ACTE Note PDF

ADVANCE CONLSTRUCTTON MATERTAL D 06-01-2030
Ch
Fibre kQ
The bre a a iamenA OTAr@od
SometimeA
mayerial ThLA
maertal AhaA con be

Aead
rountn4o read
a rofnoncing maoria temeantn
tbre aa smau pfece
PrDperAes . 4 a
ono nd 4h
COAain chortacyerihaica
Matertiql n be Cateulan on o
sibte U denited b PorasmeAeN callRo aped rano-
94 roio
he enh fibe 4o {m dfamee ort a
Lea aera dianetern or dimemton h Cane oflo4
fbre 4 tongeá frLOm b0 150
ftbrce
SAeel fbrte
tarbon ftbra
La fbrte
d Ptanic fibre
e MbeAOA tbre
JuteJute ftbre
)Cellulone fineR
Stoel hre
Se fibres OnO Ahe m0A CDmmonba ned fbres.
enera ound iormen are ud e damete mo
rdm 025 0.5mm
TeAol bre ke to e rted and Lene same
Use ee
Abre maukes ankfêcana improvemenn
Rira, mfacn and
foe 4reh
e 140el fibres kove fairns h tmin sirength i
8o Nm -440 N[mm2 a weu as WhYoun'a Modulus. Thexe
tnparuatna Stmength as
DAe fort morR fIural
DmposRd p ele fbre.
Scanned by CamScanner
rrgeries Steel tbtes
FOLDunae AWR rtopertes o Sieelfibee
SA0el ftbrres are morte uh and haro
SArtonay,
Ose otete ela enNaAure ano oyot

Cotroen Dnd uw 34ai
The Enceane Ahe 4emie SAruengah
f ConcreAe
USe
a) Th&s
fibrte ha bep eHenAvely weo in variou tye
and for orestlays
rpaoA, ainffetd
PavemenAOdordbruclye de
Steet fibres wed in ShojerteAe.
TheThe are ed tn reCa Concete ContuCion P
dy
Te ara ed n 4unnet Lininy worek
Cortbon
fbre
Castbon
Cartbon fibres hove ve Wkqh Anntte Aen4h,2110 N/mm
LS N/n and Youn modulun ChoPped carhon
wr An fbros
Conoom
ray no wed ThRAe are ver AU
as beon. eoryA Ahaa comen CompoR MaoR
wth
0
Cartbenibre as eitor demena uu hove venn

ModiulwA
elanici+ anolLeuurtal SATter
h
h The tfmi1eol
SAudteA:hove been&houn
Pruopertaies
Corhonbres - drou
Cort bon bre are ChAmitallynera and are tOAUMana Ao
A6 drUONion
ehove an enie sAonih

ove D on ano Ahe
ant
5,
7 Cartbon bre kerunal fbres
Conaen obou Canbon ha ped ftwouurau Sre
Th Qrte OvailabR in LDw welyht
.
UAeS
une tbres fo stuACAUres
arcbon tike Claddtng
inoy duture.
anelA and ShelA wiu ave ftomA
Castbon-pbrreA aR moAA ommon whe o oinort coeDA
Compontte maAorian.
TheAe aR rororttemen eabon
ed in n whith aLey
Enceae 4eMER34rteh
onceAe a
Gqtaws Mabe 304enRd and drawn mechanitat into Ahceadl
Ort
lan wdod Ahak is
finen Aan sik. A saand dn
empone tanenay each fitoment havin a diamexen
6o AeMELA
000D6mm., Pomemes AhR SATLgth aMproachino
70,000
m
AStand Lanbrte ma diameten a
be
/s Ae
humanafrt btuu have AenntLe
sArenth Heel TheAe
ng be wov@n nto
jabrdc ort.weol iLoonely faked
romor. both, Tounol and Aneremal mulaon En
buitdin
herma Conduaivty a Ahe mojerik ronopsomos
0-0 004. *al|m./ dererdiroj upon the bulk
desmit Tem hove
0. shDwAhak 25mm lou Cool
euiraleny. AercmA
etheemal inulaton c 42 mm
orickor 62C ConetRAe
a fioea, has Ahesmau ulaston

eeue on rextmance and motEurte
totnane
tena Glan fibre

lan
corutuyayeA
teingortted lantte ty weol n 4R manafacudn
cOrutusai shoeina marn
uned fo ofhh ard oe
Rot naertior faotuin and.decoaton
9A
Ae wed for sound Jeodenin ano 4heromal nuioreon
Uwaw, ora
ard coiinn .
NaauRa Jute fbreA an wmed in plumbir worekA
The
a fbrtes ae e sort Packinoy and makËn
abrita OnoeM
USe for makinay
aid- frtooand ire freoa fabr t
ULed Hor , .elAArdc
aerdal afockin fort heaA8Ouno
Thulayon.
Wute douon Ah
Mes af ftbrres a^ conatueston maer
AM pbrte a
Ceruafn
Smau piece
a renortinmaeriau pome
Characiorin Propeutes TheCan be trulan
or1a Thebrue oten desciribedt by a tonvenžena
ParameALA
Caueo aApecs tato The aMseCA raMO af Ahe
bte t Ahe auo a t leoh-4o an dianeert

Ape rOATo tanes from 30150
na
orte rteinfornted concree. (FR) EAConreAe Con4atrd
fibrouA ayerial tohich. a incrueaneA AA, A4uuAURQl
URT Con4ains Shou nce

'
flbrteA AhaA ae
unormb dtdbured nd randombyorientefbres
nclud Hookbruon, oM {bre, *inherte 4ores and
aural bte
pbre- conforcemen main CUed En h0CRAL, buA Can
aAo be wned in relnfornced

noCmal conoreAR For
nortuna CnereAe ane mOAA ueo fort on-tound floon
and fovenen, louA Can e Conmidlered
fon a wde rane
toAAUACAt on Par efAher alone o with hand-4eol'Telaxy
Concrexe reinfrnced wtn bren 0en eenmive than a
hand- 4tes ebart, wheN ttROA{nay 4e 4enele
SArterah maAy 4mes.
skape, dImenon and, Jength afbrtR
EmporutanA A Ain and ShoA
fbre for enample
shor aq- Shafed
Ahe frTAthows
fbre, .a
4e
be
Pourino the
wuon feesve
Con
bu wru n0
inen@ane e uonrete 4enAilA Hra
Kbre D-08-o1r2020
4 aC PolmerU ae 4he mayie CoMATuCATon maheriats
The ude noyfneerinoy majertala
Ane
Eke loHCA, Kubben, ftbre aan ec*.
PLanic spesfal have orcptesd EndA peMa ble ponftton

En ourt daily Efe , The hoave eplaceo a numben a
ralittonally weol matereiat
Twe ehena Ahem sewe in ever uka fe . Au
medor nolutrees ifke todio, LePhone, automobêes,
elourfc mekorts etc.ane aitaly oependenel upon MaA.
PlOU n SubAAnCe wch Shou 4he Propestty
properc
tatti Ahe by vittue wH cn
ma4ertai udergoes a femanent oomaAt on, uwhen,
Subyee1es Ào
hv andl tontnuoun &teA or Premure
ThereorR, n tw lormolem meantno mony maAeriaA ke
ubbest, am, Shellae an be Aercneol a plaA+te Bu
no PLae has a tecEhe anol miseol
Ae 40rm. meani.
froperses aPLOUMA
7SLACA are ver h in wih
laticy ave u elenrcital Conductt
plassfcC hove Jow 4hercmal ConduCAtV
PLaHiC Can be AanORNA , AranAuden
ot 0pasue
PAafts an befoicmeo ard mowolkod nto
7
an sope
Ploats ve ooo Dunol aoAortP+fon ProperieA, .00
tee elinand
direnniorau,
abi 7A
dNananen otofon
.
7 A/t
vaSloble n a wide ranoe coDurA
ad Shaden
reAANance to ctHaok, ba, aopniC

cidA, bane, Sal: and ivinrgankA MA .
d
Thermo go4enivo
A Ptaien
arte are brned b1 addie
N ato Cateod AkOemoplanCA and
mermeriZasfon. TheAe Aatca an e sefteneol by heate

LOhoped and rowed an many 4nes a desireol TOe
RSeluble n Suitable oran soven).
Te Common
ey ef 4hin qlanfe arte PokAhene,
Po Vin, eeutone NArae eAc.
Thermo SeAAnay ptanty
A
Plason are forned b ondermaston
omeri zaMon .
Tere ace connot be memoulolso and
flantfCA
tOueo he Akerumo seuiny floica. arte tnsoluuble in
Otaanie Soren
TR Bakelite, pol-eMer e4e.,
THERMOSOFTENING PLASTICS THERMO SETTING PLASTTCS
ate formed to podymerizastoThOne ote foiuned by golynerizakon

"Thene
addfyten. b Condleuaalon.
ThecoMUt e{ irea strtuHne>The, hove reo dimén)tonal:
Eonoy ckains wh retible neuootks of Chain, foied, b
numbert'croMnk) reominena ercoM ink.
The seeondasty onda bekuweor

Thben eain Sirmenoh upon
Ahe chaîy ate veny weak hegtn. iwhich donDt 9et brtoken
Canbe ant ortoken b WROA or PreNMure
heatort Premure
ea tverts Ahone
lants ate ahefrn or.&qnal Chape
reain
{luid maAendhl. hente, Ahey Can SATuuCutR even. on
and heotir.So
be rexhaped anol ue Ahetan no e reAkaped & Qwed
Thearte afATheare
wjuat weak,
SALo ard and
andem brimte morte ortAAe
oRak bondA, Ahe Betauwe e ronay bondds, they
euue SouublA
n otoane ate h sotubik h ortani solen
Sowen
PNC CPinyt chtride ) : -
S4 h one a he moM
mmong
AfolmetA proolucedl
he
Polmeri1asfon a v
fabritost o on
chprtolen 9 widel
RaANE.
emloye En Ahe
PVe wuall ovnilable commertcfauuy

in Ahe forcm qfa
whR amorphoau pouwden hovin a demty af abou 1-47 n
PVC an be hanulaHured n epended ort cetlulor forn
3
available n quoo forma n fLevibte and tn rEto forn
94 Can be eatimouldleol anol evAruoled t0 desneol Skape.
Th jotnM are "obiained b Salvena weloinoy.
TwE Ahe Cheapest and mona uwolely uneod flaA
PRorersien aye
7 N has 4endlenc to decompone oken 4 is WeaAed o eponed
40 Sun a
wlth 4me
t teNtAante to infact Envoriahty deAerioreokes
becomeN so wih m
9. bnd Soc when hoARd +o morte 4han
166c
Chgoride
SA eleATetOA oseraien.ae nb a 0 aAhong, o
Lbber, buA. A allereA motA RAAAanR 40 n,0Zone
nd SunhA
9t hos h* wehA andneAtAante to wm,
Ue a Ve
nei for fAporinoy,uwal
facin, Various Arnona ke
hand rtai, skira boartola p{fes, fuÄA AC.
A ed, Jort Cable Jacke, tead orre fAulatfsn, fabrere
Coano
ned ton .totraAe oo.ltnshcoAA ,
On Loaken
wed manufacure ajert
4o Ëes ano Ts
a.Cmenorien
tain coaM and houden tuurtaiM
ERI¥nen
wetn taie fronue pre
uwaAer and
ort
seues
em
E uead
maneic n
SAcRp
od, vrl stau, wtrdoo
frtotLen, Plumbray QnoCondu
feures, qTamphone eomas eke.
RPVC
(Rid pav chi
Rd Powin! Chortile CRPV¢) hlho known aA
LAEA-lwicdzd rolvin Chiscide Curvc) T maserba
ovaflabR
in a rarye o CoLouts and fnkaeol holudkr
&Photo- ffo4 nad fnkan and
for
aAa Subttudle we
PoPesture
RPve
RPVe
U more duuable and.karol

-
4hasA emtte Heonh.
S+ mete'
aon. td ond ka hbh teAtAiante Ad Cheical
9 CDrCnon meAtuance
GRP Gtam Reinfprced PLanic)
T
ne
t
ftre am
a Componi4e magerdal made
aa lon¢ conforted
b bren. Thia plate Ta sormed by combinig
Ahe la bres ono lantc CeNty The
ae
lan fibres"
Vert SArtoro inenyton bu weak tn Compreemton, where
a Ahe lani esins ore SArtonotn compenion wea
ad
ePVe Cchtorcnayeol folyvinyi ehprcdde)-
>CPve SAands tor Chloreirateo 9olvin hlortolk 1

a Aiesmoplamie ie nina
maseriai madk ef. comfounda
CPVc PrLodutarte speiflcallmed for poa biR «a4er
diNibunton and Cotromtve
A ver CO Heesëve Syem
handLironolunsry
. uo c.
Scanned by Camscanner
HPP HEh pennt rolet iene)
4 a a Ahermoplac oymert prtDduced from menome
AaLene
N
94 Some mea Caued akaAhene ort polmihene

ProperAre DP,
Dernity 140 q/m
metir PoEn 08°
use
9 a ued En hne ano planit maitfy envelope
fibre eoted polmer
4 ano colted orte tenforteed Lae.

a Componte maserian made. uf oa Poyhmert maArn
toin oced wiAh bte
The bren ae wAua MaM, Carcbon ano balatt
,
RR are comony wed n 4e etraface automatte mardine
ano ConuA ucAton. EnoluAfey
* and ned or SAFenothenins, qhe beam, Cbluumn and
tab a buftdna, and belg
Artamben
ropeteA arutfcial tinber-
weahen Rexttant
omem RONUHaNce aaänM WROAheriny
SASutd adouae
alyernade
eAs uch a alstNak ding and weHin9,varcatfons, wlde
Coiny betaune oomperasurte
OAano
Durtabitit
yarcious acnton
Shouo be (aable ateNtUninA,Ahe
due Ao HuAYt EMeLL ; Chenita hstal and mechanta
aNfen
3Fire ReNEmance
The
earutüal Ainbern shulol aofen supTcient ALa
asaint
aintfire so
haet eatyntve.
does not
hep En ffre foteeton n busr
w
oCkabit
TWe
aruia nben ahould be eastiy workabkA ond
Should 04 CinsY Ahe seAAn Saw.34 Shoudd aAs be
Caable e bein eant PLanneol or maolR Snpoth
Etanitit
TA
A mbert Shouwd be Capoloie o teainíny. S o
hane when aad Cauinay deformation temoveo:TK
ofert inportjan when should be ed fon
bown, Corucaoe haf, , ,

Port y0polA 0dlon baMA
.
anol
uODtolan
pe
TuoyhneM ano alo P on
3 Should erabte ferinoy teaaanceto

SAotkA due 40 vibration and koudol not detertioole
due tomedhanital wa.
s0ungneym
S4 Shoula have sfieienA A on ardEHKežau

ARmbea w iena wekqma
pe
hSuF Conolereo 4
Sourd and ArtOno.
Hardne
tShoud have surtion hardne, .e; nesmante
fene Artasion. w hen Ae otal timber L hanod:9
rtes AWe braNive atton. fo * weol
ueol a
fon LDorEns maien, t00 haduen , rtotlerA a
bearin Sha
ay ReaiAtance Ao Shear
hovinoy CLOAey lnyeruoek ed {
The arRPfiat 4mben
SAronay
verty SArtonay
tn
En sheOr aCrA ard even alono Ahe
10 SArenAn-
arttfRal 4mbert Shoulo be enouh to Loa
The
wheaAhes ben appored Stoo or suddlei. 34 Shoud
SAtenoyth n. eeA Compreni on and
OMeM
th
ArtoMvere olireoston
UseA arcfau tmber

ARmbe CoCAMTon cestaman , and
7he ariko *h
the
hen ce Can be rooherce
n'Ahe
otturt SArucwen
S convinena in manainance and 3uperca
med.+make vavtiouj rtuchuwral membercy;

A
94
SA
.
L wed
builoltroy
n maintainancR worCk
aso ueol as a Co{ina Prpan.
oruutOn.
material h
o eol to raKe doors eno wrdowrome
ano
ed for matin Ae Plank SqeLase
tound hape fon furafue.
AN/m3 deperdboy
Dewit Con be varfeo nbetuoCn &
-
2
A resuirgment
T fmben
0NeneorA
wonds
bPl
Portice barol
d flbrA beartos
:
e BaHen boarols
eneyeneer
0btauro
ene e art P
shao owd, wkich aruA
Sicina Rmber bY reart utiny oTt Yfeelin

NoO a
a A rtoouceA Vereert OAor SizA and
Dn
educe ou ocnun
Houoever mONA decorate A
asMrtacatve
tadka fatn and orte 8hained bsii wbo0obs
e
Teo Mavoon1 want &nd ' nan Neneert arte DYCmally
onaenA ono
artp
Temromw60o hher monut ,
dnkeik elorte appicasion odhenive ardaMembil
Then -NeneerCA
winho
rtotom in
methoo
VeneeA he nula cure o Pywood
a veneert
bein 4 riyha OnoLeA A0Ae adhacarn
veneern 4a CtOM setionai mavemen4 on be
Temainesd, wth Ahe ao
addneniveA
Mdertn 3tkeHh
alno
n
Veneert R wed tn. manufaturo
bamen board, Pautttede beard
Pwo0ol
w00dA forome4oqeAher b Shee
odo um berca vereer Th iheem oe Flawd
in Such a haA, rain 0one oer are a
annes he dAMertA
ul, onaplitasion a Loao 0n Ahe SheeA

heeA, .
myemen boAh Ahe irteoon teduceol. TWA Outeen
le arte deraATve
facePElen and Ahe
nnnernostute and are
one ane
alle
auURd aa
a
or CKM lRla .band

Partiese Boasto
nParile baandA, faraicien or ChEpA oA Kardpm

mived with SArono adhexive ComprovMeol
A0yAert woer h
PrRmuTe40 orm baatol
Sfarttae beasdl, the movement onokom orented

n a dirueontonA and neMran a derenclona on
adhextve
SAteno Anand Cpntentraon
autite ba.@rd much weake Ahon u00o
e laue he adhenyee otnh beween Aendividua
nyatre end aiy 3urlae Yropertten o :
u06. arel vesre depenol
'
on weool ete
Aeo here OA inposticLe L0o btatod
, aouyel
deperola pon the aohentve end ParCALe ope. ape
9Paric se af beanda arA au cubes., 4e forumaton
Ahe baanol wu teA ult tn AoroyePortkon Soinn
in voaNEnay end rain., hA yroduiny weak boanou
3n conaeA chfpa Overap, takher tha
hin wiu
buAA and wiu eAuA. boaron wsh and
SATto o
AOA ChPa .CoAeTo avo&daA SometmeA beatola
beakols
ang monufacurAA in* thre Layeru
d fibte -Bearo
QAo Calleol aA grtemel woeolA ae
basroy
oaatdA manufatkured uning weool wame EK Saus du,
smaul ece a oeo
w 00
ze,
U
and
cfpfed. Ena smau res
ne
a about 0mm
in aAer weA aruieLes are
ken aed AD an outociaNe, wherte Subjecteo
subjecueol
to SAReam PeMurte 500 KNJ for
bous /2 nnuse
Ond therte af1en to a renurte Foso tNIn
fan
neo Sephol
e BaAten B0arto) a
On
n boanan, 4hin VeneeA OrR Rol
Qu 4heR VeneenA MO be
ates Ao0
CDe.
and arte Hueo Crairy e
on- de corative
daLerse de torataye on
ourome t6 ahoMe Core
eer ate ak
8Cm
bout
boaAN boamolA ore
wLole w00olenA SATERA CaulRo A bateM
Lem Ahan
udm Causeo aAbodAPN
25 m 94.
94 Caluo a blok boasrdl n 1amiratedl
boanoy P SArEP
widlh
BaAten boasd anol blsck boartaa
ane we fo
Ba4te anesfutnitue faneui
farttiA TOnVA, Patkir
odeeorabn buA bodien, Ae.
Ceiy nteridr p4,Laniuleol
ae CNoCkOr
Bouoever abie 4o
SArtonoyest han bDek boarou anacR
baarosarte
No kable +0 CraOR o
D-13- 01-2020
Amber ?-
SAengtn
SAtengAm ERial
7ttfa nber &hould be S4ronoenouh t
wthHaro he LsadA uROAhoN ben priieo owl
uddona. 9Aoula oMeMe enoun enthA
CDmprreon and Aramverue
ndfrenkon deA
direton
MATERTAL
ACOUSTLC
A Cowtie Ah Sente oSour Encludiny E

Prroduton Aronwmtmlo aro feanaACousic &a.o
boadteld Ntcn embaaceM munteaoli o; Souno
nefrooutt on anod 04her eld
PcoferteA a aCmiyRe mauerkad
d hKqn
ACOic maAerkal haa
Dow eiRon
obAorton ond
on AolA
.
Ane SDuno ard notne leveLA from

machine and 04he SousttAA.
9 SudoNnen tevibratton echoes and tedeaon
}he Souno enerq
haA :AopureadabAorh
cagacirAo
94 educeA Ahe Souno, engray uOye)
acouMtMakertial
Can be btnao\ Clatfieol in4o
The acowAAfe maerkal
oLouinoa. ,3 UOuRA
Thene
Thee sutcem tortoui no ar 00os0u
hove
abAotber. ROCK 000L, aM ikfau n a asiorU
Semi- vard ma4erial
Steep.eAduyh A. SAaNd DS gunroltinaan
QLAD
Sertve an buiolirPane. MUneral w60A bo0rd , cane
re are ncliuoleol Wroen ALA90 r

7 otomaueral Po
Thene QUrtR moLkerdkalwwich hove beenmoole
A ràrto
durinn serve A frto}OAtVe.
Sura a orton Aton Mamoty
emgedfor AARurgaAe:J 9
Advannaoes of Such ien a4hat. Ahe: abjorptay

Suno
y ed 04 ert SurdaCR and an cog|
aoiay
bu mbtSul4ablefr mauen arRgwherr acowta
drea Amen4 o be EVen
e materia are avaiiaole mOrtKA n nder
eront Aode nameA 94 Ti made n acu
20-01-2020)
ACDut ub
Thi nalin
Compoedo aARAAOA anol teluloA
re mned wi CRIain binders ano preAervEn
Chenitaun
dsb ftocoA masercia.on addhton awaer

betome wau and ceitn
dnaean.be aiad to
Sutaco 4ickneM
The maAera Uapafed in laecs mm 4iêkge
Samemgmer a Lane. eeinay Plaune 4
eau
shape and ntaeol
Fbrtous.: flaUAest
9 Modo lo miinoy cemena and orular Tnaulasin
aseial
Te Prefaraaton CAmeM oulol e rport ybe
Ontoined
hointained 30 CU +0 beto me PloM morte eApatve
i
oratouAtitn
'.
Te ACowM f1aMert boato ag
e eden Ae ulcu R acoun PlaAter Khould
hove an ObAorrbent Coojenaa030 a
2 SAtou boar .
on al
77 TA hayertial can aUhobe ued 0OJbAorPK ovaftabk
feN seono These
boasds ar
Ces
794 Cbmparaaive cheOP, Ahertoorte ewnemital
a couical Plauste
UnttiL
E Enan nerA, taAhen weiha, anular Aubtance
manufacaumed uom veumículite .
Aun and ne ot
fortALand LemeAA U Awe hen CONAHPNt.
aert added to Ahe mgtal A0 MOKe a plan
ort aufouion.
7 e madertal ts adapted 40 evestH
te anchitctura
AMOAmeA
and we ain ort tnaorkort ffnthes
Acowtta boanods on afLen
The ase uAualuMade aeithen compremesl ane on

wo0d tbre br mnera wool
> Thene boatdA and AieA have unorM
tpcal ano
Sourd abAprepon CharactertENtA .
he Me reptntned a e GOr ano becoun
Painae or eolsured ve. odeNrable ole cortasêve

afexanceano nt reieoaion charactert£afn
MAe Alles aR ver CONt Ous wmpareo 40 othen
aCoita maseraun
LtnseA aslestoA
Th a abeMo Afbre wich ta apLfeol 4o a Sudace
bmor eLtal pro
aAbemoA brteA OurR Ahe
hgcne rtom whlcn O Carke.oAO a boiwler
"he drty forte tn 4hen Conveeod En an an tem
0noAen
OAon aneo Atdun a prto,un whr
7A dom beforte Ae fna appticatton.
CLA DDTNG
Ciodding ONtho
SKTn On AnOa loe
. idir Can be ata chkad
buidinn
1tane ame wortk anntet meTate lo Ont
a SToe, Cloddy does not have
uoAer peoa, b it ehen ntLDA

emenA a
on Surla
AualM oroSubájancA
a iko
CRdar 000d or Stone,0t amaterial TeAtAant
CDrrtDA Lon bram bond brron zA Such
k
wiu wuth emenM ou
Saiu Prote hatA beneath thAm
CAooldlinoy
Claodin med c ucAiOn
SAOne claolinK.
*OnAClaoldinay helpa orea4R 0ustal Stone oó k.
wtte binoytnor
wauherteca ort boih Entarfort and eieciors
one
SAone
aoldina e n
one
loer ural or fau
Jhdourt ome a oriuion4
att and
StoneCloddnn Panel orA
+o Evatau. vrttua mgain
eieneY
taingne, free and
tacefu 0es wrth me
ADo Aadolinsy
helpA CROAR
uinin focad 9nd a a
uAOA0 EDA home jrom the, elemenh
Su table fort both nterioA nd eterr'ores, en
hel
reae ayhl dLAin ve
charocHer 0A 0tnoy
cea
*e
200 or real wo8oh e btendinw
A anY opCi o. Ederti on claddinoy
ndividuall
Plo CRd and frDie Ahe Cural n 40T
enhancAny he eterud aYfeNaNCR
houAe
notthe MRmely duralble dnd wyhi
Ouotna to iAulaton proerfe
ener7SUM home o Onguil
wo oo claldin hep
haven
Pve ctadlan
4elpA ado o okporenA dmgyton to you home
and tuires abAolute zoro aintainan tR Thts bastcol
ArtgMgAOS t AO me Coyunn Ponaio o Cumbert Hom
rtepoirts. SoRal
upv
for
no
both Enaesthal and etternad a
cloddlinoy gufevest ind a hóme bu
DAo ADA tone to Severte damase. by wlaAher elemey
entoleA ea
loroenomo, fte
to adlok
tulaton oUs wel, can be fut utomize_d ano Come
n o to a COLDurA
4TEie elaololinn
A
faïrby neu enanA to AR ladolin worlol , tR
Claddin an eTRMety verAaAER cadolin7 opron
ono Comes nth form O Pan or Aie suiteol fort
bDAK UAertuort ndEn+Ororta you houAe Long latin
aUnd
oAto maintarnn, 4hee on AaformaL houe
t0 Contemportarty aJooole rou. Co lo th hen QDA
modern dontana ortoptort a akusta Aeuturceo pok
9n
3nCreliblb
Credib dutoble Ond IDhOY
1a4 ou an even mbhe
AELes hOs ae a dforeni shapes and szeA to 7Eve
OLur Dune a tu uque

P
dAd Suo ve LOok. MOEROVO
ee Ales aD aC rotolire
enete weu
Gas Ctaoldliny
Arosorm ou buîltiry, eueriorra ano r

CMomzafon ano
olPNpotfoM GlaaA
aua m frOm
and 4hls cladolunay to ayaiaubte tn wtdo
a Aemforteol, Laninateol, Curtveo
ondenamela
RON uuht'le einy CAA efeuive ad economial
uhertmonte qla ctlate a Kongrkabl modern and
ConAenfororr
ook hile alerin onunouA rlom in
pe d n, Umpoaftion
andgize, "makirp it oPtinajA
Sued deren.cdaddig aicakorM.
ARLuninium componee fanel CACP) -
T claoddoy yeaueiynt
aluminium and
t fresjuen\ly ued for eemely
eertnak Aaoldtnsy at'a yerty rid aro 3tr0n
dept'he s mwveisyhi Morevèn , beinay auntiun
binay BAhN ard uvreÜiaa faîifes fort a bev
tomiz0tonoptona tnckudiny ColorcA,
îrun,
TeuNertns und Shadinay. Avallable in
Varin +wcko
ables uLe nAtauasion while oIho
cein vetnaaile enouyhAd be AAon faeRo
Counopt Pouttona d even {aIne
cAaddin
carlin.
Ceramic !-
TA Souudona hONe been asro or as and been a
ulor cho te for orCkie ces acuno ive wold fon
dlcotaHVe futpones Leinoy hteh, regudres
verty tALemon ainanR whilee Pomemna Superior
fteAtiaunce Chemitol ond0mopherrc
eHACkA frm
PoPula ion, Otd raih ano Smg
9t' tnnovate
anddutabilí also oati tae
dec
Arem Le. Size ano angemen
eaer vernetitit
8) Pon celain claoldiny .
widety wned 0 meanor e4ersal çtoddnoy
e wne a{ eceptforal ropertes Sero iCh and abitaion
itn a Suro e toythar n onte on
ShelE durase,OL and eLALeme SAtor

Stcor
and oDes not 0CLMulOAe. SuracR dirCAddAtona
, non Poreibts onom pertvowA to ohemica whfle ano
ShoCK estaiani whiCh make
beirotORZA and thecmal
Ae dlaal Makerouu jor Cre04hg
CDAt eTve
bud- alNHaînanee karta- wegrdnoy SuefacRA
D- 25-01- 2010o
Micro Silica :
Muo sEico ua rey CAmenAŽALOUWA majerial
Cpfn foAed a a4 JQA85% ta fËne, amorupkouA

non pherd tal sifcon dlionide (itoy
1a)
ao Caled a liito ume9 froduceo a
aby-fLodu durna e
manuja Churtins siiDn
metal ort ferstoxicin als Adu con h
quortiz ina sub-meryes -orc eleetre
urnan ce heaeo Ao 2000 c w+h"*Cnal, coke ond
00od chipa a
CroEua
,which d CondenAeA from Aho
aeA escapen, from the urnancè , ha ven fine

Sherica tatuicieA aving dianesern o. . 1 nmiceomeAeN
f eruto SCon e Prtoluceo with noninal

Stutm
albyA
60' 8 . An 4he seicon
ConAen nceegAeA n Ahe o on 2
AenN
micrto sia
Yro Pexate
a micto sakoa -
Spef
bulk deriyruie
O.
jom 2DD
]
- 25t
7a
minmUM Surtlace arRa 0 15,000 /
85
..
COneA sEo
veA Lona ertm CorcOA Lon ProteiHon)
Micto sica -
Th
apparaion
haterial nau
en rteCeni soundl &
nourr uniruj Ae nutiRot De
Lan iA ano bruiolyR ConuruCion
McrtD sita hove LeN eeMve
ShoTe Concee LoAOrM, h re
Muttou ec buutdinoA ano VaauoWA 04en
oenangur ferpormane th
hen
ver menAa Conoutt on
emiVe enyuCm
D-24- 01 -2020
Art&ffial Sand
weathertng, aCHON,
Naturtal Sanols are dbained by Ahe
eendinq aton on Part+fcteA stzA ard

on .osten tOCR,
taglin naural uve gand varies late
Frtom
Aa te
Dama Orte COAATUuteo on u4 QOm o ve, soa
no a
do andA arte no avalLObJA on ooonirRam
a
or
.
dlans AA catconM, 7raing
dlams
tan ceain
Can
orleal rading
rea ckonn Cwhich
Sanod ovaitob le
ane fRuired
Ah, ourtabiu* mL ddeperdA on sze,
snarenagli 1.dene ConctRAR
1aa Since 0eouolih

sandma notbe ovailab rked Sano
rucest.9a hepA Pro teHno ecooau

balante, eicina ue anoAura CeAoCeA
Min m
ArEcia
whi ch
Sand s a secific
SAeAyk, durabu si 2,,
furfone fruoobuceo mateiat
Shopf
Shape, rtaolin Kuiremen Tne a He n
ConreAe nn. The SAone meAal o Cuahed Stne
waAe, below 5mm reom
o aren rCK A e
sanod
frorerses aretal
en betoae
demt artficfa tand ies
UN orgarle
Empuriti
doe NOA CoMaN
aje ohAorp+on n Cane ach al and

almant ne ble.
esn
sec v ty artidal Sano betuoeen
a.65 28
Sano
Advantages Arcttal
Arteflcial sand weu raol
Superior Suroce +eNtune
T Sand kovin
Votol.
educe Voiots
can be Compaceol i40
Profen
Le uamty Cement Materia rtRuired
ano
9+ Can be oduceon euireol uant
deited uali Cortderred,,arsfta
elonom aA aeroves t
to be
eConemial
Sond, Man ime
Adheaiven
Adheston la oMTtaCHon between uniko urace- Cokeg
OAAyaron bejueon dke Surtaces Uual due
de tto
ruLmart Suondarornos oaA raCton, acestyeA
we t fotn wo morte
areodanAayes adhenve bonoUn oven

neAhoolaA weldirg
0 embl ke boi verin,
Acderive 3O
n he Surfatep n hteA KAer up
Seie ooheston Surpaces o JOUned yoetken
inten moLe culan ettes 0AAACHon ."éihanic

aon hesLon
AW adhesve2 u Ahe Yotds ortou
Sfaes e ord hoJo sufatea Ave
ferioinauion,
.
ano twion o
Surloce whTen
Orte
artcU oXMoyeo a
he aalheive a n
Solven_
vantages
Ao
7 CortrCon may reveneo
be beA ween dtferent met
oineo b ahestven
e fotn betome im pereah ue
Hort aAEN Rnd aM
Adeouae Senoja h s roduces j
adherire.
The aohenive epnitai on
rtocom
eo Qnd eonomial
eeoly
Leaka frobLem
o Ouert Can be +oped yb the
te
aRitaion aol henven
paaoyanage
Ahesive teres me to aAtain desfed Cre
Sepc aolhenive rRourreot 4o be Cneol fon
Speic Subante
AdeAnes are Ahable temPeroujuA
Anumal roAein Gue

TeAe ueA ortR 0btaineo from hide rumo, bon
ono boing
aingb kene b hD waAert.Animal
Aues frovole Sartpns, tough ,eai maole
oinb buu
he R LUeo b olamp anol mo4 Corolitions.9
Sgieo eaniA ShORA
COxeA
tanuleA, Cubes ort Jeuy Anumal
hoytnsy
htee ades dependin uon } he uoaUen
AortpHOn i-ej19 , 15, 16 mes
animal oten 7ue

TU eod in Ahe Manuure o wooof, taminateo
imben
Blood Abumin
moaole de a rtauo
S b di bloeo and affeoseo
damp an mot conoliens ThiA
7ue has eao
wOAer rce an t Preppercies Qno aLAo durohte
Ue a biDoo aad al bunin
The have oodaol høive rtopertte or Pafen, 1ewte

Metal, *hene argel eEn fooo 1ook
worce
eother drienin ano don wero
Starch adenives
a tode rtom Vegejable StaCh havn oao
8-1Teng but no nan to m{tune
Akali ot ai moer ore weoo Make SHonc
oo
Yaane Awick ad Aack
buA ond apen ond entte
Tey are Cheaper Ahan anumal
USe
S4anch aoheiven
T ono ea
eo inuuomatic fatnage g Chne
Oe
manuacHuR
SArtenadh ond oud eAAance
Ao
uo0ao
Cqum arobtc
These orcmV
Qglhenive
munera
94 tonAaLns nN at. atobic acdd,
wich 0b10une om acacde
aen wooo ano tn

wed fo Jonnoj An
and eveukno MONCnune
Bonoling
bondng Ooen ace.nadural epmpound

naec
raAeria weo A en hancR .he jouninoy tnoluvdto
Membe SAru CHurte wtho ny MeonoNieal
aAseneru
hene roduon en we inrepaireo apptiato
Such aA- bondin fexh Con Creee S Prtoao ConCReP
MotAar Con Cree
when bono
Surlaco
n en on 4he oRo
woKk Shoulo be cLMn
fme
or froper boñolin
D
28-1-2028
Pre-fabrtaslon :
pnion
Th e-fabrütoton uctecA OmembyComponenHo
mOnuAocuiny stte
ano AoMfortinyCmLede
Stte wherte SAruCHute.
.
anenby
. tothe coruckton
te be ecased
abrication
The mDAM dloty weo forun a fPrefabräcaton
n builolinay anol cv Enaineoruna Ahe e a
Ye-fabrutdseo Concrtexe aofefbubricokeo
SAeel
Prre fabricaeol
ano
teel Secron rceoaoA on soe utins
weloing CoAA hazarola
Pouin Concree seLon n afoa ctoruy b CsA AWR

aol vantanes
benL6Ie o
rRUAe ano{he
ConoreeConbe mreolon Ake Po4wt houl haviny
to be roMporeol anio Pumeo weih on à
contuAe
Dad vaa
torta andLin Pre-fabroeo Com pon ents Suo an
ContrRA fannel and steel ort 7loM fannel reure
AAtenHion
han 4o be made AE rengih anod
CorroAton resimant
he foinno
Seerton abricated
avetofarulte f he foiin
similor RakA Can be orem a A om t
fabritroCom onens
hker fr aven.rolume
THOAA
orasion
ker
te-abrti taeoseeon r requireomore o
Prineine
wet tonvennoral thehood

- CaAt
froe weth ih
ar seale
en worReperuente.
rettHon
Sfeulal iremenninaig
SArtuCHuro yaiy
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he teAduAA
LaJoot . ajerual)
Large
t bulldrr tre
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CLorina an rDGn em
e Ca Column
CoAt beom
fr
CAO aion
Small
Medin
- abru Caton
,P
e-fobricason
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Site Pre-fabrooto
CaAt ,P
abrücatOn
5 facsory r
Sno fabriotion
cotton
rve-falbru
open
em
8 Paural Prce-fah ricatton
DTojal refabrication
smau fru-jabritason D:03-02 2020
type ane moin L od aciotdin, a

The
fe-Co,
4heirt
dee
eona ELeme
brEcR
4
, a
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Smguu
i n 4het
un freta ond ued nbufloiy-
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veruy Low)
Pre Prre coAelenen
Medium Pre-fabritosion -
yysen memberA
Suqone the tsei 9d kordizorta
arno frovEoed wth e - AROmed eloment thoAe .ccueion
conAArtuon
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Laroe P-abricason
mot of Ahe membe kA
rejabrdCaAon
wal fantel rLooinsy or oorn 1em beam and
Coumn aere e f&britateo. (heNe te dee
Pre-Can elenet are h)
Cane frte-abritation Gac) Pre-fabs

One 4 noin aCtonwht ch0ffect the facety
fre-fdbriaston Ea. rampotu
The wdth Pre-fobricateod was ane dlftuta
/ond vekfnen ort Mool e tram porsatton
which fr-fabrúcoton to be
done ide on facony are
on Stae 4he facrota." wh£c4
alect 3A Yn stte
fr fabricaon
0pen &em reabrcapfon
9 total Pre-fabrciolon SAtem
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4
The au
stde Thenef ond0+her
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ong lome
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oh
*e
fabricaton
4en SAem
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wth
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he
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7 Poxtia he-abnicaon 1
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due
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metheol
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Vesty kfevesbbdhe Ninj
.' CDNtuCHOn
4L meAheo
Con be enpo rtahe e

Con usfon Or on unnel pe ocDhEAdn
Can be odene On ste
A04a Prte-abraton
ote
ehofte a4 methos depeno on the
suaion wen Ae fo Crore rtoduted elemen
ae ansporcheal ano erecteda4 ste &a
frefabrcatTon
n
ain meAhad Uto aooheo Ahen. we hoY a

be
yet AOMotA rtooluu to s?te
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demena Can be
elfmiraed buut we hove COMEslen 4he pac
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em pota
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on
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e AudurQA
conneon
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between element
faren
D- 04-02 2020
- Wrute down ne maserfatn ne En Prne-fabrfeaPon m,
AM-
ConcteAe
Steel
Treao wood
Auninium
Cella ontrceAE
LEhA wefna conurere
ement
Ceranic froduc
Peelubricated madertial buioliry ue alvani zed
Gal valune, as the c maerkalA fort
oufidin Gjalvalune aforun a Seel LoaHedl wih
aluninium zine TA repteo Ake buldng
CDELp fon and fre
ari
a
frvtdeaSAuo anod fruteetive overcnoy
frea bricaeo buildin.Amo At au the
aa meAalbul Lolt no Suon a beanA famea
CDumM uau ano r ar aole steet MoA
fabricaid iar
Atames
bufsir we S4eel on aluninfum
Ahe u
.
Smaefe Moerials eofon
and
To reovide enhanced Setur ty acomberat{
bo4h eterthal meja oand cloth makeriatA dro
e Roornoy houtrtaA Con be CkI
relabricated
QnembiLeA
ano Qrte Yeru durtable
buidin fort Smau Preabrioteod
maserial) e ias11OANC
are Steel, w00d t Ire
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hene malexa. ane Cheopen an 2qulan
brte and CoNreAebuloliW , ane

laun, w oooand
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e eabritaARo
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evbr yand one preforned er mažSructe
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ard
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fort Co rlabriOed
a
ckericlA e SAau, Ferrd cemenAConA
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ahe eeMaiyues' ned duA ScmA ano
Connaitulon
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diustobi ,aAen
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fre fabriateo
no offetolahte
bufl masenala e eCDrferd
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Movin Poial
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an save con Rotuino
e abti tatiny menbUeA
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fatoruN tooLA JCA CraneA, Con Yeorth, ete,- Co Oke
Praslulon Aer aronote ede.

FaCor ables,drroulí e deteru, er.
0o hake
con
ea aololef uat. amwKONe
ConAEAAen
oon environmenh onHorães eümiahe
pa ca
weather onPrLoo uofon.
m
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wtthod peMtve en te
shapes and
faAe woru
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DYemn buftolin heaA and nfon oteioels

eneny ornun psion ano heaie bufioln
bultol
Prroou tton Coun odtae more oPtO
oerals wa, Tetiny
Capetun ete
Maonire - meolaces Pans movement aro freofom
trom wnoano tan Coun nove toiuenfon
Ch05 D-12-02-3
E0TthakKe ReAtanA
Buiidin COn utaotton -
deined
Puüai Con utaton maYbe
4 büloliny
OVexg Sz aid
elemen,
wTth
Jeh naturR and Lo.ation BAe
buildinay Anat
senit (erfornante
commenoeo
uldm conkura
S18q3 2016 hante
SSten seAon ert betten perfernane
bui'ldinn eartthouake
TO erorum we tn eo Kejuake a buLdiney gho
foMemes main aMubutes
Simpte antsulan munasion
bAdesuate ren
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Duci
uidlinay havin aro eDme
Sm le rular and
untorem
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uweuueu nelevaion Suffen Much em doma
aA domar
han buldino crucqulan Conqunason
T
A
buildii Shal be CoMtes Aeraqulou for he
futpones hA sAandard a4Aea one
one
Bnoliion
oLowiny Lf cable
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Plan rTRuartintes t
>Tortstona ErrejuloriteA
Re enartan Corehera
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ovin Ctentv
ou-
Non
ane nverctical
Cud-0um o ofeninoy.
elenenh.
fotauel atOrtolfortce
Verical Terularittes -
sfnen rulautySeop Stortey )

Mom P.
Nercal
rurpularity
9n ane wn4inuit En vraoal element MeAMinA,
10Henal
SAOnAn
rueularüt
Featkron Stub CDJUUNN)
Jrr@qular
.orceoion.
rooleA
0Aüation n jawo frindfal
Yhanoi
TorucOnal Tresceulait
buidinoy
saioo be rttorally {rONulart, when
the mamum horizDnAal pocomen4aany
dreuon he ajeral Hertee a one eno
more van .5 mes Nmum he {tpon
khorelzonta
ds ploicenen a ja
athe same
daA
fiot in
frceotion and
heratua erd Lorueorolinor t the funolamemau
jortAtoral mede
Ane
Aloon morte A honhoMe
wo
HaM osTonal moles a4 bnuttuation
alonach frihial PAon drectony
9 orona Eruteulan bulidirn, ohen he roko.
ointmuhordzonnal
wanmun
P.
hor zonal d placomesm o4 one enad hd th
dAplacomeI at the et ea
An 5 A
mon
Phun
TORLORNAL
TRE GulAR )
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Saad 10 O
a Plan haA
oitectin,
a rojeuion
{h. Jirtu Cural unuasi
cohe
stz 7eoon than
15 entena Orergu PloNoumeimon n at
diteien
wth te-nrtani Corner, thrag
Jimemonal dna miLe. anal neAhed Shalu be
ated
Floo Staba hoving cemie os or fenir
ofenina SAaos result in e ble diafhaur
behaviourt, and hence A a
outertau thegn gormcQ
Shateo bby the fmames ano/0 Vertha membenm
n poperton tohe laherta iramlanal tnen.

e froblen artttulouMU when ihe
attenuaed
aPeina cleAe 1 4hede dhe slab. A buildej
ave oocntinut n thein n- Plone
Sois to
sAnen, when DrL obA kave u - buts on
oen
fenina o anes more then 5 ". 1h fu an
4 Loo sab
on buisd with conanu aen
the DmeIrUic tolut;
>0:1
0.15 L
KgNCAIUNCIA
e-enA
OuH
OcL4-
-o plane
Plane
sen E vesttitau ELQMe
n verttical elomenh reAiny
sen dtscontinutfea
lojerial Leasls CauAe and odtours n
which ta +o be oejrmeniou
4he ool fah, knouwn
he earthuake salet a 4he buildin A

bullin
safd to have Ou a-Plane afseA En veryita
elemens, hen SArucurtod uaus on -ram eA arR moreo
0uA a Plane in an ortalnoy A
AhR hehA aAke
auiloin
Non-Paralel LaAeral force System
CDmpe Uhuake berave0M, anod

Bufiolino uder
nof hove laAertaU
forice
hence damoye, when '
eA nay Sstern oren+ed alon 4uOPia directonA

4haa ae oruhagonal 10
ech otkert A,, build?r tai
o hove non Paalléi Atem whe e ¥eraitalp0rtèente
eseustaSmemuhen-+heheveru cau orlente
Sttu CAurtau atema eAtino o-le.ral forces ore no4
OrEnjed aloro Huop
früntipal orjkaqena, eA ine flan.
A01 Aaonl A0.5 1eal
A
6fenin. Locoed ay uhel

oferir. Lotai ALen o
tcl
e ciab b
LILVATIC
PLan
IreA veraical
.
rRlacitien 1.
)- arot
1 S48PAne 31A
ouortA erey)
A sa s40 a 840Me w 1oAeNal 8AYeA
Len AWan. Aat 4he SAOeabove
Mam 3tute
ulaiY
Mas rutqulaidty Shal be oonstaereo Ao ett, uwhen
AMe
sinfe uwema
a7 aLoom Morte 40n
150 4hay af ae
fLoorts below
Verto GeomeArere
treuort
tSau be comoferRo Ao i1, when 4he horcir0n
dmennêon
SAORR
ofe prte eRairy em *7
lasertau
U morte thon 105 te Store belp
in:Plahe Aonnut in verital ELement ResEAthg
A
Laeral sforke
n verttical elemenh wkioh
9n- Plane dI^ contnit fornce Shau be tonmtodeneol
to
arte eEANIaAera
euknt, when EnPtone. af the aeral for0
aeA
elementA
enAn AOe elemenh
5 3AeNA (W sore)
Awenk
weak s4ore a ttorue whone LatertalA
0
SH4rLe above
.
FaAT b CoumM
Such Coum are ikeby 40 caue eoneenareakeol

damasye En Ae ACHUFLe
tTueyulan Moo
aoRcfin4ton n Two PriNdEpal
orROAton
8tnes ebeonA, ColumM, brOAA anod

udural
waA dAoremfne Ake faertak. a bIdiry
eóOn prinipa plon direeAon.
be
Deere derten uioliny ehgracterimtn freom selark
Pertorunane@ ptn¥ o vfe
AM The werh Ahe whoe butlaliny e
seimc wesm Oahe pooreA.
An welmt Su poeo &n betueon 4oran hau be

dE Afb4eo 4R floores above ouooelpdEn
nverehe Prto sorcton t TH oln4ahde feom 4
a
feores.
*Forn. Cal tulosin the de selmfc fortces af he
S4rtucuR
COnAiderceo
he mOneoLoao on
rooneed net p
The
dead Loao flus uppoprkaye.anouny
af EnpoeLaol
wwfte tompusiry
e
seinmie weha,
olunnM ano
aCh Loore
wenef ualls anslorefhau be
ealby dtibuseo 4he -ftoorta above ard elou
4he s4orte
we olau odem selamic bae han alpry
at rUda
diteesonsha be dëierunined by qe folLoweny
eeefon
wweRe
he De horc zontal aceeleca on SpecTu)
Vauue
semE c wekrht a Hhe.buidu
wat
h he
tojeral taoo reslafrq tem
fion step tn aohi+ecuutal flonnÝroY
.
sete e ateral loaol KeAi o
SYAHOm
The Loa
COeo LoopA, So 4had
teAN SYtem muA,
Aable t6 tanyfer au, the
orceA acan hen verutcay rn horizontal do he
tuno
£numeroe saleAT comioderaAionn: ourirox
towyrucAion and
ouernoton aditonal
o tinutom
Envoinr nto on omen anomateruala. Some e
,
durir
AM ano o QnoharasHEA shoutol be
temular
cLoNeL ve
to ascerpin 4ir beinoy cafadT
Suitable aokfnor pecOA Mum be teovio a hR
e cChafns hotulol no be droppe feom a heh

bult ould e Du)ereo ouall
ThR
eupmen and devices empLoyeol n ahe ereoton
ever be oven Jamoled.
frtoedure shoulo
brto4hen chalm Shoulono be ojeneo
Te Ley
6U 40 SuCh as anoe So aA o enodanyenhe stabia
wortk
4he
Te LveA a1une 7otn¥h on Ahe faueuwotA houlo b
mancuneoas pe 4he ofesiireot Camler on u to
oot disAaro4on
ovoosin otureinoj auembl.
The dovtcexand mechanAma should be ainaine
n gere runnfrs stolen so 40 ovofof heirt Stuolden
faiture wAho ece

T fng thoulol be Carrueol oun sneoih Wkou
Suoloen shok
D-03-03-20
Catthouake rteAAanR o0n@ruy buidns,
MaAo nty uaUN aeSLenoe became a4her

Smau hibknem Comase 0thar heim Ono Dengqt
sEmpze uuO mokin hese wau behaRA a
them Ct makinay
weu eartheake svokin
ethen M a' bo alorbywethhe rrdo ano 1he
t6
ano with 4h ounoddATo n. a Ahe bo4tom
48
an be aonfeved
EMuhay morpckry masonrUy Cdurues
the junoon
empyty horizorMa bond a vorious 1ev,
fariuiartn openinoyY LRye,
door ono tndow A
ndeo 10be keP+ Snoul
Snou
etono
Duuin OsheyUORA shaku, e neu
fuuinoy acioy
a4T
band oen 0'oA berdiroy ond
To OA
peual aenton
n tel bond
BanolA :Co be mode
o Rantoncay
Aho
oncre Th
SATOmAengA.WA
Ae (RC
band be Proper J Co One-o
aulo o' 4 o bOnd
wal CDynOA w
UNaUA
0. AhALT AArONy
Loa eo
durtoci woeo SaceA
nSteel inkAare. e mgke th

SAR
LentVA UNneNU 0 Steel
bondln, frofen
o91then 9n
wth PacaA
SAra AAh ,
mfortuan ke wire,inRC 2eua banoA
Qn CoruinoyM
StelUn wi+h Steel batA
Linte Lord froviod OA
4ecnaUaro enterroal
Lee OY on Qu
SAR t
3onuotnal a *
Bond
S{u
bono Artoveo a t evel or au
tneno ano eral
oro AuoA a A
waA fon n49ru1
uwaA Con CrNA 9uno ne on A
RetAjant
waua no ete hor zontal bendina
band ntinu einfonten enA enntat
Th band Shoulo be adR e ronfor CRoContrete
M 5 o CAd huk
Cement
PLinth PordA .
banoPrbyoleof a n1h RVO

PnAh bond CAa w Thy
aA0n efourolgtion
he
+o be Prevroleo whore
SoC tKe
mgon eo OLnoA rguenu
Uneven En.in
ATTaA 7 bano uot &erve
ho en
QA damp PDDCDuAe OA we
R Prtovëoleo mmeoaR
Roo banof a baro ot-AnaA
belou 4he Tto ot fLbo rs 9n. bullolings wth ftsenis
Flat tenforced
cefhfomced CDNCe1e o ceinonceo breick rooPs, rnap
beCauAe
Ae TR a loano4weren, n bufldinA wth fiat
Aimbe CGT Shegt roa, roa neeoA to be

banod
9bufiolinon wth p+Cneo or slopd ro

tovieo
D bano m poraM
Bonol
ab hortizonAaI member conich s ploceo
A
ble
7abte band ba
the soptnq slab to ufac
the 40p 4h rdeaf soolA
Ahe enols a/ the Ee ro/ters ard ranf errin
A0 POA ort eno walA
te and
Durtiny 0ttheake SokLn
bard unoen
'eA bendinoy and uunoy ao
To thOAe
eulal aA1enton
BonolA :Co be -Moe. 0o On Anoncay

AHonco
P.
ontnee R TeSArOhA JNAWA h
bgun muin be roper JM ConneUA e
TW b0nd
SwpoRUA nteLn wk
oitoLOn auULA Daoeo 4hlt Atronoy
dutect n SmaK Jenayth

Steel unA mgke thA
enytM 4O00oKLANers0n Stoe
ar 61RAhen 9 woo0n barda
, frofen
P
Ara wtthA
Emportkana wie,inKc Rebanols , aoeu
On Cgruinoy S4e An
noRartM Lintel Lond toviol@o a- he
On erad ad e4ertha
9retuoinal a. KLRR t,
att Hon
eord
su bond A fcoviieo tu evel or a
tnternau ano uernal
ton was. fon ngru
ChnCOruA9ndjunoiM A
uaNA o
ualA no utive hor P z0ntal bendny ne
baoh 0tnut eindortenen ensn
ennHa
boro
Th
Choulo be ad inWor CRoCntate
ndH r moat an M15 r rnomteo bruCk
.9ooR: Comen n04 RONet
One Aan11:3
Aa
n
LinAh PoroA
nth 'Rvol
bouno A a bonopaideof aA
PinAh
ounolgon O. T
gaA On te Ae
be Provtoeo where o+ns

neo Ound A tWer
mgAoM
t quy
Rqueny
Soo
uneven n oporte aA w
ert
Ve
hopern n AraA7h 0no

wy
QA aamp toocouae OA
Ro baro
Fmmeolidey
2ofmmeolae Preovëol
Ron bono A a banoo4porA
fLnors 9n. bullolings wth ftses
blo 4he To0 ort
0T reinonCeo brtick roofa, "n
eInfonced concrete
tat cefnforced beCauA hec9 Slohaso Play
bord A nD CRirRo wth iat
buildings
Ane toJR a oandHouOye, Coo bano neeols to be
Aimben
mben o cGT Sheet rve, rvo
bufiodinoy wnPËCneo or slopRd
sovideo 9
oabono
vor imorant
Gabl Bono
horizonHaUMember cohich
cwhich E
Es ceo
loceo
plo
A 7able bond
A
a supparcC
slopnoq. sioab t0.
44he 10p 4he Tuole the orscina LoaglA
Ahe enols athe Ee rotecs ord ranf

end wa
A0 PONS ort bie
Chot RETROFITTÎNG OF STRUeTURES
wha Orre 4he Sourtes a/ eakneA n R¢ framed

buitoling
AM SountA
ineIN
CthaLA been
develnpeAecun hR ohAeryatton af hiur
StEUure during Uheuike DamaA
Uhguaka
tasme buildinn
diacDninuLouA
0ad fa^h
1OCK
a
delorna ion Compatbi Structural
hembeUA
Auali aorkmanAkp vo foor o
MAertalA
7 SUACAural mnae due to DEscontnuðtus Louo
aoth
EVert SH CHUMA
verutal aotesAAt7 SMeM lor 4ro ferun he
ors+Orti zonha oao rondanin temorafeUiny th

horcizon}al em
nortajive at Ahe soamfe 2ortWA ghbul
.
horuzontal faminy
be Prtooru
coLeeeb Ahe
0nd PrprenArannfoureo vorufal 1gteri re

inno
SytemAn dEstpnainuf nA oaol jath or #
ano Mojort contribukond
ng
Aramorttngy Cawe 4h
SAtuCkunal damase durin SAronoy arAhqugke
jo aCK O eormarfon.t
SuCAunal Danaeue
The Thain rDbiOmJ in the sUuHuMal mêmberuA
momen entanino roume builolln uR he uimi teof
Omount0 du ond 4he rah Ä to rdnri but
n oroet
EmpoAeo uson
o shet
Tn Aponne
with
t0
anohe
Sefamic Dadl,
defornasior
TR aonA afaurte no be EnCoumna' keOMA

P
CDunn
9+ EmportAaN}Ad
mem bert erorenaDce
ailure StruCAUta
9nooeuoAe Stten th and dluuiiy StrUural
ahe
Mm be CaA ano wTu rRAuA nocou or
ailura A AOm
aworcko.bi* no MaAOrtal
TheeR arte nUmerDA inAtan OA wherte oCu ConAtUkior
eti fra CAtCOS oCK a uat Con4rtol have G

Conqicibuueo 4he damasge
hefo Cul oMuuCon ptoHCEA moy be ke, lack op
0MbunA ano eafting ernoroemenn aA 1ert teuirRneH
Cooe asutaulanin when Ake endloxoral TAINbrcereny
O no4 ben 35 o0s aA AR COde speEeo.
MOy
buridinA Kave been danaseol ue to Poor
Palf onAtCD ofenmOAeriay sARRASAh Oas
Pe Srauuin a DNRAA A roNTon a
embeodeol enorcino bart, Portows COnCR,
LAnCreAe, Drer maioronP
O-04-03*]0n
ClaArarrDAi4eChiued anoeurke
4hois wne
A)
ReAei
94 tho mie. SArenthe nine eXAin
damooyeo unoauaoed CATCHUtuOn
Tmprtoyement oven Ahe oTuMng

SAeOnAh
ealuaton 0AObuldi n
AVaA Ahe SAenoAh tA ovau ob0
be{ore oamo oro
tAutuent
eAooLALONn
P atonO aoeuoe
uture
ObjetiveA
AD
enceg
teLorttcnent
uaul or .o u ahCouhM
GvLAP D
Conn On olemen
ReAoTr Teohnique
GlDol Local
|olincaoo han uIglA
oResing beam
Addlin
nu wn
|Jocneto Coluuny
Aldin broun
Addinoy Jackeno beoM
duaM
butees Teiny
wau AhiCkaO) .SArtengahey
Man eolucton odivCua fpot
S emenAal damfeno
bae togation
Thene toenvarce Ahe selymie Cafac
eiati
af rooh a
ettti uhicn tnvoJveA 1obau modocation
o 4 Stu CAual SyAom.
The no ao on
memben
Ato.ptnoy
af?oadh ,
el
tertatn wwCn deaA wth aN nCene Ahe
ouChYt Comfon en wtth ao||uaHO oates
SAate
Aeir
Strtucautal Level Gobal Reoinn
hooinn eu hean uwatA
Oe MoA ComMon meAhooA o ncreone

aerta yth a th C. buiAÍry . 94
SLne methoo
LEm 4ation :
MCrAne oHeral AAUAAanebut t ConcenHotel

a fe acen
7 9ncrROAne oeoo Lao A 4ruCurte
S+0ol broi
er SAROnla StneM Con be rovea ofeni
ProvRa.ofnir
t hayel
on Ngutua h Can be Maole eaAi A
Much
nhaEn
Amooerote to Wh evel af suao 1obou
Lack 0P Enornaton abou 4he SeRmie beharoun
he addeo brono
Onegirabe ohonneA
94 an qfeatVeA ecDoMal methoo 4on nroviny

SAtent eouuny dra+ endat fromes
Limi asiom
SDMe n Ah frane subseo t
ore aniasteaiie foncen whfon mo o2
aja aaut. na
S4tona
Strtoray MaAen ry n u , MON
e
resut
rame
tailune the coLumns af
E INEIX
Lotau Membe ReAra

w
Lotal Atoin eo eiKe
whon 44tt heroAtefe 6aerAives are
ndedo
CDm
foneA neRolo
A rRaAmeN} he he Vulneatbe
The mOA Pofulatfreyuen1 wed methoo tn

Cprinem en4
he TaokeinA .shde, ftbne reintonte
Pomer IfRI) Corobn be
JaCkeno Otourno Ah UAAn nreane
nmbertA ntRaAeA
aera nao od e suCkure n a
union bute lay wth a minmau
intnaxe aalUnoy
oTAn no
n*a Sieoundafan
alerua4ve he bOAiC
Dmeiy
Aebuloi
Jackesin
Jonckei the mA oalon weomatecal
for Strerotheninoy buflolino
The mA omnon tes ane Steel jakeA, f«.,
ane, einpordes Poymer cpmpeA ete ake
TCkA with ih temfon ateraA de Cothon fikre
as bre ese.
furone
To TO ncmeaMe tontr@te ConnemenA bb Arayerm
,eApeua
bre roinfoncenen fon rulor
AM Settonal ColumM
To ncteane ShoorlSAR t ATONAVerUe
otontement
gonoytudira
Aua SAOg
oe
*
FRP acketing
arton ebro Leible and Can be

moo
Conta SutacoR A h on a
Coninemen
h
ConneMeNA
km desrtee coz CacbOn
ore and
moolukuy
elotuty
OCeun
,
9 hA weht 8
ode not otue
PART-C
5.BUILDING SERVICES
Scanned with CamScanner

Direct System of Cold Water Supply
For efficient operation. a high pressure water supply is essential

particularly at periods of peak demand. Pipework is minimal and the
storage cistern supplying the hot water cylinder need only have 115
litres capacity. The cistern may be located within the airing cupboard
or be combined with the hot water cylinder. Drinking water is
available at every draw-off point and maintenance valves should be
fitted to isolate each section of pipework. With every outlet supplied
from the main. the possibility of back siphonage must be considered.
Back siphonage can occur when there is a high demand on the main.
Negative pressure can then draw water back into the main from a
submerged inlet. e.g. a rubber tube attached to a tap or a shower
fitting without a check valve facility left lying in dirty bath water.
Notes:
(1) Servicing valves to
be provided on supply pipes to
storage and flushing cisterns.
(2) Copper tube pipe sizes
shown.
Absence of cistern and pipes
in rool space reduces risk
of frost damage
Cold water
feed cistern
22 mm overflow pipe
22 mm
cold feed pipe
Bath Basin WC
Hot water cylinder
15mm
rising main
WC Basin
Sink
Combined stop and
Ground level drain valve
750mm min: "
Mastic seal Pipe duct 76 mm bore
Ret: The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999.

Indirect System of Cold Water Supply
The indirect system of cold water supply has only one drinking water
outlet. at the sink. The cold water storage cistern has a minimum
capacity of 230 litres, for location in the roof space. In addition to
its normal supply function. it provides an adequate emergency
storage in the event of water main failure. The system requires more
pipework than the direct system and is therefore more expensive to
install. but uniform pressure occurs at all cistern-supplied outlets.
The water authorities prefer this system as it imposes less demand
on the main. Also. with fewer fittings attached to the main. there is
less chance of back siphonage. Other advantages of lower pressure
include less noise and wear on fittings. and the opportunity to install
a balanced pressure shower from the cistern.
Notes:
(1) Servicing valves to
Cold water
be provided on supply pipes to storage cistern
storage and flushing cisterns.
(2) Copper tube pipe sizes
shown.
22 mm overflow pipe
22 mm
22 mm coldfeed pipe
distributing pipe
Bath Basin WC
Hot water cylinder
15 mm
15mm rising main
Basin
Sink
Combined stop and
Ground level Drain vae drain valve
750 mm min.
Mastic seal Pipe duct 76 bore
Ref: The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999.

Boosted Cold Water System - 1
For medium and high rise buildings. there is often insufficient mains
pressure to supply water directly to the upper floors. Boosting by
pump from a break tank is therefore usually necessary and several
more of these tanks may be required as the building rises. depending
on the pump capacity. A break pressure cistern is also required on
the down service to limit the head or pressure on the lower fittings
to a maximum of 30 m (approx. 300 kPa). The drinking water header
pipe or storage vessel supplies drinking water to the upper floors.
As this empties and the water reaches a predetermined low level. the
pipeline switch engages the duty pump. A float switch in the break
tank protects the pumps from dry running if there is an interruption
to mains supply. The various pipe sections are fitted with isolating
valves to facilitate maintenance and repairs.
Auto-air val Hesder pipe

Float rwiteh
Pipeline
swltch
Cold water supplies

to WCs, hasins, bath
and shower
Drinking water upply

from hesder pipe +H
Brak-premure cistern
Cold water supplies

to WOs, basins, baths
and showers
Drink ing witer upply

direct from main
Non-return valve
-Vent
Flort witch-
Incoming service pipe Break tank Duplicated pumping set

Boosted Cold Water System 2
As an alternative to the drinking water header pipe. an auto

pneumatic cylinder may be used. Compressed air in the cylinder
forces water up to the float valves and drinking water outlets on
the upper floors. As the cylinder empties a low pressure switch
engages the duty pump. When the pump has replenished the cylinder.
a high pressure switch disengages the pump. In time. ome air is
absorbed by the water. As this occurs. a float switch detects the
high water level in the cylinder and activates an air compressor to
regulate the correct volume of air. Break pressure cisterns may be
supplied either from the storage cisterns at roof level or from the
rising nain. A pressure reducing valve is sometimes used instead ofa
break pressure cistern.
Delayed action lost valve
Drinking water from Supply to WCs

ylinder basins, baths and
showers
Supply to WO
bins, Daths Bnd
showers
Break oressure
Break presuTa cistem cistern
-H
Orinking water
direa from min
Supply to WC.
besins, baths and Pressure switches
showers
Pneumatic cylinder
FE.
Duplicated pumping aet Air comprssor
Overfiow with filter

Direct System of Hot Water Supply
The hot water from the boiler mixes directly with the water in the
cylinder. If used in a "soft' water area the boiler must be rust
proofed. This system is not suited to 'hard' waters. typical of those
extracted from boreholes into chalk or limestone strata. When
heated the calcium precipitates to line the boiler and primary
pipework. eventually furring up' the system to render it ineffective
and dangerous. The storage cylinder and associated pipework should
be well insulated to reduce energy losses. If a towel rail is fitted.
this may be supplied from the primary flow and return pipes.
Servicing -Cold water storage or feed cistem

valve
Full-way gate valve
Rising main -22 mm cold feed pipe
22 mm vent pipo
Electric Immersion heater
Distance 'A'
450 mm (min) Direct cylinder
minimum capacity
140 litres
Bath Basin
22 mm hot water
distributing pipe 28 mm primary
flow pipe
15 mm 28 mm primary
retum pipe
Boiler with
themostatic
control
Sink Basin
Safety valve
Drain vave
Note: All pipe sizes shown are for copper outside diameter.

Indirect System of Hot Water Supply
This system is used in hard' water areas to prevent scaling or
furring' of the boiler and primary pipework. Unlike the direct system.
water in the boiler and primary circuit is not drawn off through the
taps. The same water circulates continuously throughout the boiler,
primary circuit and heat exchange coil inside the storage cylinder.
Fresh water cannot gain access to the higher temperature areas
where precipitation of calcium would occur. The system is also used
in combination with central heating. with flow and return Pipes to
radiators connected to the boiler. Boiler water temperature may be
set by thermostat at about 80°C.
Cold water storago clstern
Servicing Expanslon and feed clstern Servicing

Valve
Rislng maln
Rising maln
22 mm
secondary cold feed
plpe
22 mm
22 mm primary vent
secondary vent pipe
pipe
Heating col 15mm

primary cold feed
pipe
Bath Basin
28 mm
Draln valve primary flow
H-vent plpe helght above
dstern water line. plpe
H (min.)-150 mm+40 mm Indirect cylinder or calorifler minImum

per metre of system helght h. capaclty 140 tre (well Insulated)
h-distance between clstern

water lIine and cold feed entry 28 mm primary relurn pipe Pressure rellef
to cylinder (or boller on or safety valve
primary circut).
Sink Basin
Draln valve
Draln valve
Boller with thermostatic control
A safety valve is not normally required on indirect open vent

systems. as in the unlikely occurrence of the primary flow and vent
becoming obstructed. water expansion would be accommodated up
the cold feed pipe.

Indiwect Hot Water System for a Three-storey Building
For larger buildings a secondary circuit will be required to reduce

dead-legs' and to maint ain an effective supply of hot water at all
outlets. Convection or thermo-siphonage may provide circulation. but
for a more efficient service a circulatory pump will be necessary. In
buildings which are occupied for only part of the day. e.g. schools.
offices. etc.. a time control or programmer can be used to regulate
use of the pump. Also. one of the valves near the pump should be
motorised and automatically shut off with the pump and boiler when
hot water is not required. All secondary circuits should be well
insulated to reduce heat losses through the pipework. A heating
installation can operate in conjunction with this system., but may
require duplication of boilers or separate boilers for each function.
Cold water storage cistern Expansion and

feed cistern
111.
-Secondary circut
Baths, basins, sinks

or showers
Radiators or
Isolating valves towel rails
Pump
111 Drain valves Summer valvo
Calorifier
Sinks
Boiler

Indirect Supplementary Hot Water System
Hot water provision in moderately large buildings such as spacious

houses. small hotels. hostels and other situations where demand is
periodically high. can be from a large storage cylinder or cylinders
installed in duplicate. Alternatively or additionally. depending on
requirements. a supplementary storage vessel may be strategically
located at high level. This vessel is relatively small, cont aining no
more than 20 of the total design capacity.
Expansion CwsC
cistern Expansion pipe
High level hot water
storage vessel
Gate valve
Expansion Secondary flow
pipe
Service valve
Cold feed Hot water

- Cold feed
branch supplies
Safety
expansion
valve
Pump Hwsc
Secondary return
Timed circulator and

non-return check valve
Drain valve
Boiler
Advantages over a single storage facility:
Smaller secondary flow and return distribution pipes.

Less concentrated dead load on the structure.

SANITATION Single Stack System
The single stack system was developed by the Buil ding Research
Establishment during the 1960s. as a means of simplifying the
extensive pipework previously associated with above ground drainage.
The concept is to group appliances aro und the stack with a
separate branch pipe serving each. Branch pipe lengths and falls are
constrained. Initially the system was limited to five storeys. but
applications have proved successful in high rise buildin9s of over 20
storeys. Branch vent pipes are not required unless the system is
modified. Lengths and falls of waste pipes are carefully selected to
prevent loss of trap water seals. Water seals on the waste traps must be
75 mm (50 mm bath and shower).
Branch pipe slope or fall: Stack may be offset above

Sink and bath - the highest sanitary appliance
18 to 90 mm/m
Basin and bidet-
20 to 120 mm/n WC branch mm 1700 (max)
WC 9 mm/m.
No connection inside 3000 (max)
shaded area
The stack should bbe 6000 (max)
vertical below the
Basin
highest sanitary
appliance branch. If an Bath
offset is unavoidable. Wo
32 mm nom. dia.
there should be no
connection within 750
mm of the offset. Access 40 mm nom. dia. Overflow pipe
The branch waste

bath 100 mm nom.
connection must be at dia. stack 50 mm nom. dia. parallel branch pipe
least 200 mm below the
centre of the WC branch
3000 (max)
to avoid crossflow. This
may require a 50 mm
Alternative branch
nom. dia. parallel pipe to connection
offset the bath waste Sink
pipe, or an S' trap WC
to offset its connection. wc
40 mm nom. dia.
The vent part of the
stack may reduce to Centre line radius
450 mm (min)
200 mm (min)
75 mm nom. dia. when it Up to three storeys
is above the highest
branch. Rest bend

Single Stack System Modified
If it is impractical to satisfy all the requirements for waste pipe
branches in a standard single stack system. some modification is
permitted in order to maintain an acceptable system performance:
Appliances may be fitted with resealing or anti-siphon traps (see
page 309).
Branch waste pipes can be ventilated (see pages 314 and 315).
Larger than standard diameter waste pipes may be fitted.
40 mm (50 mm) 50 mm tal extenslon

Vent pipe outlet waste plpe totrap
900 mm (min)
above openable
U
window within 3 m
75 mm
3.000 (max)
6.000 (max) 4.000 (max
32 mm trap to
Basin basin (40 mm
Bath trap to bath
WC and sink)
F 40 mm 32 mm
50 mm 40 mm
100 mm discharge
stack
4.000 (max)
Sink
WC
40 mm
1-3 m max.
if WC connects-
50 mm
direct to drain
All pipe sizes nominal diameter
Note: Where larger than standard branch pipes are used. the trap
size remains as standard. Each trap is fitted with a 50 mm tail
extension before connecting to a larger waste pipe.
Refs: Buil ding Regulations. Approved Document H1. Section 1: Sanitary

pipework.
BS EN 12056: Gravity drainage systems inside buildings (in 6
parts).

Collar Boss Single Stack System
The collar boss system is another modification to the standard single

stack system. It was developed by the Marley company for use with
their uPVC pipe products. The collar is in effect a gallery with
purpose-made bosses for connection of waste pipes to the discharge
stack without the problem of crossflow interference. This simplifies
the bath waste connection and is less structurally disruptive.
Small diameter loop vent pipes on (or close to) the basin and sink
traps also connect to the collar. These allow the use of S traps
and vertical waste pipes
without the possibility of
Stack may be offset above
siphonage. even wnen i the highest sanitary appliance
the bath waste

discharges and flows into
the combined bath and Vent pipe carried up
basin waste pipe. above the highest 100 mm discharge stack
branch connection
Vertical outlets are also 12 mm loop vent pipe
likely to be less
obtrusive and less
exposed than higher
trap waste Bath
level P
pipes. wc
32 mm pipe
If the branch waste
pipes are kept to 40 mm bath waste pipee
Collar boss
minimal lengths. the loop
vents may not be Detail of
40 mm collar boss
required. However. the vertical vent pipe
system must be shown required for Vent branch
to perform adequately multi-storey
building WC branch
under test without the
loss of trap water seals. Waste pipe branch
All pipe sizes shown are

12 mm l0opP
nominal inside diameter. vent pipe Sink
There may be some wc
slight variation between
different product
manufacturers. 40 mm sink waste pipe
Collar boss
particularly those using
outside diameter Dimension A 450 mm (min)
specifications. Note that

there is not always
compatibility between
different manufacturers
components.

Modified Single Stack System
The ventilated stack system is used in buildings where close grouping

of sanitary appliances occurs typical of lavatories in commercial
premises. The appliances need to be sufficiently close together and
limited in number not to be individually vented.
Requirements:
WCS:
8 maximum
100 mm branch pipe
15 m maximum length
Gradient between Terminated or carried up
to take the discharges of
9 and 90 mm/m
sanitary appliances on
(0 90-95°). higher floors
50 mm
Basins:
Up to four basins
4 maximum
Up to eight WCs
50 mm pipe
15-000(max
4 m maximum length
Gradient between
18 and 45 mm/m
(0 91-922°). Branch connections
for P trap WC pans
50 mm cross vent
Urinals (bowls): as an alternative to the
connection to WC branch
5 maximum Discharge stack pipe
50 mm pipe 100 mm or 150 mm
Ventilated stack
Branch pipe as short
75 or 100mm
as possible 50 mm pipe
above spill level of WCs
Gradient between Above four wash basins
18 and 90 mm/m. 50 mm
Urinals (stalls):
7 maximum
65 mm pipe
L-
Above eight WCs
Cleaning eye
Branch pipe as for Two 45° large radius bends 750 mm (min)
bowls. up to 5 storeys
All pipe sizes are

nominal inside Vent pipe connected to base of stack to prevent back
diameter. pressure on the ground floor appliances

Fully Vented One-pipe System
The fully vented one-pipe system is used in buildings where there are
a large number of sanitary appliances in ranges. e.g. factories.
schools. offices and hospitals.
The trap on each appliance is

fitted with an anti-siphon or
900 mm
vent pipe. This must be (min) If Lis less than 3000 the
connected within 300 mm of stack must teminate 900 mm
above the window opening
the crown of the trap. Note the above rule applies
Window opening to all systems
Individual vent pipes combine in Range of wash basins

Range of WCs
a common vent for the range.
which is inclined until it meets
the vertical vent stack. This
vent stack may be carriedto
outside air or it may connect 40mm
100 mm
to the discharge stack at a
point above the spillover level
of the highest appliance.
75 mm vent stack 150 mm discharge stack
The base of the vent stack 32 mm loop vent

should be connected to the 50 mm loop vent
discharge stack close to the

bottom rest bend to relieve
any compression at this point.
40 mm
Cleaning eye
Size of branch and stack Easy bend
vents:
Rest bend
Discharge pipe Vent pipe

or stack (D) (mm) (mm)
<75 O-67D
75-100 50
>100 0.50D
All pipe sizes are nominal inside diameter.

The Two-pipe System
This system was devised to comply with the old London County
Council requirements for connection of soil (WC and urinal) and
waste (basin. bath. bidet. sink) appliances to separate stacks. For
modern systems the terms soil and waste pipes are generally
replaced by the preferred terminology. discharge pipes and discharge
stacks.
There are many

examples of the
two-pipe system in
use. Although
relatively expensive
to install, it is still
permissible and may
Urinal
be retained in
existing buildings
that are the Wash basin Wash bastn
subject of WC
refurbishment.
STET
It may also be used
where the sanitary
Trap water seal 75 mm deep
appliances are
widely spaced or
100 mm
remote and a soll stack
separate waste 75 mm waste stack
stack is the onlyy
viable method for Urinal
connecting these to
Wash basin Wash basin
the drain.
WC
A variation typical
of 1930s dwellings
has first floor bath
and basin wastes
discharging through
the wall into a
100 mm dran FRest bend or back-Inlet gully
hopper. The waste
stack from this and
the ground floor sink waste discharge over a gully.
A gully may be used as an alternotive to a rest bend before the

drain.

Ground Floor Appliances High Rise Buildings
Lowest discharge pipe connection to stack:

Up to three storeys 450 mm min. from stack base (page 311)
Up -
to five storeys 750 mm min. from stack base (page 314).
Above five storeys. the ground floor appliances should not connect
into the common stack. as pressure fluctuations at the stack base
could disturb the lower appliance trap water seals. Above 20
storeys. both ground and first floor appliances should not connect
into the common stack. Ground and first floor appliances so affected
can connect directly to a drain or gully. or be provided with a stack
specifically for lower level use.
Discharge Discharge stack and Discharge stack and

stacks and vent to appliances on vent to lower floor
vents 2nd floor and above
21
20
Discharge pipe
-3 3
No appliances
1
connected at
ground floor G
Drains to Ground flo0or Ground and first floor

inspection discharge pipes discharge pipes to
chamber to separate stack separate stack
Five to 20 storeys Over 20 storeys
Access required for clearing blockages. Rodding points should be

fitted at the end of discharge pipes., unless trap removal provides
acess to the fu pipe length. Discharge stacks are accessed from
the top and through access plates located midway between floors at
a maximum spacing of three storeys apart.

Electric Wiring 1
ELECTRICAL SERVICES
Armoured cable is used for mains and sub-mains. The cable is laid
below ground level, breaking the surface where it enters sub-stations
or transformers and other buildings. High voltage cable is protected
below ground by precast concrete tiles.
Copper
stranded conductor
Extruded PVC Extruded PVC

Stu wire
outer shurth ermour imuletion
Armoured three-phase four wire cable
for laying below ground level
Conduit for electrical services is produced in steel (galvanised or

painted black) or plastic tube into which insulated cables are drawn.
The conduit protects the cable from physical damage and heat. It
also provides continuous support and if it is metal. it may be used
as an earth conductor. Standard outside diameters are 20. 25. 32
and 40 mm. Steel is produced in either light or heavy gauge. Light
gauge is connected by grip fittings. whilst the thicker walled heavy
gauge can be screw threaded to fittings and couplings. Plastic
conduit has push-fit connections.
Brass -Threaded
bolts inside for
conduit
D
Steel conduit protected insidea)
ee (b) Elbow
(a) Grip coupling and outside with bitumen or zinc
Threaded inside for Threaded
G (c) Inspection
conduit inside for
conduit
O
(b) Screwed coupling bend () Plain bend
Couplings for steel conduit Fittings for steel conduit
Refs: BS 6346: Electric cables. PVC insulated. armoured cables for

voltages of 600/1000 V and 1900/3300 v.
BS EN 61386: Conduit systems for cable management.
BS 7846: Electric cables. 600/1000 V armoured fire resistant
cables having thermosetting insulation and low emission of
smoke and gases when affected by fire.

Electric Wiring 2
Mineral insulated copper covered cable (MICC) has copPPer conductors

insulated with highly compressed magnesium oxide powder inside a
copper tube. When installing the cable. it is essential that the
hygroscopic insulant does not come into contact with a damp
atmosphere. Cutting the cable involves special procedures which are
used to seal the insulant from penetration of atmospheric dampness.
The cable provides an excellent earth conductor: it is also
resistant to most corrosive atmospheres and is unaffected by
extremes of heat.
Sealling compound
Cable
Lock nut
Gland nut Threads
Fibre disc Cable
Conducior Gland nut
Insulaton Brass compression

sleeves ring
Brass Gland bocy
compression ring
Gland body
Side of outlet box Fibre disc sealing pot
Section of termination joint for mineral insulated Exploded view of termination joint for mineral
copper covered cable (MICC) insulated copper covered cable
PVC and rubber insulated cables are relatively inexpensive and simple
to install. requiring clipped support at regular intervals.
PVC cables
are use. but they have a temperature limitation between
in general
0°C and 70°C. Below zero they become brittle and are easily
damaged and at the higher temperature they become soft. which
could encourage the conductor to migrate through the PVC. Outside
of these temperatures. the cable must be protected or an
appropriate rubber insulant specified. Cables usually contain one. two
or three conductors. In three-core cable the live and neutral are
insulated with brown and blue colour coding respectively. The earth
is bare and must be protected with green and yellow sleeving where
exposed at junction boxes. sockets. etc. Grey and black insulated
conductors are occasionally used where an additional facility is
required. e.g. two-way lighting.
Conduetor. PVCor rubber sherth
PVCor
ubber Magnesium Copper
Copper
oxide powder conducton
Buckle clipP heeth
Core arrangements of mineral insulated copper
PVC or rubber insulated cable covered cables
Refs: BS 6004 Electric cables. PVC insulated. non-armoured cables

for voltages up to and including 450/7S0 V. for electric
power. lighting and internal wiring.
BS 6007: Electric cables. Single core unsheathed heat resisting
cables for voltages up to and incl uding 450/750 V. for
internal wiring.

Testing Completed Installation 1
Electrical installations must be testedon completion to veriy that

the system will operate efficiently and safely. The tests are
extensive. as defined in the Institution of Electrical Engineers
Regulations. They can only be carried out by a competent person.
i.e. a qualified electrician or electrical engineer. The following tests
are an essential part of the proceedings:
Continuity.
Insulation.
Polarity.
Testing is undertaken by visual inspection and the use of a multi-
purpose meter (multimeter) or an instrument specifically for recording
resistance. i.e. an ohmmeter.
Continuity - there are several types of continuity test for ring
mains. Each is to ensure integrity of the live. neutral and earth
conductors without bridging (shortin9 out) of connections. The
following is one established test to be applied to each conductor:
Record the resistance between the ends of the ring circuit (A).
Record the resistance between closed ends of the circuit and a
point mid-way in the circuit (B).
Check the resistance of the test lead (C).
Circuit integrity is indicated by: A + 4 approx. = B - C.
One conductor
of ring circuit
Power Test lead

socket
Crocodile clips
Ohmmeter
500
potential
Resistance between Resistance from end Test lead

ends of circuit to mid-point resistance

Testing Completed Installation - 2
Insulation this test is to ensure that there is a high resistance

between live and neutral conductors and these conductors and earth.
A low resistance will result in current leakage and energy wastte
which could deteriorate the insulation and be a potential fire hazard.
The test to earth requires all lamps and other equipment to be
disconnected. all switches and circuit breakers closed and fuses left
in. Ohmmeter readings should be at least M2 1
- Lamps disconnected
Switches clased Appliances

disconnected
from sockets
Consumer unit with

control switch closed Ohmmeter and
test leads
Insulation test
Polarity this is to ensure that all switches and circuit breakers are
connected in the phase or live conductor. An inadvertant connection
of switchgear to a neutral conductor would lead to a very
dangerous situation where apparent isolation of equipment would still
leave it live! The test leads connect the live bar in the disconnected
consumer unit to live terminals at switches. A very low resistance
reading indicates the polarity is correct and operation of the
switches will give a fluctuation on the ohmmeter.
- Light socket
Switch
Socket-
Varñous positions
for test leads
Ohmmeter
Consumer unit
Polarity test
Ref: BS EN 61010-1: Safety requirements for electrical equipment for

measurement. control and laboratory use.

Electricity Supply to Groups of Large Buildings
For large developments containing several buildings. either radial or

ring distribution systems may be used.
Radial system separate underground cables are laid from the sub.
station to each building. The system uses more cable than the ring
system. but only one fused switch is required below the distribution
boards in each building.
Intake room
Incoming
11 kV supply
400/230 V 4-wire armoured cable
Sub-station
with transformer
meter and
switches
Radial distribution (block plan)
Ring circuit system an underground cable is laid from the sub

station to loop in to each building. To isolate the supply. two fused
switches are required below the distribution boards in each building.
Current flows in both directions from the intake. to provide a better
balance than the radial system. If the cable on the ring is damaged
at any point. it can be isolated for repair without loss of supply to
any of the buildings.
Intake room
P Phas I| Subeireults
Earth
Incoming
11 kV supphy
N-Neutral Fused
Wtches
400/230 V 4wire armoured cable
Subattion
with transformer
meter and
switches Fused switches -
Detail of equipment in the intake room for the

Ring distribution (block plan) ring distribution

Earthing Systems 1
Supply systems require a safety electrical earthing facility. The

manner in which this is effected will depend on whether the supply is
overhead or underground and the conductive property of the ground
surrounding the installation. Systems are classified in accordance with
a letter coding:
First letter type of earthing

-
T at least one point of the supply is directly earthed.

I
the supply is not directly earthed. but connected to earth
through a current limiting impedance. Not acceptable for public
supplies in the UK.
Second letter - installation earthing arrangement:

T all exposed conductive metalwork is directly earthed.
N all exposed conductive metalwork is connected to an earth
provided by the supply company.
Third and fourth letters earth conductor arrangement:

s earth and neutral conductors separate
C earth and neutral conductors combined.
Common supply and earthing arrangements are:

TT (shown below)
TN-S and TN-C-S (shown next page).
TT system: Fuse or mcb Consumer unit

Most used in rural Lve bar
areas where the supply
is overhead. An earth Neutral bar
terminal and electrode Earth bar -2-pole switch
is provided on site by
the consumer. AS an
extra safety feature, a
residual current device RCD
(RCD). generally known Meter-
as a trip switch. is
located between the
meter and consumer
unit. The RCD in this Eathing
aloctrode Noutral link and
situation should be 100 A fus0
of the time delayed
type see page 398. 2-core averthead
supply

Earthing Systems -2
TN-S system - this is widely used in the UK. with the electricity
supply company providing an earth terminal with the intake cable.
This is usually the metal sheathing around the cable, otherwise
known as the supply protective conductor. It connects back to the
star point at the area transformer. where it is effectively earthed.
TN-C-S system this is as the TN-S system. but a common

conductor is used for neutral and earth supply. The supply is
therefore TN-C. but with a separated neutral and earth in the
consumer's installation it becomes TN-C-S. This system is also known
as protective multiple earth (PME). The advantage is that a fault to
earth is also a fault to neutral. which creates a high fault current.
This will operate the overload protection (fuse or circuit breaker)
rapidly.
Fuses or mcbs
Consumer unit
Earth
2-pole cable.
switch
Meter
Live and
neutral cable
Earth bond to
metal sheathing to
neutral connection Sealing chamber
at transformer and with 100A fuse
earthed
Earth connection
Underground to neutral link
supply cable
TN-S system TN-C-S system
Note: Specification of installation cable between supply company's

sealing chamber and consumer's unit phase/live and neutral
25 mm. earth 10 mm2 cross-sectional area.,

Connection to Earth
Pages 380. 381 and 385 show that the consumer's earth conductor
is connected to the neutral and earthed at the local transformer.
For below ground supplies this arrangement provides a path of low
resistance for an electrical fault. With an overhead supply typical of
rural areas. individual consumers must provide a suitable earth
terminal or electrode as shown on page 384.
Unless wet. the ground surface is not usually a very good conductor.
therefore ground contact is made at about 1.5 to 2m below the
surface. In the past this was achieved by earth bonding to metal
water and gas mains. Since the introduction of plastic pipe materials.
this is of course no longer acceptable. Current practices include
burying a metal plate or a metal tape mesh arranged over several
square metres. or driving a metal rod electrode into the ground. The
latter is normally adequate for domestic and other small-scale
installations. In some instances. the electrode is housed as shown
below. Whatever earth method used. a low resistance to an electrical
fault is essential. The IEE Wiring Regulations recommend that the
earth electrode resistance should not exceed 200 ohms.
10 mm2 min. earth conductor
Access cover
Steel driving cap
PAA Waming notice
SAFETY ELECTRICAL
CONNECTION
DO NOT REMOVE
Screwed connector
Copper or copper-faced
steel rod of 16 mm
diameter
Depth depending
on electrical resistance
Installation of a housed earth electrode

Earth Bonding of Services and Extraneous Metalwork
The Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE) Wiring Regulations require

the metal sheaths and armour of all cables operating at low and
medium voltage to be cross-bonded to ensure the same potential as
the electrical installation. This includes all metal trunking and ducts
for the conveyance and support of electrical services and any other
bare earth continuity conductors and metalwork used in conjunction
with electrical appliances. The bonding of the services shall be as
close as possible to the point of entry of the services into a
building. Other fixed metalwork shall be supplementary earth bonded.
10 mm earth wire
Earth conductor
fromconsumer unit
Earthing clamp for pipes

Gas meter Earth bond
Gas service Water service Electricity

pipe pipe service cable
Bonding of services at intake
Stainless steel sink,

Metal window metal taps and pipes
Consumer unit
Structural
steel
L *
Aadiator
10 mm earthing cable Earthing bar
Supplementary bonding of extraneous metalwork

Light and Light Sources 1
Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation. It is similar in nature

and behaviour to radio waves at one end of the frequency spectrum
and X-rays at the other. Light is reflected from a polished (specular)
surface at the same angle that strikes it. A matt surface reflects in
a number of directions and a semi-matt surface responds somewhere
between a polished and a matt surface.
Angle of incidence Light is reflected in all

Angle of reflection directions Some light is scattered and some
light is reflected directionally
Light reflected Light reflected Light scattered and

from a polished surface from a matt surface reflected from a semi-matt
surface
Light is scattered in all directions Light is bent or refracted when Sphere Surface area
(diffusion) passing through a surface between 1m2
two media
Solid angle
2m
1
lux
Plasticor
glass
1 candSela
opal
Light pasing through Intensity of light
a diffusing screen and lux
lllumination produced from a light source perpendicular to the

surface:
E Id2
E illumination on surface (lux)
|I = Illumination intensity from source (cd)
d distance from light source to surface (m)
Source
Surface
Illumination produced
from a light source not
perpendicular to the surface

Light and Light Sources -
2
Definitions and units of measurement:
Luminous intensity candela (cd). a measurement of the magnitude

of luminance or light reflected from a surface. i.e. cd/m2
Luminous flux lumen (lm). a measurement of the visible light
energy emitted.
Illuminance Lumens per square metre (lm/m) or lux (lx). a
measure of the light falling on a surface.
Efficacy efficiency of lamps in lumens per watt (Im/W).
Luminous efficacy = Luminous flux output Electrical power input.
Glare index a numerical comparison ranging from about 10 for
shaded light to about 30 for an exposed lamp. Calculated by
considering the light source size. location. luminances and effect of
its surroundings.
Examples of illumination levels and limiting glare indices for different

activities:
Activity/location llluminance (lux) Limiting glare index
Assembly work: (general) 250 25

(fine) 1000 22
Computer room 300 16
House 50 to 300 n/a
Laboratory 500 16
Lecture/classroom 300 16
offices: (9eneral) 500 19
(drawing) 750 16
Public house bar 150 22
Shops/supermarkets 500 22
Restaurant 100 22
Varies from 50 in bedrooms to 300 in kitchen and study.
The Building Regulations. ApPproved Document L2 requires that non-

domestic buildings have reasonably efficient lighting systems and
make use of daylight where appropriate.

Ventilation Requirements
Ventilation a means of changing the air in an enclosed space to:
Provide fresh air for respiration approx. 01 to 0:2 l/s per

person.
Preserve the correct level of oxygen in the air approx. 21.
Control carbon dioxide content to no more than O.1.
Concentrations above 2% are unacceptable as carbon dioxide is
poisonous to humans and can be fatal.
Control moisture - relative humidity of 30 to 70 is acceptable.
Remove excess heat from machinery, people. lighting. etc.
Dispose of odours. smoke. dust and other atmospheric
contaminants.
Relieve stagnation and provide a sense of freshness air
movement of 015 to 0.5 m/s is adequate.
Measures for control:
Health and Safety at Work. etc. Act.

The Factories Act.
Offices. Shops and Railway Premises Act.
Building Regulations. Approved Document F Ventilation.
BS 5925: Code of practice for ventilation principles and designing
for natural ventilation.
The statutes provide the Health and Safety Executive with authority
to ensure buildings have suitably controlled internal environments.
The Building Regulations and the British Standard provide measures
for application.
Requirements for an acceptable amount of fresh air supply in

buildings will vary depending on the nature of occupation and
activity. As a guide. between 10 l/s of outdoor air supply per person
can be applied between the extremes of a non-smoking environment.
to an extract air rate of 36 1/s per person in a room dedicated
specifically for smokers. Converting this to m°/h (divide by 1000
multiply by 3600). equates to 36 to 130 m°/h per person.
Air changes prr hour or ventilation rate is the preferred criteria for
system design This/ is calculated by dividing the quantity of air by
the room volume and multiplying by the occupancy.
E.g. 50 m'/h. 100 m office for five persons: 50/100x 5 = 2:5 a/c per h.

Natural Ventilation - 1
Natural ventilation is an economic means of providing air changes in

a building. It uses components integral with construction such as air
bricks and louvres. or openable windows. The sources for natural
ventilation are wind effect/pressure and stack effect/pressure.
Stack effect is an application of convected air currents. Cool air is
encouraged to enter a building at low level. Here it is warmed by
the occupancy, lighting. ma chinery and/or purposely located heat
emitters. A column of warm air rises within the building to discharge
through vents at high level. as shown on the following page. This
can be very effective in tall office-type buildings and shopping malls.
but has limited effect during the summer months due to warm
external temperatures. A temperature differential of at least 10 K is
needed to effect movement of air. therefore a supplementary system
of mechanical air movement should be considered for use during the
warmer seasons.
Positve pressure zone Suction zone
Windward
Leeward side
Ide
Wind pressure diagram for roofs with pitches

up to 30°
Positive pressure zone Suction zone
Leeward slde
Windward side
Wind pressure diagram for roofs with pitches

above 30
Posltive pressure Suction zone

Zone
Leeward slde
Windward slde
Wind pressure diagram for flat rools

A and B are the
helghts of the cool
and wam alr
stacks respectively
Stack pressure causing cross ventilation

Natural Ventilation - 2
The rates of air change are determined by the building purpose and
occupancy. and local interpretation of public health legislation. Public
buildings usually require a ventilation rate of 30 m3 per person
per hour.
Wind passing the walls of a building creates a slight vacuum. With

provision of controlled openings this can be used to draw air from
a room to effect air changes. In tall buildings. during the winter
months. the cool more dense outside air will tend to displace the
warmer lighter inside air through windows or louvres on the upper
floors. This is known as stack effect. It must be regulated otherwise
it can produce draughts at low levels and excessive warmth on the
upper floors.
Ventilation and heating for an assembly hall or similar buil ding may
be achieved by admitting cool external air through low level convectors.
The warmed air rises to high level extract ducts. The cool air intake
is regulated through dampers integral with the convectors.
Alr drawn out
Direction of wind
Alr forced In
Wam alr passing out
of windows Wind causing ventilation through windows
Central core contalning

stalrcases and lifts
Increase In
alr temperature
Ductwork Roof space
Cold alr entering

throughdoor
Stack pressure in a tall building
Alr Inlet at rear of heater Heater
Ventilation for an assembly hall by passing fresh

air through heat emitters

Natural Ventilation Passive Stack Ventilation (PSV)
PSV consists of vertical or near vertical ducts of 100 to 150 mm
diometer. extending from grilles set at ceiling level to terminals
above the ridge of a roof. Systems can be applied to kitchens.
bathrooms. utility rooms and sometimes sanitary accommodation, in
buildings up to four storeys requiring up to three stacks/ducts. More
complex situations are better ventilated by a Mechanical Assisted
Ventilation System (MAVS). see next page.
PSV is energy efficient and environmentally friendly with no running
costs. It works by combining stack effect with air movement and
wind passing over the roof. It is self-regulating. responding to a
temperature differential when internal and external temperatures
vary.
Stale air discharged through

teminals at ridge height
Roof space 100 to 150 mm ducts as

near vertical as possible
Bathroom Fresh alr

through trickle
vents
Kitchen
PSV to a dwelling house
Ref.: Building Regulations. Approved Document F1.

Mechanically Assisted Ventilation Systems (MAVS)
MAVS may be applied to dwellings and commercial premises where

PSV is considered inadequate or impractical. This may be because
the number of individual ducts would be excessive. i.e. too space
consuming and obtrusive with several roof terminals. A low powered
40 W) silent running fan is normally located within the roof structure.
It runs continuously and may be boosted by manual control when the
level of cooking or bathing activity increases. Humidity sensors can
also be used to automatically increase air flow.
MAVS are acceptable to Approved Document F1 of the Building9

Regulations as an alternative to the use of mechanical fans in each
room. However. both PSV and MAVS are subject to the spread of
fire regulations (Approved Document B). Ducting passing through a
fire resistant wall. floor or ceiling must be fire protected with fire
resistant materials and be fitted with a fusible link automatic
damper.
Low powered
continuously running Single ridge outlet
extract fan.
Extract ducting
Air inlet
Fire damper
located at
junction with
compartment
boundaries
B Bathroom K Kitchen
MAVS In a group of flats

Mechanical Ventilation with Heat Recovery (MVHR)
MVHR is a development of MAVS to include energy recovery from
the warmth in fan extracted moist air from bathrooms and kitchens.
The heat recovery unit contains an extract fan for the stale air. a
fresh air supply fan and a heat exchanger. This provides a balanced
continuous ventilation system. obviating the need for ventilation
openings such as trickle ventilat ors. Apart from natural leakage
through the building and air movement from people opening and
closing external doors. the building is sealed to maximise energy
efficiency. Up to 70% of the heat energy in stale air can be
recovered. but this system is not an alternative to central heating.
A space heating system is required and MVHR can be expected to
contribute significantly to its economic use. MVHR complies with the
alternative approaches to ventilation of dwellings. as defined in
Approved Document F1 to the Building Regulations.
Stale air
Central heat exchange outlet duct
energy recovery unit
Cold alr Intake
Intake fan and filter
Wam air duct
Extract fan
Moist stale air

extract duct
Extract gille and filter
Warm alr outlet from bathroom/kitchen
grlle and filiter
Schematic of an MVHR system of ventilation

Mechanical Ventilation 1
Mechanical ventilation systems are frequently applied to commercial

buildings. workshops. factories. etc.. where the air change
requirements are defined for health and welfare provision. There are
three categories of system:
1. inlet and mechanical extract
Natural
2. Mechanical inlet and natural extract
3. Mechanical inlet and mechanical extractt
The capital cost of installing mechanical systems is greater than

natural systems of air movement. but whether using one or more
fans. system design provides for more reliable air change and air
movement. Some noise will be apparent from the fan and air
turbulence ducting. This can be reduced by fitting sound
in
attenuators and splitters as shown on page 174. Page 180 provides
guidance on acceptable noise levels.
Internal sanit ary accommodation must be provided with a shunt duct
to prevent smoke or smells passing between rooms. In public
buildings. duplicated fans with automatic changeover are also
required in event of failure of the duty fan.
Fan- -Fan
Motor
Fan base
Hanger
Ladies Gents Coridor
Canopy
Shunt
Air inlet
Service
Guct Alr Intet
grille
Canteen kitchen
Internal sanitary accommodation
Fan
Basement car parks require at

least 6 air changes per hour
Large duct over whole of celing area
and at exits and ramps where to extract 2/3 of tolal volume of alr
queuing occurs. local ventilation Small duct around walls to extract 1/s of
of at least 10 air changes per total volume of alr
hour. Duplicate fans should be

provided with a fan failure
automatic change over.
Basement car park

Mechanical Ventilation 2
Fan assisted ventilation systems supplying external air to habitable

rooms must have a facility to pre-heat the air. They must also have
control over the amount of air extracted. otherwise there will be
excessive heat loss. A mechanical inlet and mechanical extract
system can be used to regulate and balance supply and emission of
air by designing the duct size and fan rating specifically for the
situation.
Air may be extracted through specially made light fittings. These
permit the heat enhanced air to be recirculated back to the heating
unit. This not only provides a simple form of energy recovery. but
also improves the light output by about 10%. With any form of
recirculated air ventilation system. the ratio of fresh to recirculated
air should be at least 1:3. i.e. min. 25% fresh. max. 75% recirculated.
In large buildings where smoking is not permitted. such as a theatre.
a downward air distribution system may be used. This provides a
uniform supply of warm filtered air.
Ductwork in all systems should be insulated to prevent heat losses
from processed air and to prevent surface condensation.
Reclrculalting duct -Extract
Extract fan
Alr
extract
Heating coll Down and up

Filter Celling ditfuser alr distribution
Ventlated
Fresh alr Fan light fitting
Inlet
GL
Mechanical inlet and natural extract Mechanical inlet and mechanical extract for aan
open plan office or supermarket
Extract fan Hoating unit

Iniel tan0GU Stage extract-
Downward alr distributlon
Balcony
Extract
auctExtractgrilles
-
Mechanical inlet and mechanical extract tor
Stage
a theatre

Ventilation System Heating Load
When designing ventilation systems. provision must be made for

the displacement of heat energy resulting from the movement of air.
This is necessary for maintenance of the building or room ambient
temperature. Also. to prevent cold draughts and condensation.
Cold supply air is pre-heated to discharge at the same temperature
as the design air temperature for the room served. This will have
no real effect on any separate heating system and can be regulated
independently by a control thermostat. The following formula can be
used to establish the ducted air heater rating in kW. relative to
design temperature parameters:
Heater rating = m x Shc x Temp. diff. (int. - ext.)
Where:
m mass air flow rate (kg/s)
Shc Specific heat capacity of air (10 kJ/kg K)
Temp. diff. = Temperature differentioal between internal room
air and external supply air (K)
Air flow rate by volume (0) is calculated in m3/s. To convert this to
mass air flow rate in kg/s. the volume rate is multiplied by air
density (P) of 1:2 kg/m3
Therefore:
Heater rating = Q x px Shc X Temp. diff. (int. - ext.)
For example. a room with total fabric and infiltration heat losses of
3 kW (see method of calculation on page 125). with air supply and
temperature design factors as given below:
Fan (0.4 ms)
Heater rating O-4 x12 x1-O x (22 4)

12-48 kW
Heater coil
Air duct heater calculation
Therefore if the ducted air is required to supply all heating needs.

then 12.48 kW is added to the room losses of 3 kW. bringing the
total heat input to 15-48 kW. If the ducted air system is to provide
for the design room heat loss of 3 kW. the discharge air
temperature (T) can be found by rewriting the formula:
Room heat losses = Q xpx Shc x (T -
int. air temp.)
Or: T [Room heat losses -(Q x Shc)] + 22 px
T [3 0-4 x 12 x 10)]+ 22 28-25°C

Roping Systems for Electric Lifts -1
High tensile steel ropes are used to suspend lift cars. They have a
design factor of safety of 10 and are usually at least fourin
number. Ropes travel over grooved driving or traction sheaves and
pulleys. A counterweight balances the load on the electric motor and
traction gear.
Methods for roping vary:
Single wrap 1:1 the most economical and efficient of roping systems
but is limited in use to small capacity cars.
Single wrap 1:1 with diverter pulley required for larger capacity
cars. It diverts the counterweight away from the car. To prevent
rope slip. the sheave and pulley may be double wrapped.
Single wrap 2:1 - an alternative for use with larger cars. This system
doubles the load carrying capacity of the machinery but requires
more rope and also reduces the car speed by 50o.
Double wrap used to improve traction between the counterweight.

driving sheave and steel ropes.
Steel rope
O Tractlon sheave
Slab
O Tractton sheave
Car Diverter pulley

Steel
rope
Counterwelght Counterwelght
Car
Single wrap 1:1 roped Single wrap 1:1 roped with diverter pulley
Double wraP Traction sheave

Hitch Traction sheavo Hitch
Hitch
Slab -Hitch Sla
Steel
rope D--Pulley
steel rope
Wrapping Pulley
-
pulley
Pulay Car Pulley
Car
Counterwelght COunterwelght
Single wrap 2:1 roped Double wrap 2:1 roped (for high speed and medium to
heavy duty loads)

Roping Systems for Electric Lifts -
2
Single wrap used3:1 for heavy goods lifts where it is necessary

to reduce the force acting upon the machinery bearings and
counterweight. The load carrying capacity is increased by up to
three times that of uniform ratio. but the capital costs are higher
with increased pulleys and greater length of rope. By comparison.
the car speed is also reduced to one-third.
Drum drive a system with one set of ropes wound clockwise

around the drum and another set anti-clockwise. It is equally
balanced. as one set unwinds the other winds. The disadvantage of
the drum drive is that as height increases. the drum becomes less
controllable. limiting its appication to rises of about 30 m.
Compensating rope and pulley used in tall buildings where the

weight of the ropes in suspension will cause an imbalance on the
driving 9ear and also a possible bouncing effect on the car. The
compensating es attach to the underside of car and
counterweight to pass around a large compensating pulley at low
level.
Doublo wrapX - Traction sheave

Pulley- -Pulley
Slab
car Counterweight
Traction car
sheave
Wolghted compensatingg
pulley
O-
Compensation
rope Counterwelght
Double wrap 1:1 roped with compensating rope Single wrap 3:1 roping
Clamp Clamp Pulleys-

Drum
Floor
Traction
Counterwelght sheave Counterweight
car
Single wrap 1:1 roped with machine room below roof
Drum drive level. The length of rope is increased which limits thee
travel and speed of car

Single Automatic Lift Control
The single automatic push button system is the simplest and least
sophisticated of controls. The lift car can be called and used by only
one person or group of people at a time. When the lift car is called
to a floor. the signal lights engraved in use' are illuminated on
every floor. The car will not respond to any subsequent landing
calls. nor will these calls be recorded and stored. The car is under
complete control of the occupants until they reach the required
floor and have departed the lift. The in use' indicator is now
switched off and the car is available to respond to the next landing
call. Although the control system is simple and inexpensive by
comparison with other systems. it has its limitations for user
convenience. It is most suited to light traffic conditions in low rise
buildings such as nursing homes. small hospitals and flats.
In use' llghts
Switched on
Car
unoccupled
Car and
In use' llghts responding
luminatedd to the first
landing call
Lift car called to a floor. 'In use' lights switched on
Car occupled
and moving
elther up
or down
use' lights_
"In
Switched of
Lift car in control of occupant and cannot be The car will now
called by other passengers respond to an
Intending passenger
Car Car statlonary

and
unoccupled
Lift car vacated. "In use' lights switched off.

Lift can now be called by other passengers
Ref. BS 5655-7: Lifts and service lifts. Specification for maníal

control devices. indicat ors and additional fittings.

Down Collective Lift Control|
Down collective - stores calls made by possengers in the car and

those made from the landings. As the car descends. landing calls are
answered in floor sequence to optimise car movement. If the car is
moving upwards. the lift responds to calls made inside the car in
floor sequence. After satistying the highest registered call. the car
automatically descends to answer all the landing calls in floor
sequence. Ony one call button is provided at landings. This system is
most suited to flats and small hotels, where the traffic is mainly
Car moving
between the entrance
upward too lobby and specific floors.
above 2 floor
3d Floor
Full or direc tional
collective - a variation in
which car and landing
Floor calls are immediately
stored in any number.
Csr stationary Upward and downward
intermediate landing calls
| 1floor are registered from one
of two dir ectional
buttons. The uppermost
and lowest floors only
Ground floor require one button. The
Passenger enters While travelling lift responds to calls in
the car and prass buttons upwerds all the floor order independent of
to travel upwards landing calls are by-passed
call sequence. first in one
direction and then the
other. It has greater
flexibility than the down
3 Floor collective system and is
appropriate for offices
and departmentat stores
where there is nore
movement between
Car will
intermediate floors.
stop for
person stationary
1"Floor
Ground floor
When the car moves Passengers leave

down all landing calls the car
are collected floor by floor

Paternoster Lifts
A paternoster consists of a series of open fronted two-person cars
suspended from hoisting chains. Chains run over sprocket wheels at
the top and bottom of the lift shaft. The lift is continuously moving
and provides for both upward and downward transportation of
people in one shaft. Passengers enter or leave the car while it is
moving. therefore waiting time is minimal. Passengers will have to be
fairly agile. which limits this type of installation to factories. offices.
universities. etc. It is not
suitable in buildings that
accommodate the infirm or
o
Sprocket wheels drven by
elderly! When a car reaches an electricC
motor Hinged
its limit of travel in one hood
direction. it moves across to
the adjacent set of hoisting Two-person
chains to engage with car Hoisting
open tronted
car
guides and travel in the chaln
other direction. In the

Direction of Hinged tread
interests of safety. car cartravel
speed must not exceed Apron
O-4 m/s.
Direction of
Top of arss
car travel
fixed to chalns
at opposito
corners (cars
always remain
In an upright
Bearing
Car Car posltlon)
7
rising O0R descending
Gulde
Tensloned Holsting
sprocket chaln
Car wheels
moving
across
SeLTAOREK HZ Sprockot wheol
and chain
Bearing
Plan of lift at top changeover View of installation
Paternosters convey about 600 persons per hour. This type of lift
has the advantage of allowing passengers to begin their journeys
undelayed. regardless of travel direction. Simplicity of control gear
adds to the advantages. resulting in fewer breakdovwns by eliminating
normal processes of stopping. starting. accelerating and decelerating.
They are most suited to medium-rise buildings.

Oil-hydraulic Lifting Arrangements
Direct acting - the simplest and most effective method. but it

requires a borehole below the pit to accommodate the hydraulic ram.
The ram may be one piece or telescopic. In the absence of a
counterweight. the shaft width is minimised. This will save
considerably on construction costs and leave more space for
general use.
Side acting the ram is connected to the side of the car. For large
capacity cars and heavy goods lifts. two rams may be required. one
each side of the car. A borehole is not necessary, but due to the
cantilever design and eccentric loading of a single ram arrangement.
there are limitations on car size and load capacity.
Direct side acting the car is cantilever and suspended by a steel
rope. As with side acting. limitations of cantilever designs restrict
car size and payload. Car speed may be increased.
Indirect side acting the car is centrally suspended by a steep rope
and the hydraulic system is inverted.
Car Car
Ram
Ram
Pt
Cylinder Cyander Hitch Pulleys O-Pulley

Z
zzz
ar
Ram
Direct acting Slde actng
Rope
Hitch
Ram
Car
ylinder
steel rope
Cyinder z|
Pulley CLHtch
Direct side acting Indirect side acting

Oil-hydraulic Lifting Arrangements
Direct acting - the simplest and most effective method. but it

requires a borehole below the pit to accommodate the hydraulic ram.
The ram may be one piece or telescopic. In the absence of a
counterweight. the shaft width is minimised. This will save
considerably on construction costs and leave more space for
general use.
Side acting the ram is connected to the side of the car. For large
capacity cars and heavy goods lifts. two rams may be required. one
each side of the car. A borehole is not necessary. but due to the
cantilever design and eccentric loading of a single ram arrangement.
there are limitations on car size and load copacity.
Direct side acting the car is cantilevered and suspended by a steel
rope. As with side acting. limitations of cantilever designs restrict
car size and payload. Car speed may be increased.
Indirect side acting the car is centrally suspended by a steep rope
and the hydraulic system is inverted.
Car Car
Ram
Ram
Cylinder ylinder Hitch Pulleys

-Putoy
Car
Dlrect acting Slde actng em
Rope
Hitch
Ram
Car
Cylinder
Cyinder
steel rope
Pulley Hitch
Direct side acting Indirect side acting

Details of Oil-hydraulic Lift Installation
Originally. hydraulic lifts

used mains water supply as -LIring boam
the operating medium. The Landing door

main was pressurised from a Car doo
(0.1
Smoke vent
m unrostrictod aroa)
central pumping station to
service lift installations in Car
several buildings. The oil. Shat (one

hydraulic system has oil hour flire resistance
minimum)
pressure fed by a pump into
a cylinder to raise the ram Precislon ram Door Oll tank
and lift car. Each lift has
its own pumping unit and
controller. These units are
usually sited at or near to Packing gland o
pipe
the lowest level served. no

more than 10 m from the
shaft. The lift is ideal in
lower rise buildings where Steel cylinder
moderate speed and smooth Concrete Controller Pump
acceleration is preferred. suround 150 mm
thick
Car speed ranges from 0.1
to 1 m/s and the maximum Vertical section
travel is limited to about
21 m. The lift is particularly
suitable for goods lifts and Controller
Machine room
for hospitals and old
Guldes
people's homes. Most
hydraulic lifts carry the Car door
load directly to the ground. SOIl pipo/ tank
therefore as the shaft does
Landing Car
not bear the loads.
construction is lesss
expensive than for a 1EANE Pump
comparable electric lift Landinig door Motor
installation. ZILA
Plan
BS 5655-10-2 provides specific guidance for the testing and

examination of hydraulic lifts.
See also BS EN 81-2 for safety rules opplied to constructing and
installing hydraulic lifts.

Oil-hydraulic Lift Pumping Unit and Packing Gland
Upward movement the oil pressure must be gradually increased.

-
The up solenoid valve is energised by an electric current and opens

to allow il to enter above piston D. As the area of piston D is
greater than valve C. the oil pressure closes the valve and allows
high pressure oil to flow to the cylinder and lift the ram and
the car.
Downward movement the oil pressure must be gradually decreased.
The lowering solenoid valve is energised by an electric current and
opens allowing oil to flow back to the tank through the by-pass. AS
the area of piston A is greater than valve B. the reduced oil
pressure behind the piston allows valve B to open. Oil flows into the
tank and the car moves downwards.
A special packing gland with several seals is required between the
cylinder and ram.
Ol
Up solenold
vavo
Lowertng
solenold
valve
Pump
Strainer
Spring-loaded
Precislon ram check vave
Oll to cyllnder and ram
Oil tank, pump and controls

Drlp
mm pan
Alrbleed
valve
Packing
Boaring
Cylindar
casing
Oll plpe
Detalil of packing gland

Escalators
Escalators are moving stairs used to convey people between floor
levels. They are usually arranged in pairs for opPPosing directional
travel to transport up to 12 000 persons per hour bet ween them.
The maximum carrying capacity depends on the step width and

conveyor speed. Standard steps widths are 600, 800 and 1000 mm.
with speeds of 0-5 and 0-65 m/s. ontrol gear is less complex than
that required for lifts as the motor runs continuously with less load
variations. In high rise buildings space for an escalator is unjustified
for the full height and the high speed of modern lifts provides for a
better service.
To prevent the exposed openings facilitatin9 fire spread, a water

sprinkler installation (see Part 12) can be used to automatically
produce a curtain of water over the well. An alternative is a
fireproof shutter actuated from a smoke detector or fusible links.
Balustrade Upper floor

level
2.300 -steps
min
Hand Rise
Beam
rall
Lowerfloor level
Sprinklers
Boam -Pt 1.000
2.00-5.000 Fireprod construction

0 30 or 35
Elevation Water curtain
Steel shutter
Comb Hand rall Comb Smoke detector
Steps
Plan Fireproof sliding shutter

Escalator Arrangements and Capacity
Escalator configurations vary depending on the required level of

service. The one-directional single bank avoids interruption of traffic.
but occupies more floor space than other arrangements.
A criss-cross or cross-over arrangement is used for moving traffic in
both directions.
(a) Single bank-traffic in one direction
Direction up or down
(b) Crisscross
Direction up and dawn
(c) Parallel
Direction up or down
Escalator arrangements
Escalator capacity formula to estimate the number of persons (N)

moved per hour:
3600x Px V * cosine 0
N
L
where: P =number of persons per step

V speed of travel (m/s]
= angle of incline
L = length of each step (m).
E.9. an escalator inclined at 35°. operating with one person per
400 mm step at O-65 m/s.
N-3600x1x0:65 * O°8I9Z = 4792 persons per hour
O-4

Travelators
Travelators also known as autowalks. passenger conveyors and

moving pavements. They provide horizontal conveyance for people.
prams. luggage trolleys, wheelchairs and small vehicles for distances
up to about 300 metres. Slight inclines of up to 12 are also
possible. with some as great as 18°, but these steeper pitches are
not recommended for use with wheeled transport.
Applications range from retail. commercial and store environments to

exhibition centres. railway and airport terminals. Speeds rangge
between O-6 and 13 m/s. any faster would prove difficult for entry
and exit. When added to walking pace. the overall speed is about
25 m/s.
There have been a number of experiments with different materials for

the conveyor surface. These have ranged from elastics. rubbers.
composites, interlaced steel plates and trellised steel. The latter two
have been the most successful in deviating from a straight line. but
research continues. particularly into possibilities for variable speed
lanes of up to 5 m/s. However. there could be a danger if bunching
were to occur at the exit point.
Up to 300 m
1m
840 to
910 mm
6 m min.
radius
840t
910 mm
Floor recess 6m min.

for drive motor radius Intermediate
and rollers Support rollers
at 20 m max.
intervals
Capacity 6500 to 10800 persons par hour

Typical inclined travelator

PART-D
6.Construction and earth moving equipments

PART-D
6.Construction and Earth moving equipments
INTRODUCTION
Construction equipments are one of the very important resource of modern-day construction,
-especially in infrastructure project.
In such projects equipments are used for most of the works including earth moving operation,
aggregate production, concrete produetion and its placenent etc. In fact, we cannot think of
any major construction activity without the involvement of construction equipment.
There are types of construetion equipments suitable for different activities in a construction
project.
The selection of construction equipment defines the construction method, which in a way leads
to the determination of time and cost for the project.
For selecting the right equipment to perform a specific task at the least cost, it is essential to
know the features.of a construction equipment including its rate of production and the associated
cost to operate the equipment.
While dealing with the construction stage, selection of the most suitable equipment is a very
Lypical problem which is génerally faced by the construction engineers or contractors.
A contractor may not afford to have all types or sizes of equipment which are required for
exccution of the projects.
Choiee is made ufter vonsidering many factors like nature of the project, cost of equipment,
depreciation, possibility of its future uses on other projects, its resale value after certain period,
the saving expected from the use of such equipments etc.
CLASSIFICATION OR cONSTRUCTION EOUIPMENTS
Construction equipments can be elassified into many ways.

3. Basis of function of equipment - for exanple, niaterial loading function, material -transporting
furction etc.
On the basis of functions equipments can be grouped into
(a) Power Units
(b) Prime movers
() Tractors
(d) Material-Handelling cquipment
()Material-processing equipment

2. Basis of Operation of equipment:
(a) Equipments used for moving. and loosening the materials found in their natural state eg-
pumps, excavators, earth moving, trenchers, compressors etc:
(b) Equipments used ur processing the materials, for example aggregate, concrete and asphalt
production.
(c) Equipments used for transporling the processed materials
(d) Equipments used for placing finish materials.
3. Basis of purpose of equipment

(a) General Purpose: Earthwork equipment, Hoisting, Concreting
(b) Special equipments: Piling rig, coffer dams, tunnel boring machine, caissons equipments
etc.
SELECTION OF CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT

Por speedy and econom ic construction of a project, proper choice of equipment is of primary
importance.
The problem of proper selection is further complicated because of the wide range of equipment
commercially available.
Following factos.must.be considered-before having a final choice
1. Use of Existing Equipment

When the full utilization of new cquipment for the future projects is uncertain, it may be
desirable to us existing 'old equipment even if its operation is someiwhat more expensive.
Depreciation cost of the new machine is likely to be high, and this would raise the owning cost
of the equipment and hence the unit cost of work.
2. Availability of the Equipment

The equipment which is ensily available in the market should be sclected for the purpose
because any delay in delivery may increase the construction cost. repairing of such equipments
will also be done easily.
3. Use of Standard Equipme

Standard equipment is commonly manufactured in large numbers and hence these are readily
available and moderately priced.
Spare parts of standard equipment are easily available and are less costly.
After the work is over, Selling off standard equipment and its spare parte is generally easier
than in comparison to non-standard or specialized equipment.
4. Country of Origin
It is-always suggestable to buy equipment from own country because this will decrease the
repair cost and downtime cost and at the same time it will boost up nation's economý.
For imported equipment, it, is.preferable to import from a soft curtency raher, from. a. hard
currency country, to save foréign curréncy' reerves.

5. Suitability for Future Use
If a machine is required only. for some part of its use full ife, then ways to disposed off or its
deployment on some other site should be considered.
.Obsolescence of the machine should not be overlooked.
6. Suitability for Site Conditions

The equipment chosen should suit the conditions of the job, soil, valley, working conditions and
climate of the region.
7. Size of Equipment
Larger equipment give higher outputs on full load, but its-cost of production is' usually greater
than that of smaller units working on partial load.
For larger equipment transportation to site is, generally dificult and costly in comparison. to
sinaller equipment.
Servicing, maintenanee and iepair facilities have to be greater for 1larger units. However, larger
machines are usually more suitable for tough working conditions.
Standby cost of Jerger size eguipment is more than, that of smaller equipment.
8. Versatility
If-possible. the.machine selected should be able to do more than one function, and should be
inter convertible. where ever pOssible.
9. Suitability of Local Labour

The locally available.operators and technicians should .be able to handle the selected equipment.
Special equipment may have excellent performance but may be difficult to get repaired during
break down.
COST.OFOVNING AND OPERATION

Cost of possession of an equipment is called cost of owning to which can be added the cost of
fuel for running the cquipment.
lt is the amount by which an equipment should be hired. It is generaly estimated on hourly
basis.
It should be noted that this does not include the operators cost.
Pollowing factors should affect the cost of owning and operating.
(a) Iuitial cost of equipment, whiech includes equipment cost, transportation cost, loading and
unloading charges and installation cost.
b) Severity of service condition under which it is used.
(c) Number of hours used in a year.
(d) Quality of Maintenance and repair.
(e) Demand of equiprment at the end of service life.
9 Service,life:of.equiprment: ta.2*

Following cost constitutes the cost of owning and operating.
). Depreciation cost
(i) Maintenance & Repair cost
(i) Investment cost
iv) Fuel or energy consumption cost
(v) Lubricating oil cost
Note: Annuol maintenance and repair cost 50 to 100% of anrual depreciation but 100% is a fair value.
Intial vatue-Sabvage value
Annual deprecia1ion
Usèful life of equipment
ECONOMIC LIFE O CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
A construction equipment has two types of life.

(a) Physical life: 'The potential service life or time periöd, of an équipment before which it
physically becomes unable to produce a good or service.
b) Economic life : It is definèd as the time period over which an equipment is expected to
be use able, with normal repairs and maintenance, for' the purpose it is hired.
A machine can be used for long period (till the end of physical life) through expensive repair
and maintenance cost, may have small economic life î.e. during which it gives maximum profit.
änd lowest áperating cost.
- -- --- -
-~w= ------ - -------- -
Note: Economic life may also be defined os the period of replacement of an equipment that maximises the profit from
the equipmenf or mininizes-the cumulativelý hourly owning and operating cost.
Generally the economic life of 'an equipment is given in terms of years and orking hours.
*--
When should the equipment be replaced?

lf the equipment is replaced too early, he will experience capital loss, and if too late, the
equipment might have passed its period of economic operation.
The owner must consider all costs related to the ownership and operation of the equipment,
and the effect which the continued use will have oin these costs.
The costs to .be considered -are:
1. Investment Costs
It is the fixed cost which is incurred at the time of purehasing equipment but it also includes
some other parameters inclusive which definition get modified as
Investment cost comprises fixed cost which is incurred at the tinie of purchasing equipment,
,
interest on the money invested in buying the eguipment taxes pertaining to the ownership
of the equipment, insurance and storage.
Money spent in the purchase of equipnent, if invested in a bank would bring a return in terms
uf interest
Opportunity of earning this interest is lost due to purchase of the equipment, and so the
recovery of this amount should be made on the machine's amount.
.Generally a combined investment cost including interest, taxes, insurance and storage istaken
bout T0 to 129% per year of the value of the equipment at the beginning of year.

.
' :
Average annual cost of the equipment is found out in following ways.
Case -I. When there is no salvage value of the equipment.
P
where,
P Total initial cost
PavAverage value
n life' in years
3pln
Pav
p/n
P/n
life in ycars with no šalvage value

Value of equipment by year
Case -I1. When there is salvage value of the eqüpment; The average value ofthe equipment
is the sum of the values at the beginning of the first year and the énd of the last
year divided by 2.
(p-s) Pav
Life in years with salvage value

Value of equipment by year
+S P(n+1)S(n-1)
PaY
2n
where,
P Total original cost
PgAverage'value
n = Life in years
:SSalvage-value

Nofe: In both cases above, the book value is þased on straight line depreciation.
2. Depreciation and Replacement Costs

When one considers the replacement of equipment, it is necessary to know the salvage valg
of the machine and the replacement cost of a similar equipment.
Replacement cost of an equipment must be increased 5% every year to balance the increas
in cost of equipment every year..
3. Maintenance and Repair Costs
It is necessary to keep accurate records of maintenance and repair costs aslarge variations a
*
observed in these costs every year.
4. Downtime Cost
Downtime is the time that a machine is not working because, it is undergoing repairs,
adjustments.
Downtime tends to increase with usage.
Note: Availability is a term that indicates the portion of thé tine that a machine is in actual prodiction, expressed
a percent. Thus, if a machine is down 127%
of the time. its availábility is 887%.
-----~-.----~---*.
5. Obsolescence Cost
Continuing improvements in the productive capacities of construction equipment haye resultex
in lower production costs.
t observed that ; if by installing anew nachine the production'cost is reduced -by 5%, whe
compared with the production costs of an existing machine, the existing machine will sulier
loss in value equal to 5%. This is defined as obsolescence loss.
These improvements, whose advanitages can be gained only by the replacement of older equipmen
with newer equipment, decrease the desirability of continuing to use the older equipment

TRACTOR
Primary purpose of a tractor is to pull or push loads, and it may be used also as mount for
many types of equipment such as bulldozer, shovel, dragline, hoe, tenchers etc. Therefore.
It is'considered as one of the most important equipments and-is indispensable on most of the
construction projects whether small or big.
Types of Tractors
Tractors are divided into folowing types
"
Tractor
Crawler Tractor Wheel Tractor
Two' wheel Tractor Fourwheel Tractor
Factors affecting in selection of a tractor

In selecting a tràctor, several factors should be considered and some of them are enumerated
as follows;
(a) size required as per magnitude of the job.
(b) kind of job for which it is to be used like bulldozing, pulling a scraper, clearing lànd etc.
(c) type of footing over which it is to operate i.e. high tractive or low tractive efficiency.
) firmness of haul road *"**

***.".

(c) smoothness of haul road
() slope of haul road.
e) slope of haul road.

() type of work it is no do after this job is completed.
Crawler tractor
If a tractor is inounted on crawler, it is called crawler tractor.
Crawler track is an endless chain consisting of steel links made of steel plates connected
together by pins and bushings.
It is used for imoving heavy units on rough surface having poor traction The optimum pull that
a crawler tractor can provide depends upon its weight and is equal to the coeficient of traction
(depending upon road surfaces) multiplied by the weight of unit, Tegardless of the power
supplied by the engine. Its
Maximum speed is limited to 10 kmph while average speed lies hetaen 4.5 to 5.6 kmph. it
is suited for short haul say 60. to 150 m.
Special advantage lies in its ability to uravel over very rough surfaces and to climb very steep
grades up to 25 to 29% at a speed of 2.75 kmph.
It has a life of 8 to 12 years (9000 to 16000 hrs) depending upon its horse power which varies
form 100 to 300-HP.
Advantages of crawler, tractors

) Having tractive effort it can operate on soft footing such as loose or muddy soil.
inore
) It.can operate in rocky formations where rubber tyres may be seriously damaged.
i), lt cam travel over. rough. surfaces.which may reduce.the. cost of maintaining. haul.rozds.
tiv) It has grcater fleatation because of lower pressure under the tracks.
(v) Being compact and powerful, it can handle very difficult jobs.
Wheel tractor
The basie advantages ofa wheel tractor when compared with' a rawler turactor lies in its higher
spieed. In order to attain a higher speed, a wheel tractor must sacrifice its pulling effort. As
1he speed is increased with the help of higher gears. Rimpull will be decreased in approximately
the same proportion.
Nofe: for a given unit whose engine is operoted at a rated power, specd rimpull will always be constant.
lt po esses a lower cocflicient of traction between rubber tyres and some soil surfaces, the
whéel tractor sturts slipping before developing its rated rimpul
ls useful life lies between 8 tò 10 years (12,000 to 15,00 hre) dopending upon on its horsepower
which is.generally more than 75-HP.
Advantages of wheel tractors

0) lt can travel at higher speed (maximum speed up to 50 kmph) on the job or more from
onc jub Loanother.
). t can gÍve .greater outpu whre considerable travelling ie necossary.
(G) it can travel over paved highways without damaging the surfaces.
Gv) It can operate easily which makes the operator less fatigue.
() A wheel tractor is very useful in the following- conditions:
(a) Long push distance
(b) Fast return

(c) Loose soil little or no rock
(d) Level or downhill work
(e) Good underfoot conditions

POWER SHOVEIS
Dipper stick
Höist inø
Shov Power šhovel
Basicly a shovel is a tool for digging, lifting, and moving bulk materials, such as soil, coal,
gravel, snow, sand, or ore.
Shovels are extremely common tools that are used ex tensively in agriculture, construction, and
gardening
.When a shovel is mounted on a Power vehicle it is called as Power Shovel.
Power shovels are used mainly to excavate earth and load into trucks or tractor-drawn wagons.
Power shovels can excavate all types of eartl excepfsolid rock without prior iooséning."**
The basic parts of a power shovel include Mounting. Cab, Boom, Dipper stick, Dipper.
Size of power shovel is indicated by capacity of its dipper, generally expressed in cubic meters.
Powershovels are coinmoily available in diover sizes of 0.29. 0.38. 0.57. 0.76. 0.95. 1.14. 1.33.
1.53 and 1.91 m3.
Types of Power Shovels

1. Crawler mounted power shovel,
2. Rubber tyred mounted, power shovel,
Crawler mounted Shovels

t i mountd on crawler tracks
IL is has very low travel spéed.
: It exerts low pressure on the soil and hence suited for muddy and soft ground surface.
Rubber Tyre mounted Shovels

It is mounted on Rubber-tyres.
It has higher travel speeds arè useful for small jobs where considerable travelling is involved.
t exerts considerable pressure on the soil surface hence suitable for road and the firm ground
Surfaces
Operations of Shovels
Rosition the shovel near the.face. of the earth te be excarated. pointing
The dipper is lowered to the floor of the pit, with the teeth into the face.
A penetrating force is applied through the dipper shaft and at the same time tension is applied
dipper up along the face of the pit.
to the hoisting line to pull the
If the depth of the face (called the depth of cut) is just right, the dipper will be filled as it
reaches the top of the face.
shallow it will not be posible to fill the dipper completely without excessive
1f the depth is
penetrating force and hoisting tension.
to fill the dipper, the depth of penetration of the
If the depth of cut is more than is required
if
dipper into the face must be reduced, the full face is to be cxcavated or to start the excavation
above the floor of the pit.

DRAGLINEES
.
= Houst, caole
Hoist chain
Crane boomf
A
LDragline Bucke:
Drag cable
As the basic character of the machine is, dragging the bucket against the material to be
excavated, it is known ns Dragline.
Draglines are used to excavate earth and load it into haul units, such as trucks or to deposit
it on spoil banks and embankments near the place from where it is excavated.
Size of dragline is expressed by the size of its bucket-
Advantages of Dragline:
.It does not have to go into the pit to excavate.It inay operate on natural firm ground.
2. Ifit has a long boom then it can dispose of the earth in one operation without the need for haul
3. It can excavate below its level and under water.

4 It can excavaje trenches without shoring.
Disadvantage of Draglne
One of the disadvantages of a dragline is that its output is only 75-80% that of a power sho.
novels.
Types of Draglines
Crawler-mounted Draglines-These can operate on soft and muddy ground surfaces
i. and'has
speed of 1.6 kmph.
2. Rubber-tyre-mounted Draglines- These can operate on hard surfaces and has speed of 50kmph.
k
Operation of Dragline
Excavation is started by swinging the empty bucket to the digging position at the same
loosen the drag and the hoist cables.
tme
.Excavation is done by puiling the hucket toward the machine while maintaining tension n the
hoist cable.
.When the bucket is filled. the operator takes in the hoist cable while playing out the drag a
cable.
Dumping is done by releasing the drag cable.
Pilling the bucket, hoisting. swinging
and dumping of loaded bucket, followed in that o
the order
constitute one cycle.
Wote: Siree it
-- s-------
dffiult ta
- - -
contrel the ccurocy in dumping fronm a dragline, a larger apocity of hoaul units is de
rable
to reduce the spillage.
***
Output of Draglines
While the efiect 'of job and management conditions on the output of the dragline wil! be a
the same as for a power shovel, and the job and management factors may be used for obtain:
the probable output of draglines, the size of bucket and length of boom have a direct effee
the output of a dragline.
on
Buckets are available in classes, such as light.duty, medium-duty and heavy-duty.
Light-duty buckets are for materials that are easily dug, such
sand.
as sandy loam, sandy clay , or
Medium-duty buckets are for general excavating service such as digging clay, soft shale.
loose gravel.
Heavy-duty buckets are for handling blasted rock and other abrasive materials.
Buckets are often perforated to permit draining of water from the loads.
In selecting the size and bucket type, the dragline and bucket should be matched for
best
efficiency.
In selecting the bucket size care should be taken that the combined weight of thc load and
,
bucket does not exceed the safe load recommended for the dragline. the
BULLDOZERS
**
Hydraulic Cylinder
Casier.
Roller
DezcrBadg
Sprocket
Tack.
TnekRollekn
dler
yoke
DzEr Baces Cutting Edge End Bit.
EndBit
Reservoir Brcåtber Cap
Exhaist Pipe
ShitLeversAirCleane
Stccring Wbeel
Stroud
Seal CapL Hood
Grille
vel Tosm Cap
Bumper Ban
Lit Cyinder
Piteh CylindeF
Dlade
Erd Bit
Hood Side Panel Rear Axe

Main Cutling Edge Cylindee Guard
C Frame
Til
Front Axle
.
Bulldozers are very eficient excavating tools for short haul applications up to-100 m.
It is essentially a heavy steei blade which is mounted on the front of a tractor. The heavy blade
atlached to the tractor pushes the material from one place to another.
The size of a bulldozer is indicated by the length and height of the blade.
Bulldozers are ciassified on the. basis of :
(1) Position of angles

'
(a) Bulldozers- In these blade is set perpendicular to the direetion of nmovement. It pushes the
earth forward and dump to some place.
b) Angle Dozers- In these blade is set at an angle witlh the direction of movement. It pushes
the carth forward and to one side.
(2) Based on mounting
(a) Wheel mounted
Co.Crawler mounted

:
Advantages of the crawler-mounted bulldozer:
a) abilityto deliver greater tractive effort en soft, loose or muddy soil
(b) ability to travel on muddy surfaces
(ability to operate in rock formations, where rubber tyres may get damaged, which' may
ireduce the cost of maintaining haul roads
(d) greater flotation because of lower pressures under the tracks
(e) greater use-versatility on jobs.
Advantages of the wheel-mounted bulldozers:

(a) higher travel speeds on -the job or, from one job to another,
(b) elimination of hauling equipment for transporting the.bulldozer to the sité
.
(c) greater output, especially when significant travelling is required
(d) less operator fatigue
(e). ability to travel on bitumen roads without damagiñg the surface.
(3) Based on control- for raising and lowering the blade

(a) Cable controlled
(b) Hydraulically controlled
Advantages of the Cable controlléd: bulldozers
(a) Simple to install, operate and coutrol
(b) Easy in reparing
(e) Reduction in the danger of damaging a machine
Advantages of the Hydraulically controlled bulldozers

(a) Able produces a high down pressure on blades to force blades into ground
(b) Able to maintain a precise setting of the position of the hlade.
In addition to excavating and hauling many other functions are also performed by.
Bulldozers from start to completion of an project like:
) Clearing land of timber and vegetation
i) Opening up temporary roads through mountains and rocky areas
(ii) Moving earth for haul distances up to about 100 m
iv) Pilling loaded tractors and scrapers
()Levelling and spreading earth fills
(vi) Backflling trenches
(vi) Ciearing construction sites of debris
(vii) Maintaining haul roads
(ix) Clearing the floors of borrows and quary pits

Compacting Equipment
RNTRODUCTION
Compaction is the method of artificially densilying the soil by pressing 6oil particles together
into close contact, resulting in the expulsion of air and/or water from the soil mass.
Compaction is done to increase the strength of an carth fill or án embankment.
Compaction refers to the method employed by a compactor to impart energy into the' soil too
achieve compaction.
Compactors.are designed to use one or a combination of the following types of compactiveC
efforts:
(1) Kneading action -Manipulation or rearranging
(2) Static weight Pressure application
-
(3) Impact Sharp blow

-
(4) Vibration- Shaking
TYPES OF
ROLLERS
Sheep's Poot Rollers
S- Scanned withcamscaRner.. Sheep's .Foot Roller -..u r 284

Sheep's foot rollers are suitable for comnacting fine grained materials guch asclaysand ixtures
ofsand nnd clay.
Thesecannot compact gTonular soils Bch as sand and gravel
Depth of a layer of soil to be compacted is limited to approximately the length of the feet.
They. are used for manipulation and compaction of plastic clays where stratification must be
eliminated, such as clay cores in dams.
Sheep'a foot rollers can te towed or self-propelled, and its drums consist of a cylindrical shell
with protruding "feet' wlich provide areas of high contact pressure under the machine.
Feet can have numerous shapes and terms such as tapor foot and elubfoot have been used
to deseribe their particular seatures,
Because of the smallcontact area of the sheep's foot roller it requires a laree number of passes
to provide eyen 'one complete coverage of an area of soil. *
Sheep foot rollers are slow, háve a very high rolling resistance:aind therefore cost per unit
volume compacted is ligh.
Smooth-whccl RoMers
Smooth-wheel Roller
. Smooth-wheel Rollers cau be self-propeled or of the towed type withrsmooth steel roll surtfaces.
These rolers may be clasified by type or by weight.
These rollers are effectivo in coupacline.eranular soils.auch as aand gravel aud crushed stone
and they are, also èffective in snioothening surfaces of soils that have been compacted by
Lmping rollers.
compacting.cohesive soils.these rollers tend to form a.crust.aver the _sueface. which may
hen
preventndequate compaction in the lower portion of a lif
Self- propelled category the inachine can be a three roll (tricycle configuration) with the front
wheel uaed for steering while the rear wheels ara powered for driving-
They can be tandem 1wo rolls type also.
ontact area between the drum of the roller and the surface of the soil is a narrow strip an4,
s regult, the stresses in the soil fall off rapidly as depth in tlhe layer increases,
This type of roller is, therefore, limited in performunce such as, to compaction of fairly thin
cSyersshaKia HAHe29h suardkpending on the size of the cquipment.
e steel. drums ef tho. rolls mav be hallasted with water ör sand toinereaeeperghtg
*
.If a rollr is designätèd as-73-12.8.t.it means that thè minimum weight of the mächine
is 7.3 t and that it can be ballasted' to give a maximum weight of 12.8 t.
'
Pneumatic-tyred Rollers
JALION
Pneumatic-tyfed. Rllet.
TPneumatic-tyred Rollers"are surface-rollets,, yhich 4pply the principle of kneading action to

effect compaction below the surface.
These for rolling subgrades nirfcild and hases ofcarthfilldans.
roMeis are used
** .
They can be self-propelled or towed., smallFor large-tyred units.
These rollers rely on dead weight acting or upon pneumatic tyred wheels tô producé 'the
compacting cffort.
The weight of a unit may be increased by. ballasting.
Theahmgo-tyjitedegilersureravailable varying from 13.6-180 tonnes gross weight.

Tamping Rollers
Tamping foot compactors (Fig. 5.3) are high-speed, self-propelled, nonvibra-
tory rollers. These rollers usually have four steel-padded whecls and can be
cquipped with a small blade to help level the lit. The pads are lapered wilh an
oval or rectangular face. The pad face is smaller than the base of the pad at the
drum. As a tamping roler moves over the surface, the feci penetrate Ihe soil lo
produce a kneading action and a pressure to mix and compact the soil from the
Dottom to the top of the layer. With repeated passages of the roller over the
uace, the penetration of the feet decrcases until the roller is said to walk out
Vibrating drum rollers are actuated by an eccentric shaft that produces the
a
vibratory acion. The eccentric shaft need be only body that rotates about an
axis other than the one through the center of mass. The vibrating mass (drum)
is always isolated from the main frame of the roller. Vibrations normally vary
from 1,000 to 5,00 per min.
Vibration has two measurements-amplitude, which is the measurement amplitude
of the movement, or throw, and frequency, which is the rate of the movement, The vertical distance
or number of vibrations (oscillations) per second or minute (vpm). The ampli- the vibrating drum or
tude controls the effective area, or depth to which the vibration is transmitted plate is displaced from
into the soil, while the frequency determines the number of blows or oscilla- the rest postion by an
eccentrlc moment.
tions that are transmitted in a period of time.
The impacts imparted by the vibrations produce pressure waves that set
the soil particles in motion, producing compaction. In compacting granular
material, frequency (the number of blows in a given period) is usually the crit-
ical parameter as opposed to amplitude.
Compaction results arc a function of the frequency of the blows, the force
of the blows, and the time period over which the blows are applied. The fre-
quency/ime relationship accounts for the slower working speed requirement
when using vibratory compactors. Working speed is important as it dictates
ow long particular part of the sill is compacied. A working speed of 2 to
a
mpnBrovidesthe Best rešults when using vibratory compactors.

1. Sheepsfoot rollers
G
2. Tamping rollers
3. Smooth-drum vibratory soil compactors
4. Pad-drum vibratory soil compactors
5. Pneumatic-tired rollers
CS cane

Vibrating Compactors
Vibralory compactors enhance the performance of static weight mllers by adding dynamic
forces, usually achieved by a rotating eccentrically weighed shaft mounted inside thec roller.
..Vibrating compactors have shown their abilities to produce excellent densification of soils such
as sand, gravel and relatively large stones.
s..As these materials are vibrated, the particles, shift their position and nestle more closely with
adjacent particles to increase the-density-of-lhie vmass.
Types of Vibrating compactors are:

(a) Vibratingr sheep's foot rollers,
6)Vibrating steel-drum rollers,
(c) Vibrating pneumatictyred rollers,
() Vibrating plates or shocs.
Manually Operated Vibratory Plate Compactors
Vibrating Plate Cömpactor
These machines hare a at plate in contact with the soil.

Deeause of their imuch smaller size, vibratîng plate compactors have lower outputs of compacted
soil than the larger vibrating rollers
These are usedfor eompaction of cohesion-less soil in confined .sreas or spaces."
Power unit and conrol handles, for the pedestrian operator are attached to a chassis suspended
above the base-plate on eprings or other form of flexible 'mounting.
Manually Operated Vibralory Tamping Compactors
Vibratory Tamping Compactor
vibro tampers have an engine-diven reciproeating mevhaniem which acts on a spring system
Crouge aHisà swEkieadASilatiers. with aaplitede of sbout 10-80 mn, are set up in the base
**
******
The most commonly used machines have a mass in-the-range-of-50-160-kg, and usuálly operate
at a .frequency of about 10 Hz.
Their main mode of compaction is by impact and they are suited for the-cempaetion-of-most
Lypes of soil.
Because of their low output they are used in confined areas or spaces, where their portability
and maneuverability are a parlicular advantage.
Manually Operated Rammer Compactors
Rammer Compactor
Ramnier compactors are self-propelled in which each blow moves them ahead slightly to contact
new soil.
These units range in impact from 40 to 120 per sec at an impact rate up lo 850 per min.
PearorashetFNHSHAGte kgblow, area covered per hour, and depth of compaction (ift) in em.

PART-D
7.Soil reinforcing techniques

The only disadvantage is its cost. As a
Reinforced Soil convenient compromise between the technical
Reinforcement in different forms is added to soil, in order to improve its
benefits from cohesionless soil and economic
benefits from cohesive soil, cohesive frictional may
mechanical properties. Soils are strong in compression but weak in
be preferred
tension. This weak property of soil is improved by introducing
Sometimes the use of waste material as fill
reinforcing elements in the direction of tensile stress. Reinforcement
for reinforced soil structures is attractive from an
material generally consists of galvanized or stainless steel strips, bars,
environmental as well as economic view point.
grids or fabrics of specified material, or wood, polymer and plastic, etc.
Mine wastes and pulverized fuel ash are the wastes
The reinforcement is placed more or less the same way as steel in usually employed
concrete. The end product is called reinforced soil, and is very effectively
used for retaining structures, embankments, footings and subgrade, etc. Reinforcement
A variety of material including steel, concrete,
glass, fiber, wood, rubber, aluminium and
thermoplastics can be used as reinforcing material.
Reinforcement can have the form of strips, grids,
anchors and sheet material chain, planks, rope,
vegetation and combinations of these or other
Soil Nailing material forms.
It is a method of reinforcing the soil with steel bars or other materials.
Strips are flexible linear elements having their
The purpose is to increase the tensile and shear strength of the soil and breadth greater than their thickness. Strips are
restrain its displacements. The nails are either placed in drill boreholes formed from aluminium, copper, polymers and
and grouted along their total length to form "grouted nails", or simply glass fiber reinforced plastic and bamboos. The
driven into the ground as "driven nails". The technique permits forms of stainless galvanized or coated steel
stabilization of both natural slopes, and vertical or inclined excavations strips are either plain or with projections such
as to increase the friction between
reinforcement and fill.
Soil
Soil
III. MATERIALS
There are two basic materials used in the a) Strip b) Bar
construction of reinforced soil.
Soil or fill matrix Figure 3.1
Reinforcement or anchor system
Grids or are also used as reinforcement. Grids
There used to be adequate inter- are formed from steel in the form of plain or
relationship between the materials used. Based on galvanized weld mesh or from expanded metal.
the design strength and availability, the materials
are selected. We will discuss one by one, the Soil
materials that are being used.
Soil or fill matrix

The shear properties of soil can be
improved as theoretically any soil could be used to
form earth reinforced structure. In long term (c) Sheet ) Grid
conventional structures the soil used is the well
graded cohesionless soil or a good cohesive Figure 3.2
frictional fill although pure cohesive soils have
been used with success. The advantages of Sheet reinforcement may be formed from
cohesionless soil are that they are stable, free metal such as galvanized steel sheet, fabric or
draining. not susceptible to frost and relatively non- expanded metal not meeting the criteria for a
corrosive to reinforcing elements. grid
Flexible linear elements having one or 15mm and the mass /unit area lies between 200
more pronounced distortions which act as to 1500 gms
abutments or anchors in the fill or soil. They may
be made from materials like steel, rope, plastic or
combination of materials such as webbing and
tyres, steel and tyres etc.
Composite reinforcements can be formed
by combining different materials and materials
forms such as sheets and strips, grids and strips and
anchors, depending on the field problem
requirement.
The principal requirements of reinforcing
materials are strength, the stability (low tendency
to creep), and durability, case of handling, a high
coefficient of friction, and/or adherence with the
soil, together with low cost and ready availability.
Geosynthetics
Geosynthetics are manmade products. Figure 3.4
They are flexible and planar (sheet-like). They are
manufactured from synthetic polymeric materials III. Geonets are similar to geogrids but have
and sometimes from natural materials. They find thinner member sand angular apertures not
use in Geotechnical engineering as a separator, square or rectangular but resembling
filters, drains, reinforcement, hydraulic barriers, parallelograms
protectors and erosion control system.
L. Geotextiles are porous geosynthetics that

resemble a thick strong cloth or blanket with
its strands and fiber visible. They are planar
permeable, polymeric material that are usually
made from polypropylene and sometimes from
polyester, polyethylene or from natural fibers
such as jute .they can be woven, non-woven or
knitted. Woven geotextiles are produced by
weaving or interlacing, usually at right angles
of two or more set of fibers. Non-woven
geotextiles are produced by mechanical
bonding or needle punching of randomly
oriented fiber. Geotextiles can be 0.25 to 7.5
mm thick and have a mass/unit area of 150 to
2000 gm/mm^2
Figure 3.5
IV. SOIL REINFORCEMENT

TECHNIQUES
Soil reinforcement techniques can be divided into
two major categories
1. Insitu soil reinforcement
2. Constructed soil reinforcement
Fig 1. Woven Geotextile Fig 2. Non-woven Geotextile
In the insitu reinforcement technique the
Figure 3.3 reinforcement is placed in an undisturbed soil to
form a reinforced soil structure. This includes the
II. Geogrids are mesh like or grid like technique of soil nailing and soil dowelling. The
geosynthetics with square or rectangular reinforcement used for insitu structures is usually
openings that are larger than the thickness of linear owing to the method of installation.
the ribs. the rib thickness ranges from 5 to
extensibility. Construction takes place from bottom
1. Open excavation using soil nails: upwards and the reinforcement is placed
EACANATE
sequentially as layers of soil are compacted, one
after the other.
, Connector
Metallie
sTHP2. ORILL NAL HOLE facia
STEP1, EXCAVATE SMALL cUT
Soil Concrete facia
TPORAYTAD N DRAAGE S7RP Reinforcement
STEP4 MACE TEMPORAR ACING

INCLUDES SHOTCRE TS,
STEP1 ISTALL AND 0 UT NA RENEORCEMENT Reinforcement
MLUGES STRP 06AIN INSTALLA TION EARING LATG, HEX NUT, AND
WASHERS INSTALLATION)
Figure 4.2
The constructed soil reinforcement

technique describes the technique where the
reinforcement is placed at the same time as an
ee imported and remolded soil. Such technique are
often called as bottom up process as they involve
RAP
the placement of a fill and reinforcement
simultaneously, these include structures such as
reinforced soil embankments and bridge abutments.
sTEP ING
INAL FACI
DERMANKT WALLS
The reinforcement used for the constructed
STEP S. CONS TRUCTICN OF INCLUDES BUILDING category is in the form of strips, mats or grids.
sUBSEQUENT LEVELS TOE DRAIN
Figure 4.1 V. APPLICATIONS OF SOIL

REINFORCEMENT
Vertical or steeply inclined cuts can be 1. Slope failure repairs
made for open excavation using rigid soil nails as
reinforcements. Such cuts are also referred to as Unstable slope
nailed soil walls. Unlike reinforced soil walls are
constructed from bottom to top, nailed soil walls Nail
are constructed from top to bottom. The facing of
such walls is usually in the form of a wire-mesh Potential
reinforced shot Crete panels, although metal plates
and other types of panels have also been used. Soil
failure surface
nails are installed at an inclination of 20 to 25 (d) Stablisation of slope
degrees to the horizontal near the ground surface so
as to avoid intercepting underground utilities and Figure 5.1
the inclination is reduced to 10 to 15 degrees as we
go deeper into the cut. Large and small landslides and failures of
natural slopes often occur in areas where the value
2. Constructed soil reinforcement technique:- of the environment (for technical or economical or
1. Reinforced soil structures with vertical face:- touristic or artistic reasons) call for the repair of the
The facing usually comprises of
slope to the original (or as close as possible to the
prefabricated concrete or steel panels joined original) geometry. Geogrids allow using the same
together by an interlocking arrangement. The soil soil of the landslide to reinstate the slopes thus
used as backfill in such cases is granular soil with
achieving fundamental savings over the solution of
less than 15% fines to enable development of large
importing a soil with better mechanical
friction between the reinforcement and soil. The characteristics. The geogrid reinforced slope can be
most often used reinforcement is steel strips since easily vegetated with the local essences, in order to
they have large tensile strength as well as low obtain the best integration with the surrounding
environment. boundaries (rivers, roads, etc.). Therefore the crest
2. Slope cutting repairs of the slope shall be widened, making the slope
The installation of pipelines and other steeper or even vertical. Geogrids allow building
underground structures often requires cutting a steep slopes and walls with almost any locally
slope in protected or valuable areas where the available fill soil. The face can be built with a
Authority imposes to repair the cutting to the vegetated or concrete finishing different solutions
original situation. This may produce geotechnical can be easily implemented at design and
problems due to the fact that the excavated soil construction stages to meet technical, architectural,
results in lower mechanical characteristics than the environmental requirements. The original slope has
original soil in the slope. Geogrids allow improving usually to be cut at the bottom to yield enough
the stability of the soil: the slope can be rebuilt space for placing the reinforcing geogrids. All the
without using expensive consolidation techniques. operations can be performed with standard earth-
moving machinery and easily available tools, even
3. Steep slopes embankments and bunds by unskilled labourers. And, very important, the
traffic and the activities in front of the slope are not
Highway disturbed by the construction operation.
5. Bridge abutments and wing walls

Bridge abutments and wing walls are often
the earth retaining structures that support the
Reinforcement highest loads. Besides the high vertical and
(a) Highway embankment horizontal loads directly applied by the bridge
on hill slope deck, dynamic loads from heavy traffic, and
sometimes seismic loads, challenge the design
Figure 5.2 engineer. Soft foundation soils, high water table,
environmental impact regulations often provide
There are many situations where the further problem. Geogrid reinforced soil structures
shortage of space or fill material calls for the provide strong. yet flexible, retaining structures.
construction of embankments and bunds with very Bridge abutments and wing walls can be designed
steep slopes, greatly in excess of the naturally and built to resist all the anticipated loads with the
stable angle. required Factors of Safety, even with low quality
Geogrid reinforced soil structure provide a fill soil. Soft soil stabilization and drainage
safe, sound and economical solution which can be problems can be solved with geogrids and
used for some of these applications: geocomposites. The face can be designed to fulfill
any requirement regarding visual and
Noise protection bunds along highways, environmental impact.
railways and airport taxiways
Blast protection embankments Bridge deck
Increase of the available volume in exhausted
landfills
Construction of embankment dams for solid or
liquid impoundments.
In all these applications the inherent Reinforcement

flexibility, the ease of construction, and the use of b) Bridge abutment
any locally available fill soil are the technical and Figure 5.3
economic advantages of geogrid reinforced soil
structures. 6. Soil retaining structures
oil retaining structures can be divided into:
4. Widening of slope crest. FACE WALLS which are usually designed to
There are different cases where a rather cover a steep rock slope or a cliff, for
flat slope has to be converted to a sub-vertical wall
environmental and safety reasons. This kind of
enlargement of parking areas, smoothing of sharp wall usually has only small or no horizontal
road bends, land reclamation projects and housing pressures from the backfill, but has to resist the
developments are just examples of them. In most of internal outward pressure of the fill soil.
these cases the toe of the slope cannot be moved COUNTERSCARP WALLS which must
forward, due to the right-of-way limits or natural
support the constant load of a sloping terrain
on the top. The soil pressures to be resisted are considered, such as designing steeper slopes or
usually much higher than for a face wall. using lower quality fill soil. Geogrids allow the
RETAINING WALLS which are usually slope to be built at any inclination with the required
designed to support both static and dynamic Factors of Safety. The specific surcharge loads, as
loads. The design and construction of face well as the dynamic or seismic loads, can be
walls, retaining walls and counterscarp walls incorporated into the design to provide safe
may have to deal with technical, practical and construction to the Client, the Engineer and the
economical problems due to availability of the Contractor. Almost any locally available soil can
fill soil, access to the job site with operating be used for the geogrid reinforced embankment:
machines, speed of construction, aesthetics, this facility can produce very large savings in both
and overall cost and so on. The Technical costs and construction time.
Authorities and the client often require specific
Reinforcemcn
solutions, sometimes with a vegetated face, Reinforcemcon
Facin
while sometimes a concrete face or another

type of "rigid" face is preferred.
Temporary support
Compactor
0) Ccmentional soil embunknent widh d) Reintored ol (0)Reintoead sol
Pancl pcantie slopes(bue with

8) enbunknenlwih sep
skpos (huwe vwith 82<8|)
stnucture with
vernial fas
(hue width 83 <82 <B1)
a) Erection of
facial panel b) Filling of backfill
Figure 4.5
Reinforcement
(c)Placement of
reinforcement (d) Filling of
backfill
ReinforcemcntSelected backfill
Facial
pancls
Failure plane
(e) Erection of next
facial panel (9 Corapleted wall
Figure 5.4
Geogrid reinforced walls can be designed

and built to fulfill the most varied requirements in
terms of load support and face finishing geogrids
reinforced soil structures provide a cheap and
diversified solution to wall construction problems
the experience of engineers can help to find the
proper solution, either with a vegetated or concrete
face or new solutions can be developed for the face
finishing as well as for the construction method and
all the ancillary design details.
7. Road and Railway embankments

Road and railway embanknments are
usually large and high earth structures, which
require considerable quantities of fill soil and land.
The cost of the fill soil and its transport
from the quarries, as well as the value of the land,
may be so high that some alternatives may be

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