Chapter 1

Inner Product Spaces

1.1 Introduction
We are familiar with the notion of dot product of two vectors in a plane
(i.e. R2 ) or two vectors in space (i.e. R3 ). We can define the concepts
of magnitude, distance and angle in a plane (or in space) in terms of dot
product. In this chapter we shall generalize the concept of dot product to an
arbitrary vector space. For generalizing this notion of dot product we shall
use its fundamental properties as axioms. We have the following definition.

1.2 Inner Product on a real Vector Space

Definition 1 (Inner Product on a real Vector Space)
An inner product on a real vector space V is a mapping which assigns a
real number, denoted by ⟨u, v⟩ , to every pair of vectors u and v in V such
that the following axioms are satisfied for all vectors u, v and w in V and all
scalars α :

1. ⟨u, v⟩ = ⟨v, u⟩ (symmetry axiom)

2. ⟨u + v, w⟩ = ⟨u, w⟩ + ⟨v, w⟩ (additivity axiom)

3. ⟨αu, v⟩ = α ⟨u, v⟩ (homogeneity axiom)

4. ⟨u, u⟩ ≥ 0 and (positivity axiom)

⟨u, u⟩ = 0 if and only if u = 0

A real vector space with an inner product defined on it is known as a real

inner product space.

We can define an inner product on complex vector space also with due
changes. The definition is a follows:

1
2 Chapter 1. Inner Product Spaces

Definition 2 An inner product on a complex vectors space is a mapping

which assigns a complex number, denoted by ⟨u, v⟩ , to every pair of vectors
u and v in V such that the following axioms are satisfied for all vectors u, v
and w in V and all scalars k.

1. ⟨u, v⟩ = ⟨u, v⟩

2. ⟨u + v, w⟩ = ⟨u, w⟩ + ⟨v, w⟩

3. ⟨αu, v⟩ = α ⟨u, v⟩

4. ⟨u, u⟩ ≥ 0 and ⟨u, u⟩ = 0 if and only if v = 0.

Example 1 Consider the vector space Rn . If x = (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) and y =

(y1 , y2 , · · · , yn ) are any two vectors in Rn . Then following defines an inner
product on Rn .

⟨x, y⟩ = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + · · · + xn yn . (1.1)

We have to show that all inner product space axioms are satisfied. Suppose
x = (x1 · · · , xn ), y = (y1 , · · · , yn ) and z = (z1 · · · , zn ) are vectors in Rn and
α is any scalar. Then

⟨x, y⟩ = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + · · · + xn yn
= y1 x1 + y2 x2 + · · · + yn xn = ⟨y, x⟩

Thus the symmetry axiom is satisfied. Next

⟨x + y, z⟩ = (x1 + y1 )z1 + (x2 + y2 )z2 + · · · + (xn + yn )zn .

= (x1 z1 + x2 z2 + · · · + xn zn ) + (y1 z1 + y2 z2 + · · · + yn zn )
= ⟨x, z⟩ + ⟨y, z⟩ .

Thus the additivity axiom is satisfied. Next

⟨αx, y⟩ = (αx1 )y1 + (αx2 )y2 + · · · + (αxn )yn

= α(x1 y1 + x2 y2 + · · · + xn yn ) = α ⟨x, y⟩ .

Thus the homogeneity axiom is satisfied. Finally

⟨x, x⟩ = x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n .

1.2. Inner Product on a real Vector Space 3

Every term on R.H.S. of the above equation is a square and hence non-
negative. Since sum of non-negative terms is non-negative, We have ⟨u, u⟩ ≥
0. Further ⟨u, u⟩ = 0 if and only if x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n = 0. Since sum of non-
negative terms is zero if and only if every term is zero, the above equation
is true if and only if x1 = 0, x2 = 0, · · · , xn = 0 i.e. if and only if u = 0.
Thus we have proved that ⟨u, u⟩ = 0 if and only if u = 0. That is, positivity
axiom is satisfied. Hence all inner product space axioms are satisfied, and so
we can conclude that (1) defines an inner product on Rn .
This inner product on Rn is of special importance. It is known as Euclidean
inner product.

Example 2 Consider the vector space R3 . Then the following defines an

inner product on R3 .

⟨x, y⟩ = 2x1 y1 + x2 y2 + 4x3 y3 (1.2)

where x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and y = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) are any two vectors in R3 . Now

we show that all the inner product space axioms are satisfied. Suppose
x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ), y = (y1 , y2 , y3 ), z = (z1 , z2 , z3 ) are any vectors in R3 and k is
any scalar. Consider

⟨x, y⟩ = 2x1 y1 + x2 y2 + 4x3 y3 = 2y1 x2 + y2 x2 + 4y3 x3 = ⟨y, x⟩

Thus the symmetry axiom is satisfied. Next consider

⟨x + y, z⟩ = 2(x1 + y1 )z1 + (x2 + y2 )z2 + 4(x3 + y3 )z3

= (2x1 z1 + x2 z2 + 4x3 z3 ) + (2y1 z1 + y2 z2 + y3 z3 )
= ⟨x, z⟩ + ⟨y, z⟩ .

Thus the additivity axiom is satisfied. Now consider

⟨kx, y⟩ = 2(kx1 )y1 + (kx2 )y2 + 4(kx3 )y3

= k(2x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 ) = k ⟨x, y⟩

Thus the homogeneity axiom is satisfied. Next consider

⟨u, u⟩ = 2x21 + x22 + 4x23 .

Note that 2x21 ≥ 0, x22 ≥ 0, 4x23 ≥ 0. Hence 2x21 + x22 + 4x23 ≥ 0. That is,
⟨u, u⟩ ≥ 0. Further ⟨u, u⟩ = 0 if and only if 2x21 + x22 + 4x23 = 0.
4 Chapter 1. Inner Product Spaces

Since sum of non-negative terms is zero, each term in the sum is zero. Hence,
from above, we can conclude that the above equation holds true if and only
if 2x21 = 0, x22 = 0, 4x23 = 0 i.e. if and only if x1 = 0, x2 = 0, x3 = 0 i.e. if
and only if u = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 0. Thus ⟨u, u⟩ = 0 if and only if u = 0. Hence
positivity axion is satisfied. Hence all inner product axioms are satisfied.
Therefore (2) defines an inner product on R3 .
The inner product on R3 defined in Example 1.2.2 is of the type

⟨x, y⟩ = w1 x1 y1 + w2 x2 y2 + w3 x3 y3

where w1 , w2 , w3 are positive real numbers. We can define this type of

inner product, in general, on Rn as follows. Suppose w1 , w2 , · · · , wn are
positive real numbers known as weights. If u = (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) and v =
(y1 , y2 , · · · , yn ) are any two vectors in Rn , then define

⟨x, y⟩ = w1 x1 y1 + w2 x2 y2 + · · · + wn xn yn .

By following similar steps as in Example 1.2.2, it is easy to see that above

formula for ⟨u, v⟩ defines as inner product on Rn . This inner product is known
as weighted Euclidean inner product with weights w1 , w2 , · · · , wn .

Example 3 Consider the vector space P1 . Then the following defines on

inner product on P1 .

⟨p, q⟩ = 2a0 b0 + a1 b0 + a0 b1 + 2a1 b1 (1.3)

where p = a0 + a1 x and q = b0 + b1 are any two vectors in P1 . Now we show

that all the inner product space axioms are satisfied. Suppose p = a0 + a1 x,
q = b0 + b1 x, r = c0 + c1 x are any vectors in P1 and k is any scalar. Consider

⟨p, q⟩ = 2a0 b0 + a1 b0 + a0 b1 + 2a1 b1

= 2b0 a0 + b1 a0 + b0 a1 + 2b1 a1 = ⟨q, p⟩

Hence the symmetry axiom is satisfied. Next consider

⟨p + q, r⟩
= 2(a0 + b0 )c0 + (a1 b1 )c0 + (a0 + b0 )c1 + 2(a1 + b1 )c1
= (2a0 c0 + a1 c0 + a0 c1 + 2a1 c1 ) + (2b0 c0 + b0 c0 + b0 c1 + 2b1 + c1 )
= ⟨p, r⟩ + ⟨q, r⟩ .
1.2. Inner Product on a real Vector Space 5

Thus the additivity axiom is satisfied. Now consider

⟨kp, q⟩ = 2(ka0 )b0 + (ka1 )b0 + (ka0 )b1 + 2(ka1 )b1
= k(2a0 b0 + a1 b0 + a0 b1 + 2a1 b1 ) = k ⟨p, q⟩ .
Thus the homogeneity axiom is satisfied. Next consider
⟨p, p⟩ = 2a20 + a1 a0 + a0 a1 + 2a21
i.e. ⟨p, p⟩ = a20 + (a20 + 2a0 a1 + a21 ) + a21
i.e. ⟨p, p⟩ = a20 + (a0 + a1 )2 + a21
Every term on R.H.S. of the above equation, being a square, in non-negative.
Hence ⟨p, p⟩ ≥ 0. Further consider ⟨p, p⟩ = 0
if and only if a20 + (a0 + a1 )2 + a21 = 0 if and only if a20 = (a0 + a1 )2 = a21 = 0
if and only if a0 = a1 = 0 if and only if p = a0 + a1 x = 0.
Thus the positivity axiom is satisfied. From the above results it follows that
(3) defines an inner product on P1 .
Example 4 Consider
  the vector  space
 Rn and let A be an n × n invertible
u1 v1
 u2   v2 
matrix. If u =  ..  and v =  ..  are any two vectors in Rn , then
   
. .
un vn

⟨u, v⟩ = v t At · Au (1.4)
defines an inner product on Rn . (Verify). This inner product is known as the
inner product on Rn generated by A.
It is easy to see that the weighted Euclidean inner product with weights
w1 , w2 , · · · , wn is a special case of this. It is the inner product on Rn generated
by the matrix √ 
w1 0 0 ··· 0
√
 0 w2 0 · · · 0 
..  .
 
 .. .. ..
 . . . ··· . 
√
0 0 0 ··· wn

Example 5 Consider the vector space P2 . If p = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 and q =

b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 are any two vectors in P2 , then it is easy to see that
⟨p, q⟩ = a0 b0 + a1 b1 + a2 b2 (1.5)
6 Chapter 1. Inner Product Spaces

defines an inner product on P2 .

In general, it can be shown that if p = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn and q =
b0 + b1 x + · · · + bn xn are any two vectors in Pn , then
⟨p, q⟩ = a0 b0 + a1 b1 + · · · + an bn (1.6)
defines an inner product on Pn .
Example 6 Now consider the vector space M2×2 . If
   
a1 a2 b1 b 2
A= and B =
a3 a4 b3 b 4
are any two vectors in M2×2 , then
⟨A, B⟩ = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 + a4 b4 (1.7)
defines an inner product on M2×2 (verify).
Example 7 Suppose u = (x1 , x2 ), v = (y1 , y2 ) are any two vectors in R2 .
Determine if the following defines an inner product on R2 .
⟨u, v⟩ = x1 y1 − 2x2 y2 .
Solution: It is easy to verify that symmetry, additivity and homogeneity
axioms are satisfied. To check the positivity axiom, consider ⟨u, u⟩ = x21 −2x22 .
Now x21 −2x22 is not non-negative for all real numbers x1 and x2 . i.e. ⟨u, u⟩ ≱ 0.
For example, if u = (0, 1) then ⟨u, u⟩ = −2 < 0.
Hence the positivity axiom is not satisfied. Hence the given formula for
⟨u, v⟩ does not define an inner product on R2 .
Example 8 Consider the inner product space R3 with the inner product
defined by (1.2). Compute ⟨u, v⟩ where
(i) u = (1, −1, 2), v = (2, −1, 3), (ii) u = (4, 0, −2), v = (−1, −1, 1).
Solution: (i) ⟨u, v⟩ = 2(1)(2) + (−1)(−1) + 4(2)(3) = 29.
(ii) ⟨u, v⟩ = 2(4)(−1) + (0)(−1) + 4(−2)(1) = −16.
Example 9 Consider the inner product space M2×2 with the inner product
 (1.7). Compute ⟨A, B⟩ where 
defined by   
−1 1 0 2 −2 −1 0 −1
(i) A = , B= (ii) A = , B=
2 0 −3 4 1 −1 1 0
Solution: (i) ⟨A, B⟩ = (−1)(0) + (1)(2) + (2)(−3) + (0)(4) = −4
(ii) ⟨A, B⟩ = (−2)(0) + (−1)(−1) + (1)(1) + (−1)(0) = 2.
1.2. Inner Product on a real Vector Space 7

The results in the following theorem are immediate consequences of the def-
inition of an inner product.
Theorem 1 u, v and w are any three vectors in an inner product space and
k is any scalar. Then,
(i) ⟨0, v⟩ = ⟨v, 0⟩ = 0
(ii) ⟨u, v + w⟩ = ⟨u, v⟩ + ⟨u, w⟩
(iii) ⟨u, kv⟩ = k ⟨u, v⟩ .
Proof: (i) ⟨0, v⟩ = ⟨0 + 0, v⟩ i.e. ⟨0, v⟩ + ⟨0, v⟩ + ⟨0, v⟩
This implies that ⟨0, v⟩ = 0. Hence ⟨v, 0⟩ = 0, by symmetry.
(ii) ⟨u, v + w⟩ = ⟨v + w, u⟩ by symmetry
= ⟨v, u⟩ + ⟨w, u⟩ by additivity
= ⟨u, v⟩ + ⟨u, w⟩ by symmetry
The proof of part (iii) is left to the readers.
Next we consider a very important property of an inner product. In fact,
it is an inequality known as Cauchy-Schwartz inequality. It has many useful
applications.
Theorem 2 (Cauchy-Schwartz inequality) If u and v are any two vec-
tors in an inner product space, then
⟨u, v⟩2 ≤ ⟨u, u⟩ ⟨v, v⟩ . (1.8)
Proof: Case (i) u = 0. Then equality holds in (1.8) and hence (1.8) is valid.
Case (ii) u ̸= 0 and hence ⟨u, u⟩ =
̸ 0. Now we define the vector
⟨u, v⟩
w=v− ·u
⟨u, u⟩
⟨u, v⟩
or w = v − ku, where k = . From the positivity axiom it follows that
⟨u, u⟩
0 ≤ ⟨w, w⟩ = ⟨v − ku, v − ku⟩
= ⟨v, v⟩ − k ⟨v, u⟩ − k ⟨u, v⟩ + kk ⟨u, u⟩
⟨u, v⟩ | ⟨u, v⟩ |2
= ⟨v, v⟩ − 2 · ⟨v, u⟩ + ⟨u, u⟩
⟨u, u⟩ ⟨u, u⟩2
substituting for k,
| ⟨u, v⟩ |2 | ⟨u, v⟩ |2
= ⟨v, v⟩ − 2 +
⟨u, u⟩ ⟨u, u⟩
8 Chapter 1. Inner Product Spaces

Thus we have proved that

| ⟨u, v⟩ |2
0 ≤ ⟨v, v⟩ − .
⟨u, u⟩

This implies that | ⟨u, v⟩ |2 ≤ ⟨u, u⟩ ⟨v, v⟩ . Hence the proof.

Example 10 Consider the inner product space R2 with Euclidean inner

product. Verify the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality for the vectors:
u = (1, 1), v = (−1, −3).
Solution : Note that ⟨u, v⟩ = (1)(−1) + (1)(−3) = −4,
⟨u, u⟩ = (1)2 + (1)2 = 2 and ⟨v, v⟩ = (−1)(−1) + (−3)(−3) = 10,
⟨u, v⟩2 = 16, ⟨u, v⟩ · ⟨v, v⟩ = 20
Thus we have ⟨u, v⟩2 ≤ ⟨u, u⟩ ⟨v, v⟩
The Cauchy-Schwarz inequality is verified.

Example 11 Prove that equality holds in the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality if

and only if u and v are linearly dependent.
Solution: If u and v are linearly dependent, then it is easy to prove that
equality holds in the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality. We leave the proof to the
readers.
Now to prove the converse, assume that equality holds in the Cauchy-Schwarz
inequality. That is, assume that

⟨u, v⟩2 = ⟨u, u⟩ ⟨v, v⟩ (1.9)

Case (i) v = 0, then, obviously, we can say that u and v are linearly depen-
dent.
Case (ii):v ̸= 0. Now, from (9) it follows that

1
⟨u, u⟩ − ⟨u, v⟩2 = 0 (1.10)
⟨v, v⟩
* +2
1
i.e. ⟨u, u⟩ − u, v =0 (1.11)
⟨v, v⟩1/2
i.e. ⟨u, u⟩ − ⟨u, w⟩2 = 0 (1.12)

1
where w = v. It is easy to see that ⟨w, w⟩ = 1. Now let λ = ⟨u, w⟩
⟨v, v⟩1/2
1.2. Inner Product on a real Vector Space 9

and consider

⟨u − λw, u − λw⟩ = ⟨u, u⟩ − λ ⟨w, u⟩ − λ ⟨u, w⟩ + |λ|2 ⟨w, w⟩

Note that ⟨w, w⟩ = 1. Substituting for λ
= ⟨u, u⟩ − | ⟨u, w⟩ |2 = 0 follows from (10).

Thus we have ⟨u − λw, u − λw⟩ = 0 and hence from positivity axiom it

follows that u − λw = 0 i.e. u = λw i.e. w = (λ/ ⟨v, v⟩1/2 )v.
Therefore u is a scalar multiple of v and hence they are linearly dependent.
Hence the proof.

Exercise 1.1
1. Consider the following vectors u and v in the inner product space R3
with the Euclidean inner product. Compute ⟨u, v⟩ , where
(i) u = (1, 1, 1), v = (−2, 1, 0) (ii) u = (2, 3, −4), v = (−1, −3, 1).

2. Consider the following vectors p and q in the inner product space P1 ,

with the inner product defined by (1.3). Compute ⟨p, q⟩ , where (i)
p = −2 + x, q = x (ii) p = 2 + 3x, q = −1 + 4x.

3. Consider the inner product space M2×2 with the inner product defined
by (1.7). Verify the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality for the vectors A and
B where       
2 −1 −1 2 1 1 3 −4
(i) A = , B= (ii) A = , B= .
1 0 4 1 1 2 1 −1

4. Consider the inner product space R4 with the inner product

⟨x, y⟩ = x1 y1 + 2x2 y2 + 4x3 y3 + x4 y4

where x = (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) and y = (y1 , y2 , y3 , y4 ).

Verify the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality for the vectors u and v where
(i) u = (−1, −1, 0, 2), v = (2, −3, 1, −2)
(ii) u = (−2, −1, 0, 0), v = (−1, −1, 2, 4)

5. Suppose x = (x1 , x2 ), y = (y1 , y2 ) are any two vectors in R2 which of

the following defines an inner product on R2 ?
(i) ⟨u, v⟩ = 4x1 y1 + 6x2 y2
10 Chapter 1. Inner Product Spaces

(ii) ⟨u, v⟩ = x1 y2 − x2 y1
(iii) ⟨u, v⟩ = x1 y1 + 2x1 y2 + 2x2 y1 + 6x2 y2
(iv) ⟨u, v⟩ = x1 y1 + (x1 + x2 )(y1 + y2 ).

6. Suppose p = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 and q = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 are any two

vectors in P2 . Determine which of the following are inner products on
P2 . In case the map is not an inner product, list the axioms which do
not hold.
(i) ⟨p, q⟩ = 3a0 b0 + 2a1 b1 + a2 b2
(ii) ⟨p, q⟩ = a0 b0 + 2a1 b1 + 2a2 b2 − a1 b0 − a0 b1 − a1 b2 − a2 b1
(iii) ⟨p, q⟩ = 2a0 b0 + 3a2 b2

7. Suppose u = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and v = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) are any two vectors in R3 .

Determine which of the following are inner products on R3 .
(i) ⟨u, v⟩ = 5x1 y1 + x2 y2 − 2x3 y3 .
(ii) ⟨u, v⟩ = x1 y1 + x3 y3
(iii) ⟨u, v⟩ = x1 y1 + 2x2 y2 + 4x3 y3
   
a1 a2 b1 b2
8. Suppose A = , B = are any two vectors in M22 .
a3 a4 b3 b4
Determine which of the following are inner products on M22 .
(i) ⟨A, B⟩ = 3a1 b1 + a2 b2 + 2a3 b3 + a4 b4
(ii) ⟨A, B⟩ = a21 b21 + a22 b22 + a23 b23 + a24 b24
(iii) ⟨A, B⟩ = a1 b1 + 2a2 b2 + 2a3 b3 + 2a4 b4 − a1 b2 − a2 b1 + a2 b3 + a3 b2 −
a3 b 4 − a4 b 3 .

9. The trace of a square matrix U, denoted by tr(U ), is defined to be the

sum of the entires on the main diagonal of U.
If Mmn denotes the vector space of all m × n matrices, then show that
following defines an inner product on Mmn .
⟨A, B⟩ = tr(B t · A), where A, B ∈ Mmn .

1.3 Length, Distance and Angle

In the last section we introduced the concept of an inner product. We have
seen that it is generalization of dot product of two vectors in a plane (or
space). We know that magnitude, distance and angle between two vectors in
a plane (or space) can be expressed in terms of dot product. In this section
we generalize these concepts to an arbitrary vector space. We shall also see
1.3. Length, Distance and Angle 11

that the fundamental properties of length, distance and angle are satisfied
by these new generalized concepts. We have the following definitions.
Definition 3 Suppose V is an inner product space. The norm (or length)
of a vector u in V is denoted by ∥u∥ and is defined by

∥u∥ = ⟨u, u⟩1/2 .

Definition 4 Suppose V is an inner product space. The distance of the
vector v from the vector u in V is denoted by d(u, v) and is defined by
d(u, v) = ∥u − v∥.
Example 12 Consider the inner product space R3 with Euclidean inner
product. Suppose x = (x − 1, x2 , x3 ) and y = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) are any two vectors
in R3 . Then the expression for ∥x∥ is given by
q
∥x∥ = ⟨x, x⟩1/2 = x21 + x22 + x23 .

Note that this expression is the same as the expression for the magnitude
of the position vector of the point (x1 , x2 , x3 ) in the 3-space. Similarly the
distance of the vector y from x is given by
∥x − y∥ = ∥(x1 − y1 , x2 − y2 , x3 − y3 )∥
p
= (x1 − y1 )2 + (x2 − y2 )2 + (x3 − y3 )2
Note that this expression is same as the expression for the distance between
the two points (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and (y1 , y2 , y3 ) in the 3-space.
In general; if x = (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) and y = (y1 , y2 , · · · , yn ) are any two
vectors in the Euclidean inner product space Rn , then it is easy to see that
q
∥x∥ = x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n ,
p
d(x, y) = (x1 − y1 )2 + (x2 − y2 )2 + · · · + (xn − yn )2
Example 13 Consider the inner product space Pn with the inner product
defined by (6) in Example 2.5. If p = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn and q = b0 +
b1 x + · · · + bn xn are any two vectors in Pn , then the expressions for ∥P ∥ and
d(p, q) are given by (verify)
q
∥P ∥ = a21 + a21 + · · · + a2n ,
p
d(p, q) = (a0 − b0 )2 + (a1 − b1 )2 + · · · + (an − bn )2
12 Chapter 1. Inner Product Spaces

Example 14 Consider the inner product space R3 with the inner product
defined by (2) in Example 2.2.
Compute ∥u∥, ∥v∥ and d(u, v), where u = (−1, 1, 2) and v = (2, 1, 0).
Solution:
p First the expression for norm is given by
∥w∥ = 2x21 + x22 + 4x23 , where w = (x1 , x − 2, x3 ). Thus, using this formula
we get
p √
∥u∥ = 2(−1)2 + (1)2 + 4(2)2 = 19
p
and ∥v∥ = 2(2)2 + (1)2 + 4(0)2 = 3.

To calculate d(u, v), first consider u − v = (−3, 0, 2). Thus

√
d(u, v) = ∥u − v∥ = ∥(−3, 0, 2)∥ = 34.

Note: The values of norm of any vector or distance of one vector from an-
other very much depend on the inner product defined. For example, instead
of considering the inner product on R3 given in the above example, if we take
Euclidean inner product,√then the values
√ of ∥u − ∥, ∥v∥
√ and d(u, v) will be as
follows: (verify). ∥u∥ = 6,∥v∥ = 5 and d(u, v) = 13.

Example 15 Consider inner product space M22 with the inner product de-
finedby (7) in Example2.6. Compute
 ∥A∥, ∥B∥ and d(A, B), where
2 −1 4 −1
A= and B = .
1 0 1 1
Solution: The expression for the norm is given
 by
c c
∥C∥ = c21 + c22 + c23 + c24 , where C = 1 2 .
p
c3 c4
p
2 2 2 2
√
Thus ∥A∥
p = (2) + (−1) + (1) + (0) √ = 6 and
∥B∥ = (4)2 + (−1)2 + (1)2 + (1)2 = 19.  
−2 0
To calculate d(A, B), first consider A − B = . Thus
0 −1
√
d(A, B) = ∥A − B∥ = 5.

In view of the definition of norm, we can rewrite the Cauchy-Schwarz in-

equality as follows:
⟨u, v⟩2 ≤ ∥u∥2 · ∥v∥2 .
1.3. Length, Distance and Angle 13

By taking square roots on both sides, it follows that

| ⟨u, v⟩ | ≤ ∥u∥ · ∥v∥ (1.13)

As mentioned before, the fundamental properties of length and distance

also hold in an arbitrary inner product space. This justifies our general-
ization. For example, consider an important result in Euclidean geometry
which states that the sum of the lengths of two sides of a triangle is greater
than or equal to the length of the third side. That is, ∥ā + b̄∥ ≤ ∥ā∥ + ∥b̄∥.
This result also holds in the general setting. This is shown in (iv) of the
following theorem.

Theorem 3 Let V be an inner product space. The norm ∥u∥ = ⟨u, u⟩1/2
satisfies the following properties.
(i) ∥u∥ ≥ 0 (ii) ∥u∥ = 0 if and only if u = 0
(iii) ∥ku∥ = |k| · ∥u∥ (iv) ∥u + v∥ ≤ ∥u∥ + ∥v∥ (triangle inequality).
Proof: Now (i) follows from the definition of the norm and (ii) follows from
positivity axiom of an inner product. Details of the proof are left to reader.
Now we prove (iii) and (iv).
(iii) Consider ∥ku∥2 = ⟨ku, ku⟩ i.e.∥ku∥2 = k 2 ⟨u, u⟩ . Taking square roots on
both sides, we get

∥ku∥ = |k| ⟨u, u⟩1/2 i.e. ∥ku∥ = |k| · ∥u∥.

(iv) To prove triangle inequality, consider

∥u + v∥2 = ⟨u + v, u + v⟩ = ⟨u, u⟩ + ⟨u, v⟩ + ⟨v, u⟩ + ⟨v, v⟩

= ⟨u, u⟩ + 2Re ⟨u, v⟩ + ⟨v, v⟩
≤ ⟨u, u⟩ + 2| ⟨u, v⟩ | + ⟨v, v⟩
(since a ≤ |a|, for every real number a)

Now by applying (1.13), we get

∥u + v∥2 ≤ ⟨u, u⟩ + 2∥u∥ · ∥v∥ + ⟨v, v⟩

= ∥u∥2 + 2∥u∥ · ∥v∥ + ∥v∥2 = (∥u∥ + ∥v∥)2 .

Thus, we have ∥u + v∥2 ≤ (∥u∥ + ∥v∥)2 . By taking square roots, it follows

that
∥u + v∥ ≤ ∥u∥ + ∥v∥.
14 Chapter 1. Inner Product Spaces

The following theorem is an immediate consequence of the above theorem.

Theorem 4 If V is an inner product space, then the distance of v from u,

i.e. d(u, v), satisfies following properties:
(i) d(u, v) ≥ 0 (ii) d(u, v) = 0 if and only if u = v
(iii) d(u, v) = d(v, u) (iv) d(u, v) ≤ d(u, w) + d(w, v) where w is any third
vector. (triangle-inequality).
We leave proof as an exercise.

In view of the result (iii) of the above theorem, we can simply say ‘distance
between the vectors u and v ′ instead of ‘distance of v from u.′
Now we shall discuss the generalization of the notion of angle to an arbitrary
inner product space. We use Cauchy-Schwarz inequality. From (1.13), it
follows that, it u and v are nonzero vectors in an inner product space then
 
 ⟨u, v⟩  ⟨u, v⟩
 ∥u∥ · ∥v∥  ≤ 1 i.e. − 1 ≤ ∥u∥ · ∥v∥ ≤ 1.
 

Hence there exists a unique real number θ(0 ≤ θ ≤ π) such that

⟨u, v⟩
cos θ =
∥u∥ · ∥v∥
This real number θ is known as the angle between u and v.
3
Example 16 Consider the vectors u and v in the inner product √ space R
given in Example 1.3.3. We have calculated ∥u∥ and ∥v∥ as ∥u∥ = 19, ∥v∥ =
3. Note that ⟨u, v⟩ = −3.
−3
Therefore if θ denotes an angle between u and v, then cos θ = √ or
  ( 19)(3)
1
θ = cos−1 − √ The value of θ depends very much on the inner product
19
defined. For example, instead of the given inner product of R3 in the above
example; if we choose
 Euclidean
 inner product, then the angle is given by
1
(verify) θ = cos−1 − √ .
30
Example 17 Consider the inner product space P1 with the inner product
defined by (1.3) in Example 1.2.3. Find the cosine of the angle between the
vectors p = −1 + x and q = 1 + 2x in P1 .
1.3. Length, Distance and Angle 15

Exercise Set 1.2

1. For any x, y ∈ R2 , where x = (x1 , x2 ), y = (y1 , y2 ), show that ⟨x, y⟩ =
y1 (x1 + 2x2 ) + y2 (2x1 + 5x2 ) defines an inner product on R2 .

2. Compute the angle between

(a) v = e1 , w = e1 + e2 in R2 where e1 = (1, 0) , e2 = (0, 1).

(b) v = (x, y) and w = (−y, x), x ̸= 0, y ̸= 0 in R2 .

3. In an inner product space, show that ∥x + y∥ = ∥x∥ + ∥y∥ if and only

if one is non negative multiple of the other.

4. Let Pn be the space of allRpolynomials of degree ≤ n. What is dimension

1
of Pn ? Define < p, q >= −1 p(x)q(x)dx. What is the length of p(x) = x
in P2 . Apply the Gram Schmith process to the basis {1, x, x2 } w.r.t
above inner product.

5. Apply Gram Schmith process to obtain an orthonormal basis from

{(1, 0, 1), (1, −1, 0), (1, 1, 1)}.