

Removal of carbon dioxide (CO2) from atmosphere through photosynthesis and its eventual storage in
biomass and soil as organic matter or secondary carbonates h

(Kumar, 2006); (Gajaseni & Gajaseni, 1999) states that home gardens have potential to absorb
atmospheric carbon through photosynthesis and store them in biomass, wood and soil
therefore act as a carbon sink. High species diversity, incomplete harvesting and organic
litter on soil increase the carbon storage potential.

Soil formation (Landreth & Saito, 2014) Soil formation and soil fertility maintained by piled up
decaying organic matter and weathering of rocks (Calvet-Mir et al., 2012)

Soil reclamation, soil conservation and soil quality enhancement is by moisture retaining, erosion
control and atmospheric nitrogen fixation were done by the species A.Mangium and S. Saman
(Baul et al., 2021)

Soil fertility (Ciftcioglu, 2017) (Ewuketu Linger, 2014)

water purification (Mohri et al., 2013) (Mohri et al., 2018) (Landreth & Saito, 2014)

pest regulation (Mohri et al., 2013) (Mohri et al., 2018) (Baul et al., 2021) biological pest and
disease control (Ciftcioglu, 2017)

pollination (Mohri et al., 2013) (Mohri et al., 2018) (Landreth & Saito, 2014) (Ciftcioglu, 2017)
(Jeyavanan et al., 2017)

waste treatment. (Mohri et al., 2013) (Mohri et al., 2018) (Ciftcioglu, 2017)

biodiversity conservation (Landreth & Saito, 2014) (Baul et al., 2021)

air quality regulation (Landreth & Saito, 2014) (Ciftcioglu, 2017)

nutrient cycling (Landreth & Saito, 2014) incomplete harvesting and organic litter on soil
(Gajaseni & Gajaseni, 1999)
fencing (Caballero-Serrano et al., 2016) boundary (Baul et al., 2021)

Disturbane buffering flood prevention (Calvet-Mir et al., 2012)

Shade was provided by established home gardens which imitated natural forests. (Caballero-
Serrano et al., 2016) (Baul et al., 2021)