BMG101 ETHIC Module

ETHICS AND SUSTAINABLE BEHAVIOUR
ACADEMIC DOCUMENT

IN SOCIETY
BMG 101
Centre for Distance Education

School of Business Studies
Contents
unit 1 Nature of Ethics

Mulungushi University
School of Business Studies
P. o. Box 80415
Great North Road Campus
Kabwe
ZAMBIA
Fax: +260-224637
E-mail: -
Website: www.mu.ac.zm
unit 2 Values and Professional Ethics
unit 3 Ethical Decision Making
unit 4 Ethical Theories and Ethical Traditions.
unit 5 RARE (Responsible,accountable,relevant,ethical)

personal leadership.
unit 6 non violent communication
unit 7 interpersonal communication
unit 8 theories of interpersonal communication
unit 9 cross -culture communication and interaction

ABOUT ETHICS AND SUSTAINABLE BEHAVIOUR IN SOCIETY
The importance of this course called Ethics and sustainable behaviour in society at Mulungushi
University and why that course is said to be a “Signature course”. it goes as follows:
The overarching purposes of this signature course will be to remind MU students (in other words you) of
your humanity, and to present you with a primer to a lifetime of critical thinking. These objectives will be
pursued by: a) introducing you to selected ethical traditions and value systems; and b) providing you
with opportunities in the form of practical case studies and scenarios to apply these to the contemporary
social themes of ethics and sustainable behaviour.
So let’s first look at some definitions. Firstly,Sustainability. This is all about long term continuance; it’s
about the capacity to endure; the ability to keep going; to support life of into the distant future.
When we look at these definitions it should be immediately obvious that this is something we would
want. We must want to keep going as a species. Because the alternative is that we die out – that we go
extinct. In fact we must surely want our children and their children to grow up in a world which is at
least as good as the world we grew up in. This is the essence of sustainability.
But is it really your problem to worry about this? Is it your concern?
Well let me tell you what I believe using a little African story:
Once upon a time, there was a family that kept a cow, a dog, a chicken, and a cat. A rat was seen in the
house and the owner of the house set a trap to kill it. The rat then called a meeting with the other
animals in the house and asked for their help in removing the trap. All the other animals, especially the
chicken and the cow, told the rat off, saying that the trap did not concern them since it could not trap
them. The trap eventually caught a poisonous snake, but not before the snake fatally bit the owner of
the house while he was trying to stop a fight between the cat and the dog. The cat and the dog, each
blaming the other for the owner’s demise, fought one another to the death. For the owner’s funeral the
cow was slaughtered and, for the last funeral rites, so was the chicken (Ngambi, 1999).
In the long run, whose concern is the trap? Everyone’s! Just like sustainability. It is all of our business to
be concerned about this.
Now it should be immediately clear that being concerned about sustainability means being concerned
about others. It means being concerned about more than our own immediate desires. And this means
being very weary of greed behaviour.
Let’s then think about greed for a minute. It’s a very relevant topic at the moment. Just think about the
economic meltdown which we have been experiencing for the past couple of years. How many times
have you heard that this is a result of greed?
The rot started with supposedly highly respected financial institutions making very high risk loans. They
then took these high risk loans and through some fancy financial tricks dressed them up to look like low
risk investments which they sold on. Why did they go to all this trouble? Well it was very profitable to do
so. It meant huge bonuses and lavish lifestyles. Fancy cars, and expensive French champagne. Greed and
unethical? I will leave you to make up your own mind!
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It was of course inevitable that this would unravel at some point. It just wasn’t sustainable!
Unfortunately when it did unravel, it wasn’t just the greedy who suffered. It was also millions of ordinary
people who lost their jobs, their life’s savings, their pensions. In fact it is probably safe to say it became
almost everyone’s problem as we saw heard in the story I just told about the animals.
Sustainability then is what we must want to achieve. Greed represents a distinct threat to achieving this.
Worrying about this – about avoiding greed and thereby promoting sustainability - is everyone’s
business. This is why we have a signature course called Ethics and sustainable behaviour in society.
UNIT 1: NATURE OF ETHICS
Meaning
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about
morality – that is concepts, such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice, etc.
Major branches of ethics are:
 Meta-ethics: this is about the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions
and how their truth-values may be determined. It seeks to understand the nature of ethical
properties, and ethical statements, attitudes and judgments.
 Normative ethics – which is about the practical means of determining a moral course of
action-that is what makes actions right and wrong
 Applied ethics – this is about how moral outcomes can be achieved in specific situations-
it attempts to apply ethical theory to real-life situations.
 Moral psychology – which is about how moral capacity or moral agency develops and
what its nature is. Such areas as moral responsibility, moral character, moral
development, moral luck, etc
 Descriptive ethics: which is about moral values that people actually live by. It examines
ethics not from top-down (a priori perspective) but rather observations of actual choices
made by moral agents in practice.
Within each of these branches are many different schools of thought and still further sub-fields
of study.
What is Ethics?
What makes the field of ethics so interesting and so challenging is that as a term, and as a
concept, “ethics” means so many different things to so many different people or constituencies.
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Within organizations, ethics is more often seen as a branch of compliance and legal than it is a
partner of organizational behaviour. Everyone wants to do “the right thing” yet we are often at a
loss to define what exactly that right thing to do is.
The other dimension is that the perception of ethics in one country is different from the
assumptions in another country.
How do we make sense of all of these varied elements?
 The origin of the word “ethics” comes from the Greek word, “ethos”, which means “the
fundamental character or spirit of a culture; custom, usage or habit:
 That is, the underlying sentiment that informs the beliefs, customs, or practices of a group
or society; dominant assumptions of a people or a period, (dictionary.com).
 In contemporary usage, ethics deals with the question of what actions are morally right
and with how things ought to be.
 For this purpose “Ethics” will be defined as that branch of philosophy that deals with
values relating to human conduct, with respect to the rightness and wrongness of
certain actions and to the goodness and badness of the motives and ends of such
actions.
 Simply, ethics are said to be the code of moral principles that sets standards of good or
bad, or right or wrong in one’s conduct.
 We can therefore safely say that ethics are the inner-guiding moral principles, values
and beliefs that people use to analyze or interpret a situation and then decide what is
the “right” or appropriate way to behave.
 Ethics provide principles to guide behaviour and help people make moral choices among
alternative courses of action.
 In practice, ethical behaviour is that which is accepted as “good” and “right” as opposed
to “bad” or “wrong” in the context of the governing moral code.
Ethics also indicate what inappropriate behaviour is and how a person should behave to avoid
doing harm to another person. – ask for examples from class
 The essential problem in dealing with ethical issues, and thus solving moral dilemmas, is
that there are no absolute or indisputable rules or principles that can be developed to
decide if an action is ethical or unethical.
Simply put, different people or groups may dispute which actions are ethical or unethical
depending on their own self-interest and specific attitudes, beliefs and values.
 How then can organizations, their managers and employees, decide what is ethical and so
act appropriately toward other people and groups and their clients?
In nutshell, ethics is concerned with morals, fairness, respect, caring, sharing, no false
promises, no lying, no cheating, no stealing or unreasonable demands on employees and
others.
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What is Morality?
 The word Morality is derived from the Latin word “moralitas”, which means manner,
character or proper behavior.
 It can be defined as the behavioral conduct that differentiates intentions, decisions and
actions between those that are good (or right) and those that are bad (or wrong).
 Thus, Morality consists of principles or rules of conduct that define standards for right
behavior.
 Ideally, Morality consists of a set of general rules that apply to everyone in society.
 However, there is a deep division in our society today, world over about such issues as
the right to die/ commit suicide, human cloning, abortion, gay and lesbian marriage, and
the responsibilities of individuals, families and governments.
 A moral code is a system of morality, for example according to a particular philosophy,
religion, culture, etc.
 A moral is any one practice or teaching within a moral code. Immorality is the active
opposition to morality.
Morality has two principal meanings:
 In its “descriptive” sense, morality refers to personal or cultural values, codes of conduct
or social mores that distinguish between right and wrong in the human society.
Describing morality in this way refers only to what is considered right or wrong by an
individual or a group of people, e.g., religion, and not to what is objectively right or
wrong. This is what descriptive ethics are concerned about.
 In its “normative” sense, morality refers directly to what is right and wrong regardless of
specific individuals think. It could be said to be the actual conduct of the ideal “moral”
person in a certain situation. This usage of the term- morality- is characterized by
“definitive” statements such as
“That act is immoral” rather than descriptive ones such as “Many people believe that act
is immoral”.
Others views of Ethics or Ethical Perspectives
There are several views of ethics and some of these are:
The Utilitarian View:
This view considers ethical behavior in terms of whether it delivers the greatest good to the
greatest number of people. It was founded by the 19th Century philosopher John Stuart Mill.
This view tries to assess the moral implications of decisions in terms of their consequences. A
manager may make a utilitarian decision to cut 20% of a plant’s workforce in order to keep the
plant profitable and save the remaining jobs.
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The individualism View:
This is based on the belief that one’s primary commitment is long-term advancement of self-
interests. People supposedly become self-regulating as they pursue long-term individual
advantage.
For example, lying and cheating for short-term gain should not be tolerated, because if one
person does it, everyone will do it, and no one’s long-term interests will be served.
The individualism view is supposed to promote honesty and integrity. But in organizations, it
may result in a pecuniary (economic, financial) ethic, described as the tendency to “push the law
to its outer limits” and “run roughshod over other individuals to achieve one’s objectives”.
The Moral-rights View:
Ethical behavior under this view is that which respects and protects the fundamental rights of
people. For example to rights of all people to life, liberty and fair treatment under the law are
considered inviolate.
In organizations, this concept extends to ensuring that employees are always protected in rights
to privacy, due process, free speech, free consent, health and safety and freedom of conscience.
The issue of human rights, a major ethical concern in the international business environment, is
central to this perspective
The United Nations, for example, stands by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights passed
by the General Assembly in 1948.
The Justice View:
This view of moral behavior is based on the belief that ethical decisions treat people impartially
and fairly, according to legal rules and standards.
This view evaluates the ethical aspects of any decision on the basis of whether it is “equitable”
for everyone affected.
This view is further subdivided into three types:
 Procedural Justice: this involves the degree to which policies and rules are fairly
administered. For example, does a sexual harassment charge levied against a senior
executive receive the same full hearing as one made against a first level supervisor or
junior employee?
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 Distributive Justice: this involves the degree to which outcomes are allocated without
respect to individual characteristics based on ethnicity, race, gender, age, or other
particularistic criteria.
For example, does a woman with the same qualifications and experience as a man receive
the same consideration for hiring or promotion?
 International Justice: this involves the degree to which others are treated with dignity
and respect. For example, does a bank loan officer take time to fully explain to an
applicant why he/she was turned down for a loan?
Importance of Ethics
Ethics are necessary because organizations can become unethical, and there are plenty of
evidences today on unethical corporate practices (Check Newspapers and review examples of
unethical practices/stories in organizations).
Even Adam Smith opined (spoke out) that“people of the same trade seldom meet together, even
for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in conspiracy against the public, or in
some contrivance to raise prices”.
Organizations operate in a social and natural environment. By virtue of existing in such

environments, organizations are duly bound to be accountable to the natural and social
environment in which it survives.
They are bound to be ethical in their practices and operations for at least two reasons:
 Firstly, is because whatever the organization does reflects its stakeholders

 Secondly, because every juncture of action has trajectories (routes, paths, courses) of
ethical as well as unethical paths.
One of the conditions that brought ethics to the forefront is the demise of small scale, high trust
and face to face enterprises, and the emergence of huge multinational corporate structures
capable of drastically affecting everyday lives of the masses.
UNIT 2: Values and Professional Ethics
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Most people fail often fail to make distinction among such terms as values, ethics and Morality
(Virtues). They use them rather loosely as if they all have the same meaning.
Definition
But what are values?
One Popular dictionary offers 17 definitions of value. Timms(1983), found no fewer than 180
different definitions of the term.
Most social scientists have followed Dewey’s definition, indicating that values are meant to
serve as guides or criteria for selecting good and desirable behaviors.
Further, it may be said that a value refers “ to what is worth having or being” and that it “ is
preferable that it exist rather than not exist”.
Values enhance a life or the world and define “ those conceptions of desirable states of affairs
that are utilized in selective conduct as criteria for preference or choice or as justifications for
proposed or actual behavior”. Williams,(1967, p.23)
Kluckholm (1951) adds that “a value is not just a preference but it is a preference which is felt
and/or considered to be justified”.
To this extent, we may talk about different levels of values: societal, group and individual values.
These values are usually complimentary or reciprocal in nature though at times they may be in
conflict.
Within any one society, most people, most of the time, agree about a core of societal values.
Types of Values
The ethical question extends to personal values – the underlying beliefs and attitudes that help
determine individual behavior.
To the extent that values vary among people, we can expect different interpretations of what
behavior is ethical or unethical in a given situation.
Milton Rokeach, makes a popular distinction between “terminal” and “instrumental” values.
Terminal values are the preferences about desired ends, such as the goals one strives to achieve
in life. Examples of these values considered important to managers include self-respect, family,
security, freedom, inner harmony and happiness.
Instrumental values are preferences regarding the means for accomplishing these ends. Among
instrumental values important to managers are honesty, ambition, courage, imagination, and self-
discipline.
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The value pattern for any one person is very enduring but terminal and instrumental values vary
from one person to the next.
This variation is a reason why people respond quite differently to situations and their ethical
challenges.
Professional Values
Most professions take their basic professional values from societal values – that is from the
values held by the larger society in which they practice.
These professional values are most often compatible with societal values, but there may be
important differences in emphasis, priorities or interpretation.
The Code of Ethics of ZIHRM summarizes the core values of HRM profession in Zambia as
follows:
Professional Ethics
They provide the guidance that enables a professional (HRM) to transform professional values
into professional practice activities.
Ethical principles do not describe professional practice but provide screens for assessing practice
options for their rightness or wrongness.
Codes of professional ethics identify and describe the ethical behavior expected of professional
practitioners
Professional ethics are closely related to, but not identical to societal ethics. They may be
differences in priorities, emphasis, intensities or applications.
Ethics and Law
Society can and does use the political and legal process to lobby for and pass laws that specify
what people can and cannot do.
Many different kinds of laws exist to govern business, for example, laws against fraud and
deception and laws governing how companies or organizations can treat their employees and
customers.
Laws also specify what sanctions or punishments will follow if those laws are broken.
Different groups in society lobby for which laws should be passed based on their own personal
interests and beliefs with regard to what is right or wrong.
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Once the law is passed, if you do not conform to the law, you can be prosecuted; and if you are
found guilty of breaking the law, you can be punished.
It is important to understand that neither laws nor ethics are fixed principles, cast in stone, which
do not change over time. Ethical beliefs alter and change as time passes, and as they do so, laws
change to reflect the changing ethical beliefs of a society.
It was seen as ethical, and it was legal, for example, to acquire and own slaves in the ancient
Rome and Greece and in the United States until the 19th Century.
Ethical views regarding whether slavery was morally right or appropriate changed, however.
Slavery was made illegal in the United States when those in power decided that slavery
disregarded the very meaning of being human.
Slavery is a statement about the value or worth of human beings and about their right to life,
liberty and pursuit of happiness. And if I deny these rights to other people, how then can I claim
to have any natural or “god-given” rights to these things myself?
It makes no sense that anything legal should be considered ethical, slavery for instance was once
legal in the United States and laws once permitted only men to vote.
Or carry of identification cards in Zambia by the colonial administration..
That does not mean the practices were ethical. And just because an action is not strictly illegal
doesn’t make it ethical.
Living up to the “letter of the law” is not sufficient to guarantee that one’s actions will or should
be considered ethical.
Is it truly ethical, for example, for an employee to take longer than necessary to do a job? (Or
a student to complete an assignment?), to make personal telephone calls on company time?, to
call in sick so as to take a day off for leisure? To fail to report rule violations by co-workers?
None of these acts are strictly illegal, but many people would consider them unethical.
Most ethical problems in the workplace come about when people are asked to do or find they are
about to do something that violates their personal beliefs or values
If the act is legal, they proceed with confidence. For others, the ethical test goes beyond the
legality of an act alone.
Characteristics of Law
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(Adapted from Dolgoff, Ralph, Loewenberg, Frank M & Harrington, Donna(2009): Ethical
Decisions for Social Work Practice. Thompson Brooks/Cole.USA. 8th Edition)
The word law has been variously defined by different authorities.
Albert(1986), says “laws are concerned with protecting people against excessive or unfair
power- government or private.
For Black (1972), law defines the normative relationship between the state and its citizens. This
view emphasizes the social control aspect of the law
Others feel that law tells people what they can do and cannot do. The law informs them what is
likely to happen if they are caught doing something that is prohibited (Van Hoose and Kottler,
1985)
The crucial characteristics of law are that it is enacted by legislatures, interpreted by the courts,
and enforced by the threat of punishment. Its observance is held to be obligatory.
Law changes continuously and at any given time it tries to reflect current knowledge and mores
(traditions, customs or ways of life).
In societies where the broad moral consensus has eroded laws may be more effective than ‘moral
persuaders’ because they are enforced by the police power of the state.
No matter how it is defined, law is of direct and immediate concern to human resource
practitioners and other professionals.
There are several different ways in which law affects the HRM practice. Such as…..??laws
require HRM practitioners to report certain information to designated government agencies ( e.g.
NAPSA or Workers compensation fund control board or taxes withheld to ZRA)
Differences between Law and Ethics
What are the similarities and differences between law and ethics?
The observance of law is obligatory and is enforce by the threat of punishment, compliance with
ethical principles is voluntary and reinforced only by a moral respect to values
Professional ethics may also be enforced by professional sanctions, such sanctions may range
from a simple censure to cancellation of permission to practice
Whereas ethics are often characterized by a sense of ambiguity and indeterminacy, law is said to
be definitive.
Legal rules are pliable; whether a particular legal rule will apply depends on the arguments
presented by one side or the other.
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Law is enacted by legislatures and can be changed by subsequent enactments or legal

interpretations
Ethical rules, though do change over time, are generally resistant to deliberate changes.
However, there is a close relationship between law and ethics because laws are often based on
ethical principles.
Thus, the legal principle of privileged communication is based on the privacy value and ethical
principle of confidentiality.
Ethical Dilemmas
The real test of ethics occurs when you or anyone encounters a situation that challenges personal
ethical beliefs and standards.
Often ambiguous and unexpected, these ethical challenges are inevitable and everyone has to be
prepared to deal with them, even students.
For example, upon graduation, a student a student may get a job offer and accept it, only to get a
better offer two weeks later. Is it right for the student to renege (break your promise or work, or
go back on your word) on the first job to accept the second?
A student knows that in a certain course his/her roommate submitted an assignment paper
downloaded or purchased from the internet. Is it right for him/her not to tell the instructor?
One student tells another that a faculty member (lecturer) promised her/him a high final grade in
return for sexual or financial favors. Is it right for him/her not to encourage this student to inform
the instructor’s department head?
All these are situations that pose ethical dilemmas in the life of both individuals and groups.
What are they?
Suppose you see a person being mugged in the street. How will you behave? Will you act in
some way to help, even though you risk being hurt? Will you walk away? Perhaps you might
adopt a “middle way” and not intervene but call the police?
Does the way you act depend on whether the person being mugged is a fit male, an elderly
person, or even a street person? Does it depend on whether there are other people around, so you
can tell yourself, “Oh well, someone else will help or call the police. I don’t need to”?
This situation described above is an example of an ethical dilemma – that is the quandary
people find themselves in when they have to decide if they should act in a way that might help
another person or group, and is the “right” thing to do, even though doing so might go
against their own self-interest.
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An ethical dilemma is a situation that requires a choice regarding a possible course of action that,
although offering the potential for personal or organizational benefit, or both, may be considered
unethical.
It is a situation in which action must be taken but for which there is no clear consensus on what
is “right” and “wrong”. The burden is on the individual to make good choices.
A dilemma may arise when a person has to decide between two different courses of action,
knowing that whichever course he/she chooses will result in harm to one person or group even
while it may benefit another. The ethical dilemma here is to decide which course of action is the
“lesser of two evils”.
People know they are confronting an ethical dilemma when their moral scruples come into play
and cause them to hesitate, debate and reflect upon the “rightness” or “goodness” of a course of
action.
Moral scruples are thoughts and feelings that tell a person what is right or wrong; they are a part
of a person’s ethics.
Some problem areas and types of ethical dilemmas managers can get caught into include:
 Discrimination – denying promotion or appointment to a job candidate because of the

candidate’s race, religion, gender, age or other non-job-relevant criterion.
 Sexual harassment – making a co-worker feel uncomfortable because of inappropriate
comments or actions regarding sexuality: requesting sexual favors in return for favorable
job treatment.
 Conflicts of interest – taking a bribe of kickback or extraordinary gift in return for
making a decision favorable to the gift giver
 Customer confidence – giving to another party privileged information regarding the
activities of a customer – e.g. phone companies cannot disclose the numbers or person
that a particular subscribers calls often without a court order!!!
 Organizational resources – using official stationery or a company email
account/phone/fax/letter heads to communicate personal opinions or make requests from
community organizations.
Dealing with Ethical Dilemmas
Step 1: Recognize the ethical dilemma
Step 2: Get the facts
Step 3: Identify your options
Step 4: Test each option: Is it legal? Is it right? Is it beneficial?
Step 5: Decide which option to follow
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Step 6: Double – check with spotlight questions: “How will I feel if my family finds out
about my decision?” “How will I feel about this if my decision is reported in the local
newspaper?”
Step 7: Take action
Rationalizations for Unethical Behavior
Why do otherwise reasonable people try to justify their unethical acts?
Consider the possibility of being asked to place a bid for a business contract using insider
information, paying bribes to obtain the contract, falsifying expense account bills, etc. “How”,
(should you), do “people explain doing things like this?”
There are at least four common rationalizations that may be use to justify misconduct in these
and other ethical dilemmas:
 Convincing yourself that the behavior is not really illegal – “its really not illegal” -this
expresses a mistaken belief that one’s behavior is acceptable, especially in ambiguous
situations. When dealing with borderline situations in which you are having hard time
determining precisely right from wrong, the advice is quite simple: when in doubt about a
decision to be made or action to be taken, don’t do it!
 Convincing yourself that the behavior is in everyone’s best interests – “it’s in
everyone’s best interest” – this response involves the mistaken belief that because
someone can benefit from the behavior, the behavior is also on the individual’s or the
organization’s best interests.
 Convincing yourself that nobody will ever find out what you have done – “no one will
ever know about it” – they believe that questionable behavior is really “safe” and will
never be found out or made public. Unless it is discovered, the argument implies, no
crime was really committed. Lack of accountability, unrealistic pressures to perform and
a boss who prefers ”not to know” can all reinforce such thinking. The best deterrent in
this case is to make sure that everyone knows that wrongdoing will be punished
whenever it is discovered. –
 Convincing yourself that the organization will “protect” you. - “the organization will
stand by me” – this is misperceived loyalty. The individual believes that the
organization’s best interests stand above all others. The individual believes that top
managers will condone the behavior and protect the individual from harm. But loyalty to
the organization is not an acceptable excuse for misconduct: it should not stand above the
law and social morality.
UNIT 3: Ethical Decision Making
Foundations for Ethical Decision Making
Ethical decision making does not involve the automatic application of arbitrary rules. This so
because “Ethics cannot be summed up in a series of inviolate rules or commandments which can
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be applied everywhere and always without regard to circumstances, thought of consequences, or

comprehension of the ends to be attained”, Maclver (1922).
If this were the case, professionals (HR Practitioners) would find it easier to deal with the ethical
problems they encounter everyday with confidence.
The professional Codes of Ethics and common sense provide them with sufficient guidance to
cope with many of these dilemmas, Beyerstein (1993).
HR practitioners, however, do not face simple choices between one good option and one bad
option.
Instead, they face a multiple choices, each one of which contains both positive and negative
features.
As such the skilled worker must assess and weigh all options and outcomes and then select the
one that appears to be the most ethical.
But how does one know which option is “the most ethical?”
Decisions about ethical questions usually follow an individual’s consistent behavior patterns.
Because such decisions involve questions of right and wrong, they are deeply rooted in the
values system that is most important to the decision maker.
Though Philosophy has had a major impact on the development of ethics, there have been other
influences including tradition, politics, religion, race and gender.
Two theories that encompass most approaches to ethical decision making have been identified by
modern philosophers, viz:
 Ethical Relativism
 Ethical Absolutism
Ethical Relativism
Ethical relativists reject fixed moral rules. They, however, justify ethical decisions on the basis
of the context or situations in which they are made or on the basis of the consequences that
result.
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What are the risks and what are the benefits?
What decisions will result in the greater balance of good over bad consequences?
Here an option is chosen because it will lead to desired results or is rejected because it will lead
to results that are not wanted.
The amount of good that is produced or the balance of good over evil (not in any absolute
standard), serves as the major criterion for reaching an ethical decision.
Ethical relativists differ when it comes to identifying the target or the intended beneficiary of the
planned decision.
There are two types of Ethical relativists:
 Ethical egoists: believe that one should always maximize what is good for oneself, no
matter what the consequences for others.
 Ethical utilitarians: argue that the most important thing is to seek the greatest good for
the largest number of persons.
Ethical relativism is not a recent invention but was already known in ancient Greece. Among
the early followers were the Sophists and Herodotus. In most recent times, John Staurt Mill,
Jeremy Bentham, and Segmund Freud were among those who followed this approach.
All these taught that ethical decisions should be made on the basis of maximizing pleasure and
avoiding pain
Critique of the Ethical Relativism
 Some suggest that this approach to practice is very asocial and perhaps even amoral
because it assumes that individual satisfaction is the primary value.
 Others say that the only thing that matters with this approach is the result. If the result is
the only thing that matters, is there no difference when someone dies because an armed
robber kills a by stander during a bank holdup, or a soldier kills an enemy in combat, or
one loses a job because they were framed of a crime?
Differing motivations and differing activities lead to the same results, are they really the same?
Ethical Absolutism
Ethical absolutism stresses the overriding importance of fixed moral rules.
Philosophers who hold this approach state that an action is inherently right or wrong, apart from
any consequences that might result from it.
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A specific action or practice is morally right or wrong not because of its consequences or the
circumstances but “because of some features intrinsic to the act or practice itself, Callahan (1988,
p20).
Ethical Absolutists maintain that ethical rules can be formulated and that these should hold under
all circumstances.
For example, they will argue that the rule “ an individual or professional shall tell truth to the
client” is always correct and applies in every situation, no matter how much danger may be
caused by telling the truth in any particular situation.
Philosophers such as Plato and certain religious philosophers who follow this theory are known
as DEONTOLOGISTS.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was the first modern philosopher to adopt decontological concepts,
which he expressed through the principle of the categorical imperative – that is, one should “act
only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time, will that it should become a
universal law” Wikipedia, (2004).
He insisted that categorical imperatives ( anyone in similar circumstance should act in the same
way) are morally necessary and obligatory under all circumstances.
Based on this perspective, therefore, one should not lie; one should always tell the truth whatever
the circumstances.
But of course there can be conflicts between two equal duties. According to this perspective,
fulfilling one’s obligation has a greater priority than weighing the consequences of one’s actions.
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), one of the earliest proponent of English utilitarianism, accepted
“the greatest good for the greatest number” as a binding principle that applies in every situation.
However, it is important to note that many absolutists allow situations where the fixed rules do
not apply.
For example, many theologians have accepted the argument, first proposed by the Dutch Jurist
Hugo Grotius (1583-1645), that one must always tell the truth and never lie, but that is
permissible to speak falsely to thieves because no one owes them the truth.
However, there is a difference between not applying a rule in an exceptional situation and
deciding each situation as if there were no rules at all.
In practice, practitioners may not be aware of these efforts by professional philosophers. Neither
do they always know which ethical theory they follow when making decisions.
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This is so because the differences between major theories is often unclear in practice. But does it
make a difference for the HR practitioner in ethical decision making if one follows one theory or
the other?
Contemporary Approaches to Ethical Decision Making
In the past, conscience was suggested as the key to ethical decision making. However, some
contemporary philosophers have substituted guilt feelings for older concept, and other have
added “feeling good”, “democracy”, and “empowerment” as current keys.
Conscience (sense of right and wrong, scruples) or guilt feeling are too “idiosyncratic (personal)
to serve professionals (HR) as guides for ethical decision making because one person’s
conscience will not be the same as another’s.
Professional ethics are common to the entire professional group and should therefore, be relevant
to every member of that profession.
What professionals need are tools of analysis that will permit a more systematic and rational
consideration of the ethical aspects of their work.
Such models include knowledge elements, but ethical decision making cannot be based on
knowledge alone because ethics deal with what ought to be and not with what is.
Some of the approaches in ethical decision making are:
 Clinical Pragmatism
This view suggest that the type of service provided, the nature of problems dealt with,
and the modes of intervention used are determined by society so that a person’s personal
ethical stance is far less important than societal ethics.
Those who follow this approach, focus on implementing the values of the society that
sanction their activities.
For example, in helping individual employees and groups who face various emotional
disturbances and crises, the HR practitioner may use societal values as a criterion to
identify the types of behavior that require professional intervention, behaviors the society
believes to be beyond the norm.
 Humanistic Ethics
Many practitioners have found the humanistic ethical approach attractive because it
combines a strong idealism (optimism) with opportunities for individual choices.
An idealistic view of human nature as essentially positive, together with an optimistic

stance toward the future, provides the basis for this approach.
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The focus here is on casual rather than on moralistic explanations of human behavior.
This approach stresses the capacity, opportunity and responsibility of every person to
make choices that make sense to him or her.
The individual or group rather than any institution or ideology, occupies the center of
attention. This approach seem to be suited to contemporary Zambia as the emphasis is
shifting to individualism and pluralism.
Here human beings are believed to be inherently good and to have the ability to behave
ethically.
This means the inner core of the human personality is intrinsically ethical. Individual
freedom and responsibility form the basis of social life.
Proponents of this approach can be found to be in the forefront of many causes that
promote freedom and equality. Some propose and experiment with disrupting power
hierarchies in the organization or society, in this way opposing the stable social authority
structures; others emphasize hedonistic rather than traditional values
Followers of this approach feel that they have minimized the ethical dilemmas they face’
by clearly identifying value priorities, they feel that they can cope with ethical aspects of
most practice problems.
More important, by emphasizing individual responsibility, the major burden for ethical
decision making is shifted from the practitioner to the individual.
 Religious Ethics
Religious ethics presupposes a belief in the existence of God. While secularist

philosophers teach that men and women are creators of their own values, religious
philosophers maintain that there is a set of divine values that humans must try to
discover.
Unlike those who deny the existence of absolute truth and absolute ethical rules, this
approach declare that there are eternal rules that give direction for correct behaviors at all
times.
Believers are convinced that religious faith and ethical morality are two sides of the same
coin.
They cannot conceive of long term effectiveness of ethical principles that come from a
source other than the divine will.
The ethical aspects of interpersonal relationships can only exist if one accepts the
authority of God.
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They agree with Ivan in Dostoyevsky’s “The Brothers Karamazou” when he said, “ if
there is no God, everything is permissible”.
Jacques Maritain, a Christian Philosopher, argued that a secular ethics in which the
individual becomes the ultimate goal does not deify (glorify, exalt) the person but
degrades him/her because “the greatness of man consists in the fact that his sole end is
the uncreated Good”(1934.269).
For believers, the search for divine meaning is meaningful, while nonbelievers consider
this search futile.
The consequence of accepting this approach is that ethics and law merge into one
comprehensive, interrelated system.
Since ethical principles are usually stated in general and abstract terms, the authorized
interpreters of religious law deduce specific applications to daily problems.
These deductions become precedence or law. When this occurs, law is no longer separated from
ethics but implements ethical principles in the daily life of societies.
The only difficult here is that those who follow this approach face a serious problem when
applying it because they practice in what is essentially a secular society and the law/ethics of one
religious grouping may conflict with the law/ethic of another societal group.
SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS
Consider your religious or spiritual beliefs, and think about how they are related to the kinds of
individuals and situations you might encounter in the HRM practice. How might your beliefs and
values relate to the Code of Ethics and to the ethical decision making that will be necessary in
your practice of HRM? If you identify potential conflicts between your beliefs and values and the
standards of the Code of Ethics, how might you handle the conflicts when they are significant to
potential HRM situations?
Importance of Values– personal, group, societal and professional
Values are a key element in the ethical decision-making process.
No wonder Levy (1976b) called ethics “values in action”.
The purpose of clarifying one’s personal and group values as well as societal and professional
values, is to increase one’s awareness of the potential conflicts among them and the potential
impact these conflicts can have on ethical decision making.
Recognition of our own values and those of clients, agencies, communities and other people –
including professionals – involved in various practice situations is an important step in
preparation for ethical decision making.
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Ethical decision making involves being alert to /aware of, the impact of values in order to reduce
conflicts and to assist professionals (HR practitioner) in making ethical decisions based on
situational needs and the maintenance of one’s own ethical integrity
Levels of Values
Individual or Personal Values: are values held by one person but not necessarily by others
Group values are values held by subgroups within a society – such as religious groups, ethnic
group and so forth
Societal values are values that are recognized by major portions of the entire social system or at
least, by the leading members or spokespersons of that system
Professional values: values proclaimed by a professional group, such as human resource

managers.
Generally, these four value sets are complimentary or reciprocal, although at times they may be
in conflict.
Most of the time and in most places, discord among the different level value sets is infrequent,
though differences in interpretation, priority and intensity are not uncommon.
But to what extent do these different value sets influence ethical decision- making in practice?
Discuss
UNIT 4: Ethical Theories and Ethical Traditions.
1.0 Introduction.
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In the last four units we have been learning about the nature of ethics dealing with
specific issues such as definition and meaning of ethics,morality,the role of values and
principles in life , law and ethical decision making issues such as ethical
absolutism ,ethical relativism, ethical dilemmas and contemporary issues in ethics.
In this unit weshall learnabout ethical theories and ethical traditions. The following
three ethical theories and their traditions will be critically examined: Utilitarianism,
deontology and Virtue ethics. Finally Ethics decision making model will be considered.
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
(i) Explain the ethical theory of utilitarianism

(ii) Describe how utilitarian thinking underlies decision thinking
(iii) Explain some challenges to utilitarian decision making.
(iv) Explain principle-based or deontological ethical theories
(v) Explain the concept of human rights and how they are relevant to society.
(vi) Distinguish moral rights from legal rights
(vii) Explain several challenges to deontological ethics.
(viii) Describe and explain virtue- based theories and ethical character.
2.0 Ethical theories and ethical traditions background.
What is ethics and what is the purpose of learning it?
On the one hand, ethics refers to an academic discipline with centuries of old history.
We might expect knowledge about this history to be among the primary goals of a
course in ethics. Thus in an academic course, students might be expected to learn
about ethicists- Aristotle, John Stuart and Immanuel Kant. As in any other course, this
approach to ethics will focus on the informational content of the course or class.
Yet according to some observers, ethics theories and the history of ethics beside the
point. These stakeholders including some of those looking to recruit college students
and even some teachers themselves expect an ethics course/class to address ethical
behavior not just information and knowledge about ethics. After all what good is an
ethic class or course if it does not prevent future problems.
For the purposes of our study, ethics refers to not only academic discipline but also the
arena of human life studied by this academic discipline namely: How human beings
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should properly live their lives. An academic course/class will not change your capacity
to think, but should stimulate what to think about.
Ethics is a form of practical reasoning in support of decision making about how we

should lead our lives. Ethics involves what is important perhaps the most important
question of any human being is “how should I live my life? But of course this question is
not new. Every major pro-physical, cultural, political and religious tradition in human
history has been faced by everybody (that question). In this light, it should be
imprudent to ignore these traditions as we begin to examine ethical issues in business
or society.
Nevertheless, many students think that discussing ethical theories and philosophical
ethics are too abstract to be of much help in business. Discussion of ethical theories
often seems to be too theoretical to be of much relevance to business or society. It is
important to suggest a more accessible understanding of ethical theories, one that will
shade some light on the practical and pragmatic application of these theories to actual
problems faced by business or human resource practitioners. As Norman Bowie
remarked “It seems Right in Theory but Does It Work in Practice?
An ethical theory is nothing more than an attempt to provide a systematic answer to

the fundamental ethical question: How should human beings live their lives? In many
ways, this is a simple question we ask at least explicitly every day. What am I going to
do today and why? Ethics can be understood as the practice of the examining these
decisions and thinking about answers to the question live why?
Ethical theory attempt to answer the question how we should live our lives, but they
also give reasons to support their answers. Ethics seek to provide a rational justification
for why we should act and decide in a particular described way. Anyone can offer
prescriptions for what you should do and how you should act, but a philosophical and
reasoned ethics must answer the ‘ why ?’
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Many people and cultures across the world would answer this “why” question in
religious terms and base their normative judgments on religious foundations. “You
ought to live in a certain way because God commands it”. The biggest practical problem
to this approach is that, people differ widely about their religious beliefs. If ethics is
based on religion and if different cultures have widely divergent religious beliefs, then it
will seem that ethics cannot escape from the predicament of relativism.
Unlike religious ethics which explains human well-being in religious terms, philosophical
ethics provides justifications that must be applicable to all the people regardless of their
religious starting points. The justification of philosophical ethics connect the “oughts”
and “shoulds” of ethics to an underlying account of human well-being. Thus for
example “you should contribute to disaster relief” because it will reduce the human
suffering – is a philosophical justification for an ethical judgment where as you should
contribute to disaster relief because God commands it or because it will bring you
heavenly reward - are religious rather than philosophical justification.
Finally, ethical theories are not comprised of one single principle or framework. Ethical
theories evolve overtime and they have been refined and developed by many different
thinkers. The insights of an ethical theory prove to be lasting because they truly do pick
out some important elements of human experience. To emphasize this point this unit
will refer to these theories more commonly as ethical ‘traditions’. The unit introduces
three ethical traditions that have proven influential in the development of business
ethics and have a very practical relevance in evaluating ethical issues in contemporary
business and society. Utilitarianism is an ethical tradition that directs us to decide based
on overall consequences of our acts. Deontological ethics directs us to act on the basis
of moral principles such as respecting human rights. Virtue ethics directs us to consider
the moral character of individuals and how character traits can contribute to, or
obstruct a happy and meaningful human life.
3.0Utilitarianism: Making Decisions Based on Ethical Consequences.
The first ethic tradition which will be examined is utilitarianism which has its roots in the
eighteenth century and nineteenth century social and political philosophical but its core
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idea is just as relevant as today in the twenty-first century. Utilitarianism’s fundamental

insight is that we should consider what to do by considering the consequences of our
actions. In this sense, utilitarianism has been called consequentialist approach to ethics
and social policy, we should act in the ways that produces better consequences than
the alternative we are considering. Much more needs to be said to turn this simple
insight into an adequate ethical theory. The first and most obvious question is: What is
meant by ‘better consequences’? Better consequences are those that promote human
well-being: the happiness, health, dignity, integrity, freedom and respect of all people
affected. If these elements are basic human values, then an action which promotes
more of them than the alternative action does is more reasonable from an ethical point
of view. A decision that promotes the greatest number of these values for the greatest
number of people is the most reasonable position from ethical point of view.
Utilitarianism is commonly identified with the principle “maximize the overall good” or in
a slight different version of producing “the greatest good for the greatest number”. The
ultimate ethical goal according to utilitarians is to produce the best consequences for all
parties affected by the decisions. Decisions that accomplish these goals are the right
decisions to be made ethically and those that do not are ethically wrong.
The emphasis on the overall good and upon producing the greatest number or good,
make utilitarianism a social philosophy that opposes the policies that aim to benefit only
a small social economic or political minority. In this way, utilitarianism provides strong
support for democratic institutions and policies. Government and all social institutions
exist for the well-being of all not to further interests of the monarchy, nobility or some
groups of the elite. Likewise the economy and economic institutions exists to provide
the highest standard of living for the greatest number of people, not to create wealth a
few.
Another business related examples is the case of child labour. Utilitarian thinking would
advise to consider all the likely consequences of a practice of employing young children
in factories. Obviously there are some problematic consequences:
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children suffer physical and psychological harms , they are denied opportunity for
education, their low pay is not enough to escape a life of poverty, and so forth. Many
of human values previously described are diminished by child labour. But these
consequences must be compared to the alternative decisions. What are the
consequences if children in poor regions are denied factory jobs? These children would
still be denied opportunities for education, worse poverty and they have less money for
food and family support. In many cases, the only alternative for obtaining income
available for young children who are prohibited from joining the work-force might
include crime, drugs or prostitution. Further, we should consider not only the
consequences of the children themselves but also the consequences of the entire
society. Child labour can have beneficial results for bringing foreign direct investment
and money into a poor country. In the opinion of some observers, allowing children to
work for ngwees a day under sweat-shop workshops conditions produces better overall
consequences than available alternatives. Thus one might argue on utilitarian grounds
that such labour practices are ethically permissible because they produce better overall
consequences than the alternatives.
This example highlights several important aspects of utilitarian reasoning. Because

utilitarians decide on the basis of consequences and because the consequences of their
actions will depend on the specific facts of each situation, utilitarians tends to be very
pragmatic thinkers. No act is ever absolutely right or wrong in all cases in every
situation; it will always depend on the consequences.
Also utilitarian reasoning usually supplies some support for competing available
alternatives e.g. ban child labour as harmful to overall good or allow child labour as
contributing to the overall goog. Deciding on the ethical legitimacy of alternative
decisions requires that we make judgments about likely consequences of our actions.
How do we do this? Within the utilitarian tradition, there is a strong inclination to turn
to social science in making such predictions. After-all, social science studies, the causes
and consequences of individual and social actions. Who is better situated than a social
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scientist to help predict the social consequences of our decisions?. Consider the fields to
which one might turn in order to determine the likely consequences of child labour.
Economics, anthropology, political science, sociology, public policy, psychology and
medical and health sciences are some of the fields that could help alternatives the likely
consequences of such practices in a particular culture.
In general utilitarian position is that happiness is the ultimate good, the only thing that
is and can be valued for its own sake. Happiness is the best and the most reasonable
interpretation of human well-being. The goal of ethics , both individually and as a
matter of public policy should be to maximize the overall happiness.
3.1 Utilitarianism and Business
It has been noted that studying ethical theories had practical relevance to business
ethics. In fact perhaps utilitarianism’s greatest contribution to philosophical thought has
become through its influence in economics with the roots in Adam Smith, the ethics
which underlie much of twentieth century economics- essentially what is thought of as
free market is -decidedly utilitarian. In this way utilitarian continues to have a very
strong impact on business and business ethics.
Utilitarianism answers the fundamental question of ethics, “what should we do”? – by

reference to the rule: maximize the overall good. But another question remains to be
answered: How do we achieve this goal? What is the best means of attaining utilitarian
goal of maximizing the overall good? Two answers prove especially relevant in business
and business ethics.
One movement within utilitarian thinking invokes the tradition of Adam Smith and
claims that free markets competition are the best means for attaining utilitarian goals.
This version would promote policies that deregulate private industries, protect property
rights allow for free exchanges and encourage competition. In such situations, decisions
of rationally sell interested individuals will result as if lead by ‘an invisible hand’ in Adam
Smith’s terms to the maximum satisfaction to individual happiness.
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In classic free market economics, economic activity aims to satisfy consumer demand.
People are made happy-human welfare or human – well-being increases when they get
what they desire. Overall human happiness is increased therefore, when overall
satisfaction of consumer demand increases. The law of supply demand tells us that
economies should and wealthy economies do; produce (supply) those goods and
services that consumer most would want (demand). Since scarcity and competition
prevent everyone from getting all that they want, the goal of free market economics is
to optimally satisfy i.e maximize the satisfaction of wants (happiness). Free markets
accomplish this goal most efficiently according to defenders by allowing individuals to
decide for themselves what they most want and then bargain for these goods in a free
and competitive market place. This process will, over-time and under the right
conditions guarantee the optimal satisfaction of wants which this tradition equates with
maximizing overall happiness.
A second influential version of utilitarianism policy turns to policy experts who can
predict the outcome of various policies and carry out policies that will attain utilitarian
ends. Because utilitarian reasoning determines what to do on the basis of
consequences, reasonable judgments must be taken into account the likely
consequences of our actions. But predicting consequences of human action can be
studied and improved by careful observation. Experts in predicting such consequences
are usually trained in the social sciences such as economics, political science and public
policy and are therefore familiar with the specifics of how society works and they
therefore are in a position to determine which policy will maximize the overall good.
The dispute between these two versions of utilitarian policy what we might call
“Administrative” and “Market” versions of utilitarianism characterize many disputes in
business ethics. One clear example concerns regulation of unsafe or risk products.
(Similar disputes involve worker health and safety, environmental protection and
almost every other example of government regulation of business). One side argues
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that, question of safety and risk should be determined by experts who then establish
standards that business is required to meet. Government regulators are then charged
with enforcing safety standards in the market place.
The other side argues that the best judges of accepting risk are consumers themselves.
A free and competitive consumer market will ensure that people will get the level safety
that they want. Individuals calculate for themselves what risk they wish to take and
what trade- offs they are willing to make in order to attain safety. Consumers willing to
take risks will pay less for their products than consumers who demand safe and less risk
products. Thus market -based solutions will prove best at optimally satisfying these
various aspects and competing interests and will therefore serve the overall good.
3.2 Challenges to Utilitarian Ethics.
While utilitarian tradition contributes much to the responsible ethical decision making, it
is not without problems. A review of some general challenges to utilitarianism can guide
us in evaluating later applications of utilitarian decision making.
A first set of problems/challenges concerns the need for utilitarian reasoning to count,
measure, compare and quantify consequences. If utilitarianism advises that we make
decisions by comparing the consequences of alternative actions then we must have a
method of making such comparison. In practice however, some comparisons and
measurements are very difficult. For example, in principle utilitarianism tells us that the
interests of all stakeholders who will be affected by the decision ought to be included in
calculating the consequences of a decision. But there is simply no consensus among
utilitarians on how to measure and determine the overall good. Many business ethics
highlight how difficult this could be. Consider the consequences of using non-renewable
energy sources and burning fossil fuel for energy and many more.
A second challenge goes directly to the core of utilitarianism. The essence of

utilitarianism is its reliance on consequences. Ethical and unethical acts are determined
by their consequences. In short, the end justifies the means but this seems to deny one
of the earliest ethical principles that many of people have learned that the end does not
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always justifies the means. This challenge can be explained in terms of ethical
principles. When we say that the end do not justifies the means, what we are saying is
that there are some certain decisions we should make or certain rules which will follow
no matter what the consequences. Put another way, we have certain duties or
responsibilities that we ought to obey even when doing so does bot produce a net
increase in overall happiness. Examples of such duties are those required by such
principles as justice, loyalty and respect.
Nevertheless, utilitarian ethics does contribute to responsible decision making in several

important ways. First and more obviously, we are reminded of the significance of
consequences. Responsible decision making requires that we consider the
consequences of our acts while also we must be mindful of the short comings of
utilitarianism reasoning. Perhaps more importantly, utilitarian reasoning does not
exhaust the range of ethical concerns. Consequences are only part of ethical landscape.
Responsible ethical decision making also involves matters of duties, principles and
personal integrity.
40. Deontology: An Ethics of Rights and Duties

Making decisions based on consequences certainly should be part of the responsible
ethical decision making. But this approach must be supplemented with recognition that
some decisions should be a matter of principles and not consequences. In other words,
the ends do not always justify the means but how do we know what principles we have
to follow and how do we decide when a principle should trump beneficial consequences.
Principle- based or ‘deontological’ ethical theories work out the details of such
questions.
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The language of ‘deontology’ and ‘deontological’ ethics is very abstract and likely to
strike many students as so much academic jargon. But the idea behind this approach
is commonsensical. Ethical principles can only be thought of as a type of rules, and this
approach to ethics tells us that, there are some rules that we ought to follow even if
doing so prevents good consequences. Rules or principles (e.g. obey the law, keep
your promises, uphold your contracts) create the duties that bind us to act or decide in
certain ways. For-example, there is an ethical rule prohibiting slave labour even if this
practice would have beneficial economic consequences for the society.
What rules should we follow? Legal rules are one of major set of rules that we must
follow. We have a duty to pay taxes even if the money might be more efficiently spent
on our children’s college education.
Other rules are derived from various institutions in which we participate or form social
roles that we feel. There will be very many occasions in which such role- based duty
arise in business. As an employee, one takes on certain role that creates duties. Every
employee will have a set of rules that s/he is expected to follow. Sometimes rules are
explicitly stated in a code of conduct, other times in employee hand books, and still
others are simply stated by managers. Perhaps the most direct example of role based
duties concerns the work of professionals within the business.
So far we have mentioned legal rules, organizational rules, role- based rules and
professional rules. We can think of these rules as part of social agreement or social
contract which functions to organize and ease relations between individuals. No group
could function if members were free at all times to decide for themselves what to do
and how to act. By definition, any co-operative activity requires cooperation, i.e.
requires rules that each member follows.
In view of many philosophers, fundamental ethical duties must bind us in a stricter way
than the way we are bound by contracts or by professional duties. You should not be
able to ‘quit’ ethical duties and walk away in quite the way that one can dissolve a
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contract or walk away from professional duties by quitting a profession. In the language
of many philosophers, ethical duties should be ‘categorical’imperatives
rather than hypothetical. Hypothetical duties would be like professional code of conduct
that binds you only if you are a member of the profession. Categorical duties do not
contain “if” clause. I should or must (an imperative) obey fundamental ethical rules no
matter what.( a categorical)
4.1Human Rights and Duties.
Are there any such fundamental duties? Are there any rules we should follow,
decisions we should make no matter what consequences? The fore-most advocate of
this tradition in ethics the eighteenth century German philosopher Immanuel Kant
argued that; at bottom, there is essentially one fundamental moral duty, one
categorical imperative: respect the dignity of each individual human being. A more
simple way to say this is to say that every individual human being has a human right to
be treated with respect.
Kant claimed that this duty to respect human dignity could be expressed in several
ways. One version directs us to act according to those rules that could be universally
accepted/ agreed to by all people. This is the first form of the famous ‘Kantian
categorical imperative’). Another less abstract version requires us to treat each person
as an end in themselves and never only as means to our own ends. In other words, our
fundamental duties are to respect people as subjects capable of living their lives and
not as mere objects that exist for our purposes. To use the familiar subject /object
categories from English grammar, human beings are subjects because they make
decisions and perform actions rather than being objects that are acted upon. Human
beings have their own ends and purposes and therefore should not be treated simply as
means to the ends of others.
Since every person has this same fundamental duty towards others, each of us can be
said to have fundamental human rights: the right to be treated with respect, to expect
that others will treat us as an end and never as means only, and to be treated as an
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autonomous person. In this sense humans have fundamental human rights of

autonomy or self-rule.
From these origins, we can see how two related rights have merged as fundamental
within pro-philosophical ethics. If autonomy or self-rule is a fundamental characteristic
of human nature, then the freedom to make our own choices deserve special protection
as a basic right. But since all humans posses this fundamental characteristic, equal
treatment and equal considerations must also be fundamental rights. They are,
according to much of this tradition “natural rights” that are more fundamental and
persistent than the legal rights are created by governments and social contracts.
In 1948 the United Nations adopted a universal declaration of human rights. Since that
time, this declaration has been translated into more than 300 different languages and
dialects. The universal declaration contains thirty articles outlining basic human rights.
In parts the declaration includes the following:-
Preamble
Recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all
members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the
world.
Article 1
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with
reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Article 2
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration without
distinction of any kind such as race, colour, sex, language, religion political or other
opinions, national or social origin, property, birth, or other status.
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Article 3
Everyone has a right to life, liberty and security of a person.
Article 4
No one shall be held in slavery or servitude. Slavery and slave trade shall be prohibited
in all their forms.
Article 5
No one shall be subjected to torture or cruel, in-human and degrading treatment or
punishment.
Article 9
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.
Article 10
Everyone is entitled in full equity to a fair and public hearing by an independent and
impartial tribunal in the determination of his/her rights and obligations of any criminal
charge against him/her.
Article 18
Everyone has a right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, this right includes
freedom to change his/her religion or belief and freedom either alone or in community
with others and in public or private to manifest his/her religion or belief in teaching,
practice, worship and observance.
Article 19
Everyone has right to freedom of opinion and expression, this right includes freedom to
hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and
ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.
Article 23
(i) Everyone has a right to work, the free choice of employment, to just, and
favourable conditions of work and protection against unemployment.
(ii) Everyone without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal
work.
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(iii) Everyone who works has a right to just and favourable remuneration which is
just and favourable to ensure for his/her family an existence worth of human
dignity and supplemented if necessary by the other means of social
protection.
(iv) Everyone has a right to form and to join trade unions for protection of his/her
interests.
Article 25
(I)Everyone has a right to a standard of living adequate for the health and the well-
being of himself and his/her family including food, clothing, housing and medical care
and necessary social services and the right to security in case of unemployment,
sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances
beyond his/her control.
Article 26
Everyone has a right to education.
4.2 Moral and Legal Rights.

It will be helpful to distinguish between moral and legal rights. To illustrate this
distinction, let’s take employee’s rights as an example. Three senses of employees’
rights are common in business. First, there are those legal rights granted to employees
on the basis of legislation or judicial rulings. Thus employees have a right to minimum
wage, equal opportunity, to bargain collectively as part of the union, or to be free from
sexual harassment and so forth. Second, employee right might refer to those goods
that employees are entitled to on the basis of contractual agreements with the
employers. In this sense, an employee might have a right to a specific health care
package, a certain number of paid holidays or a pension fund and the like. Finally
employee rights might refer to those moral entitlements to which employees have a
claim independently or any particular legal of any contractual factors. Such rights will
originate with respect owed to them as human beings.
4.3 Challenges to ethics of rights and duties
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In the USA declaration of independence, Thomas Jefferson claimed that we have

inalienable rights to life, liberty and pursuit of happiness. He was influenced by British
philosopher John Locke who spoke of ‘natural rights’ to life, health, liberty and
possessions. The United Nations Declaration of Human Rights lists more than 26 human
rights that are universal. This diversity of rights poses two challenges. First: there is no
agreement about the scope and range of rights which are merely things that people
want. A second challenge also points to practical problems in applying a theory to real
life situations. With a long list of rights, all of which are claimed to be basic and
fundamental, we need a practical guide to decide what to do when rights come into
conflict.
5.0 Virtue Ethics :Making decisions based on integrity and character
For the most part, utilitarianism and deontological approaches to ethics focus on rules
that we might follow in deciding what we should do both as citizens and individuals.
These approaches conceive practical reasons in part of deciding how to act and what to
do. Virtue ethics is a tradition within philosophical ethics that seek to full and detailed
description of those character traits or virtues that could constitute a good and full
human life.
Virtues can be understood as those character traits that would constitute a meaningful
human life. Being friendly and careful, having integrity, being honest, fourth right and
faithful, having modest once and being tolerant are some of the characteristics of a
good and meaningful life. The ancient Greeks identified four primary virtues and these
are courage, moderation, wisdom and justice. Early Christians describe three cardinal
virtues of faith, hope and charity. Boy scouts pledge to be trustworthy, loyal, helpful,
friendly, courteous, kind obedient, cheerful, brave, clean and reverent.
To understand how virtue ethics differs from utilitarianism and deontological

approaches, consider the problem of egoism. As mentioned previously, egoism is a
view which holds that people act only out of self-interest. The biggest challenge posed
38
by egoism and, according to some, the biggest challenge to ethics is the apparent gap
between self-interest and altruism or between motivation that is ‘self-regarding’ and
motivation that is ‘other-regarding’. Ethics requires us, at least at times, to act for the
well-being of others. Yet some people would claim that, this is not possible. Humans
only act from self-interested motives.
An ethics of virtue shifts the focus from questions about what a person should do to
the focus of about what that person is. This shift requires not only a different view of
ethics but at least as important a different view about ourselves. Implicitly in this
distinction is the recognition that our identity as individuals is constituted in parts by our
wants, beliefs, values and attitudes. A person’s character those dispositions,
relationships, attitudes, values and beliefs that popularly might be called a “personality”
is not some feature that remains independent of that person’s identity. Character is not
like a suit of clothes that you step into and out of at will. Rather, the self is identical to
the person’s most fundamental and enduring dispositions, attitudes, values and beliefs.
Note how this shift changes the nature of justification in ethics. If as seems true for
many people, an ethical justification of some act requires that it be tied to self interest
we should not be surprised to find out that this justification often fails. Ethical
controversies often involve a conflict between self-interest and ethical values Why
should I do the ethical thing if it would require me to give-up a lot of money?. For a
personality that does not already include a disposition to be modest, the only other
interest the only avenue open for justification would involve showing how the
disposition serves some interests of that person. Why should an Executive Officer turn
down a multi-million kwacha bonus? The only way to answer this question appears to
show how it would be in his self-interest to do so. But this is at times unlikely.
On the other hand, for the person already characterized by modest and unaffected
desires, the question of justifying smaller salaries is irrelevant. If I am the type of a
person who had moderate and restrained desires for money, then there is no
temptation to be unethical for the sake of a large bonus. For many people, the self of
39
self-interest is a caring, modest and unaffected altruistic self. For this type of people,
there is simply no conflict between self-interest and altruism.
Virtue ethics emphasizes the move affective side of our character. Virtue ethics
recognizes that, our motivations –our interests, wants, desires-are not the sort of things
that each one of us chooses a new each morning. Instead human beings, act in and
from character. By Adulthood, these character traits typically are deeply ingrained and
conditioned within us.Given that our character plays such a deciding role in our
behaviour and given the realization that our character can be shaped by factors that are
controllable (by conscious individual decisions, by how we are raised, by the social
institutions in which we live, work, and learn). Virtue ethics seek to understand how
those traits are formed and which trait bolster and which under-mine a meaningful,
worthwhile and satisfying human life.
Besides connecting the virtues to conception of a fuller human life, virtue ethics reminds
us to examine how character traits are formed and conditioned. By the time we are
adults, much of our character is formed by factors as our parents, schools, church,
friends and society. But powerful social institutions such as business and especially our
own places of employment and our particular social roles within them have a proven
influence in shaping our character. Virtue ethics reminds us to look to the actual
practices we find in business world and ask what types of people are being created by
these practices. Many individuals’ moral dilemmas that arise within business ethics can
be best be understood as arising from a tension between the type of person we seek
to be and the type of person business expects us to be.
5.1 Ethics Decision making model.
Having studied a detailed introductory and survey of ethical theory, we now can offer a
detailed version of our decision making model, one in which ethical theories are
integrated into an explicit decision making procedure. The decision making process
introduced here aims, above all else to help you make ethically responsible business
decisions. Thus, the decision making –process is reviewed in detail below.
40
1. Determine the facts – Gather all of the relevant facts. It is crucial at

this stage that we do not intentionally bias our later decisions by
gathering only those facts in support of one particular outcome.
2. Identify ethical issues involved: - What is the ethical dimension?
What is ethical issue? Often we do not even notice the ethical dilemma.
Avoid normative myopia.
3. Identify stakeholders: - Who will be affected by this decision? What
are their relationships, their priorities to me, and what is their power over
my decision or results? Do not limit your inquiry only to those
stakeholders to whom you believe you owe a duty: sometimes a duty
arises as a result of the impact. For instance, you might not necessarily
first consider your competitors as stakeholders; however once you
understand the impact of your decision on the competitors an ethical duty
may arise.
4. Consider the available alternatives: - Exercise moral imagination, are
there creative ways to resolve the conflict,? Explore not only the obvious
choices but also that are less obvious and require creative thinking or
moral imagination to create.
5. Consider how the decision affects stakeholders: - Take the point of
view of other people involved. How each stakeholder is affected by my
decision? Compare and weigh the alternatives, ethical theories and
traditions can help here e.g.
a Consequences
(i) beneficial and harmful consequences.
B Duties,right,principles
i What does the law say?
ii Are their professional duties involved ?
iii Which principles are most obligatory?
iv How are people being treated?
c Implications for personal integrity and character
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(i) What type of person am I becoming through this decision?

(ii) What are my own principles and purpose?
(iii) Can I live with public disclosure of this decision?
6. Guidance: - Can you discuss the case with relevant others; can you
gather additional opinions or perspectives? Are there any guidelines;
codes or other external sources that might shade light on the dilemma?.
7. Assessment: - Have you build in mechanisms for assessment of your
decision and possible modifications? Are they necessary? Make sure that
you learn from each decision and move forward with that increased
knowledge, you may face similar decisions in the future or find it
necessary to make changes to your current situation.
UNIT 5:RARE( Responsible,Accountable,Relevant,Ethical)

Personal Leadership.
Let’s define and describe principles and values to help us understand theimportance for RARE personal
leadership.
The role of principles in leadership

According to the 1913 edition of Webster dictionary a principle is "a fundamental truth; a
comprehensive law or doctrine, from which others are derived, or on which others are founded; a
general truth; an elementary proposition; a maxim; an axiom; a postulate." A principle is an absolute; if
you have a principle to guide you in moral behaviour then it is an absolute. For example, taking
something that does not belong to you without the owner’s permission is theft which is at all times
wrong not just sometimes. A principle is a fundamental truth or motivating force. A principle is a
positive attribute that serves as the foundation for the conduct of behaviour individually with others.
Principles are qualities that most people support because they are viewed as socially appropriate and
inherently valuable. Principles are said to be:
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 qualities of character
 able to influence an individual’s way of thinking, behaviour, and emotions
 guides to behaviour in varying situations
 instrumental in guiding and directing personal and interpersonal behaviour
 evolve over one’s life-span
Some of the words that are used to describe principles include; responsibility, accountability,
understanding, respect, compassion, adaptability, perseverance, honesty, relevant, ethical and
trustworthy. Covey (1990:18) who called for principle – centred leadership, argues that effective
leadership is, “predicated upon inviolate principles – natural laws in the human dimension”. His goal was
to have values aligned with the principle in this case, with RARE principles.
The role of values in leadership

Values are defined by Fisher and Lovell (2003) as core ideas about how people should live and the ends
they should seek; they are core beliefs - the underlying thoughts that stimulate human behaviour
(Russell, 2001). Values differentiate good leaders from great leaders. The role of values in organisations
is to elicit behavioural alternatives, and in choosing these alternatives the leader develops a personal
behaviour system. For example if you can’t find the book you are looking for in the library, what
alternative behaviour patterns do you have? And what will you chose to do? In any case, the question
that we should ask ourselves is what role values play in different types of institutions and what role they
play in leadership. According to Massey (1979), personal values are influenced, among other things by
family; friends; religion; education; the media; geographic roots; technology; and current events. This
list reveals that values unlike principles are more relative and situational. They are also influenced by
national cultures, life experiences and relationships, among other things.
In many societal institutions, position power is eroding which calls for leaders at all levels of society to
derive their influence from well defined values that will foster understanding and easy application
among followers. It becomes important for leaders to clarify their own values and belief systems so that
they can transmit good institutional values to those led by them and hence remove confusion among
their followers (Bennis, 1989; Kouzes and Posner, 1995).
Values affect the moral reasoning of a leader by influencing judgements about ethical and unethical
behaviour (Russell, 2001) and therefore they affect leaders. Research by England and Lee (1974)
concluded that there is supporting evidence to suggest that:
 There is a reasonable strong relationship between levels of success by leaders and their personal
values. If your values are debased and toxic, you are unlikely to attain sustainable success in life.
 It was proven that value patterns are predictive of leaders’ success and this could even be
utilised in selection and placement decisions.
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 It was also shown that more successful managers appear to favour pragmatic, dynamic,
achievement-oriented values, while less successful leaders prefer more static and passive
values, this particular finding further suggest that values and application thereof, changes
depending on the context.
England and Lee (1974:411) further identified seven ways in which values affect leaders, and they are:
I. Value systems influence the leaders' perceptions of situations and problems or challenges he
faces.
II. Leaders' values influence the solutions they generate regarding problems.
III. Values systems play a role in interpersonal relationships.
IV. Values influence perceptions of individual and organizational successes as well as achievements.
V. Values system provides a basis for differentiating between ethical and unethical behaviour.
VI. Values system influences the extent to which leaders accept or reject organizational pressures
and goals.
VII. Personal values system may also affect managerial performance.
Values of leaders can be integrated into their character and behaviour and a basket of values have been
identified by various researchers. Personal values are also fundamental in creating organisational value
and to support this notion Albion (2006) provide a four-step process on how to create organisational
value from personal values. The process is as follows:
 Decide what your top personal values are – write down what you value are, for example
responsible, accountable, relevant and ethical.
 Determine how this values are of value to your organisation – outline how this stated value
inventory can add value to your organisation, for example, if we look at relevant as a value, you
then decide that this value will enable one to be current and drive the organisation in a manner
that will take it forward, and this can be achieved by engaging broadly, so next to the value you
then write improved engaging capability.
 Using the same process you used for the values, expand your list to include your passion and
skills – alongside your values also write down your passions and skills and articulate how this
will or can create value for your organisation
 Combine this three separate list of values, passions and skills into values-to-value strategies –
this three list can now present a leader with a powerful tool of developing strategies for value
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creation, which can then be prioritised in terms of implementation and one can also improve
this by identifying or committing to the time limes of implementing these strategies.
As indicated above, a value system is found to be related to organisational value and success, it is
therefore important to have a value-based/ value-centred leadership. There is no successful leadership
de-void of appropriate value system.
Dean (2008) defines the concept of value-based leadership as leading by example, doing the right thing
for the right reasons and not compromising core principles (such as RARE). Inherent in this definition is
the appreciation that principles are universal, whereas values “evolve” (Albion, 2006:60) depending on
the situation and the context. However, values are critical in delivering on the principles, and therefore
we propose a RARE principle based value system as a necessity for effective leadership both at personal
and organisational level.
One’s personal values become integrated into their value system as which defines their character as
individual leaders (Rokeach, 1973). It has been urged by some researchers like Clawson (1999), that
certain values are critical to leadership success including; honesty and integrity (telling the truth,
keeping promises, being fair and respecting individuals). People of integrity keep their promises and are
willing to endure personal discomfort to do hence inspiring trust and commitment. Furthermore,
Snyder, Dowd, and Houghton (1994) argue that essential personal values of leadership include, being of
service to others; humility; integrity; honesty; and hard work.
The discussion above show that value-based leadership inspire commitment and trust and
enthuse followers at different levels to become more loyal team members, to align their
goal to that of the institution or society they serve, to be more passionate about their work,
to be more driven to achieve the set objectives and to be more effective and successful in
the workplace (Dean, 2008). In addition, value-based leadership play a meaningful role in
executive’s decision making process, both at the personal and organisational level (Russell,
2001) which is done through personal values influencing moral reasoning, behaviour and
leadership style. Millick (2009) also identified value-based leadership as one of the key
success factors of an organisation, adding that value-based leadership also create an
organisational identity. Furthermore, Elizur and Koslowsky (2001) assert that value-based
leadership also promotes organisational commitment and success. This success can
manifest in many ways, it can be financial performance, innovation, identity, etc. Palmer,
Foley and Parson (2004:39) support the concept of principles because principles are
“practical and more realistic, and also clarify what is and what is not acceptable behaviour
in the workplace.” This emphasises the importance of RARE principles in all spheres of life.
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This then brings me to my third objective in this short lecture, to introduce you to my RARE framework
for living and leading. It’s a framework which I have described in my book “RARE Total Leadership:
Leading with the Head, Heart and Hand”. Now RARE is an acronym:
 R for Responsible;
 A for Accountable;
 R for Relevant; and
 E for Ethical.
I have already spoken about the economic meltdown and it must be immediately obvious that when
dishing out blame, economic and management sciences graduates must surely accept a big portion.
After all it was to a large extent highly trained economic and management science graduates who
developed the fancy financial tricks used to dress up high risk loans look like low risk investments. My
University does not want to produce this type of graduate. Wewant to produce leaders and managers of
tomorrow aware of sustainability, ethical and greed issues. And my RARE framework is one very
concrete way in which we might pursue this goal.
In the four sections which follow this one, I’m going to deal with each of the pillars of the RARE –
responsibility, accountability, relevance and ethics - separately.
But before I move to these I would just like to reflect on the how crucial it is that we do produce the
right kind of leaders and managers. Most of you come from Africa, with the majority being from Zambia.
And so, most of you will fully appreciate the incredible wealth that this continent is blessed with. To
name but a few of our riches: we have the bulk of the world’s diamonds; we have 50 percent of the
world’s gold and 40 per cent of its platinum. Everyone knows that energy is crucial and in this regard we
have 7.5 percent of the world’s coal reserves; 8 per cent of its known petroleum reserves; 12 percent of
its natural gas. But that is all dirty energy. We’re even more blessed in potential clean energy. We have
40 percent of the world’s hydro-electric power generation potential and of course we have two huge
sunny deserts ideal for generating solar power. And last but not least, we have millions hectares of
potential farmlands. Basically we’re rich! And yet we are very poor. Eish!Or Iyee! As we would express
our surprise in South Africa and Zambia. Rich and yet we are very poor! It is my view that without
leaders and managers who exhibit RARE character, we will remain poor despite our wealth.
Section 2:
Okay. Let’s now unpack RARE: Responsible, Accountable, Relevant and Ethical personal leadership
The RARE principle- based value system advocated in this MU fosters:-
 Responsiblebehaviour of leaders, employees and citizens towards one another and all
stakeholders, not at the expense of others but in mind of the future state of the institution,
nation and the continent at large;
 Accountability to each other and the other stakeholders, taking ownership of decisions and
avoiding the blame game and scape-goating and making excuses for toxic behaviour instead of
owning up to the consequences of choices and decisions;
 Relevant engagement in a value-adding way towards one another and all stakeholders, and
being of service to the community;
 Ethical behaviour that advocates honesty, integrity, openness and trust.
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This is a personal leadership approach that is all encompassing. It allows individuals to be total leaders.
This approach comprises five broad dimensions, namely: vision, change, connectivity, engagement, and
integrity. These dimensionsinteract to construct the fibre of a RARE person and leadership that is
appropriate in leading into the future and leveraging African principles.
In this section the focus is on Responsible leadership: - visionary and a catalyst for change
‘An elephant never gets tired of carrying its tusks.’ African proverb
Responsibility can be defined as aduty or obligation to satisfactorily perform or complete a task

(assigned by someone, or created by one's own promise or circumstances) that one must fulfil, and
which has a consequent penalty for failure. [in singular] (responsibility to/towards) a moral obligation
to behave correctly towards or in respect of: individuals have a responsibility to control their
behaviour.To be reliable or trustworthy; to be placed in control and having to be answerable for actions;
being the source and cause for an action.
As an individual you must accept and understand your own vulnerability and the effect of your
behaviour on those around you. You have to take responsibility for the outcome or consequences of
your actions and emotions and manage these effectively and in a principled manner to contribute to
sustainable success at all levels.
Responsible leadership anticipates and is passionate about the future. A responsible leader cultivates
the envisaged future in the hearts and minds of followers but, most importantly, recognises when there
is a need for change in order to realise this envisaged future. Responsible leadership entails being
legitimate, acting with integrity, being a role model, and ensuring that as a leader one develops
successors. As I usually put it, “success without a successor is failure”. Studies also show that leaders
are great catalysts for change and are able to recognise the need for change; challenge the status quo
and advocate change; and champion the new order in constructive NOT destructive manner.
It is also worth mentioning that, although leaders like all humans acknowledge barriers and fear change,
they find practical ways to promote the need for change and overcome such barriers. Responsible
leadership achieves this by being adaptive in order to thrive in tomorrow’s world and embraces
disequilibrium so as to get things done; bybeing visionary in embracing creativity and innovation; and by
invigorating and inspiring. They believe in lifelong learning and investing in developing future leadership,
something that we really need in Africa.
That’s what you need to be Responsible.
Section 3:
Accountable leadership and connectivity
‘It is not only what we do, but also what we do not do, for which we are accountable.’ Molière.
Accountability as defined by Wikipedia is a concept in ethics and governance with several

meanings. It is often used synonymously with such concepts as answerability, blameworthiness,
liability, and other terms associated with the expectation of account-giving. As an aspect of
governance, it has been central to discussions related to problems in the public sector, non-
profit and private (corporate) worlds. In leadership roles, accountability is the acknowledgment
and assumption of responsibility for actions, products, decisions, and policies including the
47
administration, governance, and implementation within the scope of the role or employment
position and encompassing the obligation to report, explain and be answerable for resulting
consequences. The obligation of an individual or organization to account for its activities,
accept responsibility for them, and to disclose the results in a transparent manner. It also
includes the responsibility for money or other entrusted property.
Accountability requires that you connect with the people that you interact with. It is also driven by the
urge for transparency (Waistell, 2008). Connecting is the ability to identify with and relate to people in a
way that enhances the ability to influence them positively (Maxwell, 2010). Accountable people; inspire
trust and commitment by ensuring that their words and actions are integrated -- people do not care or
want to commit to the vision until they know that you care for them; are answerable for all the
resources they are entrusted with; do not play the blame game or use manipulative impression
management tactics to cover up their incompetence but, instead, own up to it and use mistakes as
learning moments for future improvement and give credit where it is due. They display attitude that is
caring, humble, and does not operate in isolation but is relevant and engages all the stakeholders. The
shift in values from self to others demonstrates empathy and elicits commitment and trust in
relationships.
To ensure that one is responsible and accountable, one must begin by looking first at oneself and only
then expect responsibility and accountability from others. People often revert to blaming others when
something goes wrong -- they blame the environment, circumstances, and everyone but themselves
which is a victim and slavery mentality. If this destructive behaviour is to be stopped, it is imperative to
develop a culture of responsibility and accountability, yes in Zambia, but also the continent of Africa as
well as in the global village.
Here are some guidelines:
 Clarify values and establish achievable goals and outcomes.Without clarity in values and set
goals and outcomes, individuals, employees, managers, citizens and leaders end up being
frustrated and sometimes destructive. When people demand rights without understanding the
responsibility and accountability that go with such rights they indulge in behaviours such as
burning schools and libraries, the source of a sustainable future, when on strike, as we
witnessed in South Africa and Zambia. It is critical at this stage to clearly define and demonstrate
the principles, values, exceptional performance and behaviour that are expected, as this shows
the intended direction of any institution, organisation or country.
 Reinforce commitment to avoid compliance, which does not foster productive behaviour.
 Provide feedback and clarify consequences in every relationship. Feedback lets people know
whether they are still on the expected and agreed path or not, and makes early intervention
possible when needed. Feedback allows for the celebration of small successes, which is a form
of encouragement for sustained high performance. Similarly, if performance is consistently
below the desired and agreed level, people need to know that there will be consequences and
exactly what these will be. If there is no responsible leadership and consistent
underperformance has no consequences, there will be no accountability. The RARE approach
aims to create a culture of accountability, responsibility and a ‘no blame games or excuses’
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mentality across the continent, the country and within organisations and institutions, starting at
family level in the home. This links to the importance of relevant leadership.
Section 4 - RELEVANT
Relevant leadership is engaging
‘I saw my mission as one of preaching reconciliation, of binding the wounds of the country, of
engendering trust and confidence.’ Nelson Mandela
Some synonyms to relevant: pertinent, germane, material, apposite, apropos

These adjectives describe what relates to and has a direct bearing on the matter at hand. Something
relevant is connected with a subject or issue.From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia: The concept of
relevance is studied in many different fields, including cognitive sciences, logic, and library and
information science. Most fundamentally, however, it is studied in epistemology (the theory of
knowledge). Different theories of knowledge have different implications for what is considered relevant
and these fundamental views have implications for all other fields as well. Something (A) is relevant to a
task (T) if it increases the likelihood of accomplishing the goal (G), which is implied by T."
(Hjørland&Sejer Christensen,2002).
A thing might be relevant, a document or a piece of information may be relevant. The basic
understanding of relevance does not depend on whether we speak of "things" or "information" or
person.A relevant person and leader is in touch with the surrounding environment, both internal
and external. Such people acknowledge that they work in a diverse environment with others who
have different and sometimes even conflicting needs and expectations that have to be addressed
in a responsible and balanced way. Such relevant leadership and people;
 drive organisational and national performance by analysing future trends (Beinhocker,

Davis and Mendonca, 2009);
 pays attention to solutions that impact positively on challenges facing institutions (Kulati, 2000
and Siaciwena, 2006);
 continuously develops best practice (Glatter and Kydd, 2003; Ansari 2002) in pursuit of
excellence;
 embraces and leverages the benefits of diversity (Page, 2007; Klein and Harrison, 2007);
 commits to the execution of strategy without excuses (Tice, 2007; Stewart and O'Brien, 2005),
and is decisive (Robinson, 1989) and courageous (Van der Heide, 2007; Van der Merwe, 2006;
Hayward, 2010);
 Is transparent, and motivates and inspires everyone to high performance levels.
This is leadership that seeks to add sustainable value that is applicable, pertinent, significant, appealing
and winning. It acknowledges that what is relevant in one environment may not be so in another, and
therefore is flexible, innovative and adaptable. And then there is the ethical part of RARE.
Section 5 - ETHICAL
Ethical leadership and integrity
’It’s not enough to speak, but to speak true.’ William Shakespeare
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From Wikipedia, Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that involves
systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behaviour. Major areas of
study in ethics may be divided into 3 operational areas:Meta-ethics- about the theoretical meaning and
reference of moral propositions and how their truth values (if any) may be determined; Normative
ethics, about the practical means of determining a moral course of action; Applied ethics, about how
moral outcomes can be achieved in specific situations.
The Centre for Ethical Leadership (2007) describes ethicalleadership as knowing your core values and
having the courage to uphold them in all facets of your life in the service of the common
good.Therefore, ethical leaders need to demonstrate integrity by being authentic. Cashman (1997)
suggests that being authentic is a process that requires a one toknow her/himself by practising what
she/he looks for in others;listen with a giving attitude that seeks a contribution from others;express
her/himself in a manner that creates value; appreciate self-expression that creates value; andserve
because leaders are not judged by how well they lead but by how well they serve.
Leading with integrity requires leaders to be transparent and honest, trustworthy and humble; it is an
important cornerstone of RARE leadership. In the financial crisis that led to the economic meltdown
there was evidence of many unethical mistakes. It was said in many cases that the cause of the crisis was
greed. Integrity is not and should not be a slogan; it is not about what a one says but whether his/her
words and deeds are synchronised. Most relationships at personal and business level are destroyed
because of a lack of integrity. Building effective families, organisations and nations and even the global
village needs a leadership that is ethical and trustworthy, irrespective of whether it is being watched.
We need to overcome the destructive and unethical actions of some of our leaders in ourselves,
including kleptocracy and tenderpreneurship, that is, for example unethically awarding tenders to our
family members or friends which would benefit us. Civil society needs to be responsible and stop
electing leaders to office on the basis of emotions associated with liberation politics and misplaced
loyalty. Toxic leaders are supported because of past favours or connections even when it can be seen
that their actions will destroy the future of people, institutions and countries. The impetus behind
electoral decisions should be the vision for the country and the capabilities of leaders to achieve that
vision. Similarly, there must be more shareholder activism to fight corruption in the private sector,
which in many cases colludes with the state to rob the nation.
Being a RARE leader or person is a precedent to practising total leadership. RARE principle-based values
equip leaders with a core value system that guides their leadership actions and activities. Being a total
leader, one needs to lead with the head (intellectual capability), through the heart (managing others and
being aware of their feelings) and through the hands (the ability to get things done with the available
talent).
Unit 6NON VIOLENT COMMUNICATION
Introduction
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In this unit we shall learn the basics of Non Violent Communication (in the following
“NVC”), also called Compassionate or Collaborate Communication. We shall understand the
way people normally communicate, and the different approach and views, NVC offers in a
conflict. We shall learn about the needs everybody got, how to connect compassionate with
other persons, to understand that was people say or how they behave, is mostly a strategy to
meet a hidden need; we will learn how find the unmet need in a situation and which huge role
the feelings play in this context. We shall learn and understand the 4 steps of a NVC process.
Outcomes Upon completion of this unit you shall be able to:
 Define a conflict from a NVC perspective

 Understand and define the needs everybody got
 Understand and explain the difference between
observation and evaluation of a situation
 Understand and explain the difference between
feeling and the thinking of feelings
 Understand and explain the 4 steps of a NVC
process
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History of NVC/General
NVC is a method of conflict resolution which was created by Dr. Marshall B. Rosenberg
beginning in the 1960ties. Having studied clinical psychology and also having practiced it for
some years, Marshall realized that the methods the clinical psychology uses, didn’t offer the
immediate and deep healing effect he was looking for. While studying the factors which are
crucial to stay compassionate no matter what, Marshall realized the crucial role of our language
and the words we are using. This is when he developed his NVC process.
“NVC is founded on language and communication skills that strengthen our ability to remain
human, even under trying conditions…… NVC guides us how we express ourselves and hear
others. Instead of habitual, automatic reactions, our words become conscious responses based
firmly on awareness of what we are perceiving, feeling and wanting.”(Source: Nonviolent
communication, A Language of Life, by Marshall B. Rosenberg, chapter 1, page 3).
In 1984 Marshall founded The Center of Non Violent Communication (CNVC), an international
non-profit peace making organization. His vision is a World where Everyone’s Needs are met
peacefully.Marshall Rosenberg served as a Mediator all over the world, for instance in Sierra
Leone, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, Burundi, Bosnia, Serbia, Colombia and Middle East.
NVC often is used as a conflict resolution process, but is generally helpful in every
communication situation, be it at work, in a business or in a private relationship, as a parenting
technique, an educational method, while working with groups or as a worldview.
Book recommendations – all written by Marshall B. Rosenberg :
 Nonviolent Communication: A Language of Life (Must

Have!!!)
 Speak Peace in a World of Conflict –What you say next will
change your world
 The Heart of social change (How to make a Difference in
your World)
 The surprising Purpose of Anger
 Raising Children Compassionately
 Practical Spirituality
 We can work it out (practical suggestions)
 Being me, Loving you (addressing personal conflict
situations)
How are we educated to think and how do we behave normally?
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Our cultures teach us a so called Domination model including
 Moralistic judgment—right/wrong, good/bad, blame,

“should”, “deserve”
 We transfer our responsibility to External authority
(leaders, church, majority, cultural norms)
 We believe in Motivation by reward & punishment
(including praise & criticism)
 Thinking in terms of what’s wrong with others
 We wait for others to change something before we do
something
The Different Approach of NVC
Our feelings are merely stimulated from the outside
The way we are thinking in a situation, decides about the feelings we will have.Feelings are
caused from the inside, by our needs, thoughts and beliefs. When speaking, take clear
responsibility for your own feelings. Every feeling is a gift, calling our attention to our needs.
Judgments, criticisms, diagnoses, and interpretations of others are alienated expressions of

our need. The needs are always the roots of feelings.
a. Everybody got the same needs:
Some of the basic human needs are:
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Autonomyto choose one’s dreams, goals, values and to choose one’s plan for fulfilling these
dreams
Celebration to celebrate the creation of life and dreams fulfilled as well as the mourning
Integrity –i.e. authenticity, creativity, meaning, self-woth
Interdependence – acceptance, appreciation, closeness, community, consideration,

contribution, emotional safety, empathy, honesty, love, reassurance, respect, support, trust,
understanding, warmth
Spiritual Communion – beauty, harmony, inspiration, order, peace
Physical Nurturance - air, food, water, movement, exercise, rest, sexual expression, shelter,
touch, health
Play – fun, laughter
(Source: Nonviolent Communication, A language of Life, Marshall B. Rosenberg, page 55)
Everything we do is in service of our needs
This also means that everythingwe and othersdo in a situation, is the best possible thing for us
or them to do in this moment with the one goal: To get our/their needs met.
There is no enemy out there
Everybody got the same needs and it’s only the strategy to meet the needs, which has to be
and can to be discussed. When we don’t differentiate between needs and strategies, we get
lost in our strategies and this almost guarantees conflict and dissatisfaction.
Anger, shame, guilt, and depression are caused by judgment
Judgment is life-alienated thinking. We judge to feel safe or to belong to a group or for different
other reasons, but always to get our needs met by judging. Nature doesn’t judge. It prevents us
to stay neutral and to look at which needs the other person, organization, country … tries to
meet with an action.
The NVC approach:
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The human nature is to contribute to one another’s well-being. One of the strongest human
needs is contribution to another’s well-being!
Instead of selflessness or selfishness, NVC teaches “self-fullness”—acting only in ways, that we

are in touch with us meeting our own needs, including our need to contribute to others.
Definition of a Conflict
1. Normal Definition:
Friction or opposition resulting from actual or perceived differences or incompatibilities. A

state of open, often prolonged fighting; a battle or war.
A state of disharmony between incompatible or antithetical persons, ideas, or interests; a clash.
Opposition between characters or forces in a work of drama or fiction, especially opposition

that motivates or shapes the action of the plot.
(Source: www.thefreedictionary.com/conflict and

www.businessdictionary.com/definition/conflict)
“Conflict is an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties who perceive
incompatible goals, scare resources, and interference from others in achieving their goals.”
(Source: faculty.salisbury.edu/~hnlachance/powerpoint/mid-term%20review.ppt)
2. Definition of a Conflict from the NVC perspective
A conflict is a misunderstanding or a lack of understanding of each other’s needs in a specific

situation.
These misunderstandings are always and only created by the fact that everybody got his/her
own strategies to get their needs met and that we can’t know these specific individual
strategies until it is communicated.
Where and how comes the violence in?
"All violence is the result of people tricking themselves into believing that their pain derives
from other people and that consequently those people deserve to be punished." (Marshall
Rosenberg )
The NVC Process
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The concrete actions/steps of a NVC Process are as follows:
Observation
We observe the concrete actions that affect our well-being or the well-being of the other party.
Feelings
We find out our feelings or the feelings of the other party in relation to what we/they observe
Needs
We find out the needs, values, desires, etc, that create our feelings
Request
We phrase or help the other party to phrase the concrete actions we/they request in order to
enrich our/their lives
Lets look a bit closer:
Ad 1. Observation
It is crucial to start a NVC communication with a neutral observation of the situation without
any judgment! Only then you don’t inflame even more bad feelings in a conflict discussing it.
First, we observe what is actually happening in a situation: What are we observing others saying
or doing or not doing, that is either enriching or not enriching our life? It’s crucial to learn to
articulate this observation without adding any judgment or evaluation – and be aware that you
can add judgment or evaluation as well via the sound of your voice or your facial expression!
Sometimes its already very relieving to realize how the other parties observed the same
situation.
Ad 2.Feelings
Next, we state how we feel when we observe this situation/action: Are we hurt, amused,
scared; joyful, irritated, depressed, anxious …? Or we help the other person to express her/his
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feelings in the specific situation. The helping question could be something like: “How did you
feel when ……..you slammed the door, what was alive in you, when I said ..…………..
This is not the time to tell the other person how you feel or felt about his/her behaviour in this
situation orwhy you did, what you did in this situation. It’s only the time for listening with
compassion.
We are normally not used to express our feelings accurately; normally we are even lacking the
words to describe our feelings. This means that it helps to build up the necessary vocabulary to
express our feelings and to implement them into our language.
Let’s have just a quick look at the numerous options to express feelings when our needs are
fulfilled – and these are only words from A to E:
Basic Human Feelings -when our needs are fulfilled:
Adventurous, Affectionate, Alert, Alive, Amorous, Appreciative, Amazed, Amused, Aroused,

Astonished, Astounded, Awake, Awed, Blissful, Buoyant, Calm, Cheerful, Comfortable,
Confident, Content, Curious, Dazzled, Delighted, Eager, Ecstatic, Ebullient, Elated, Enchanted,
Encouraged, Energetic, ….
And the opposite, when our needs are not fulfilled:
Afraid, Aggravated, Agitation, Aloof, Angry, Animosity, Annoyance, Anxious, Apathetic,

Appalled, Apprehensive, Aroused, Ashamed, Awful, Bad, Bewildered, Bitter, Blah, Blue, Bored,
Chagrined, Cold, Concerned, Confused, Cool, Contrite, Cross, Depressed, Despair, Despondent,
Detached, Disappointed, Disconnected, ………….
Source: Center of Nonviolent Communication,www.cnvc.org
Another problem can be that we are not used to feeling or expressing our feelings in a way that
we can’t even feel our feelings in the beginning. Sometimes we are trying to explain our
feelings via thinking – we think how we feel. But feelings have to be felt not to be thought. If
somebody starts to describe his/her feelings by starting: “ I think,……” or “I suppose,…” you
know for sure that that’s not the feeling but the mind thinking what the person might or could
feel or what would be appropriate to feel in this moment. You know that the feelings are really
the feelings involved, when the emotion becomes visible. Maybe the person out of the sudden
becomes very pale – or the opposite, starts to cry, to shout….
Ad 3.Needs
In the third step we say what needs of ours are connected to the feelings we have identified.
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To find out the need connected to the feeling we might use a question like: What specific need
or value caused this feeling in this specific situation?
We already have seen that everybody got the same needs– so the idea is to help somebody to
get conscious about the specific needs which have not been met for you or the other party in
this specific situation.The individual strategy of this person to fulfil her/his needs often
camouflages the unmet needs and is therefore not easy to see in a conflict.
Ad 4.Request
This fourth step addresses what we are wanting from the other person that would enrich our
lives. You could phrase such a request in a question like:
“Would you be willing to ……”
The idea is that the person tells what would help her/him right now in order to get rid of
remaining negative feelings and what would help him/her in the future in similar situations
without demanding it.
As we keep our attention in a conversation focussed on the 4 steps of a NVC process, we

establish a flow of communication – back and forth, until compassion manifests naturally.
UNIT 7 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Interpersonal communication is the process of sending and receiving information or
communication with another person. This process happens in an environment using different
kinds of communication media. This communication could be verbal or nonverbal.”
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_communication
Interpersonal communication is exchange of information between two or more people. It is

also an area of study. Related skills are learned and can be improved. During interpersonal
communication there is message sending and message receiving. This can be conducted using
both direct and indirect methods. Successful interpersonal communication is when the message
senders and the message receivers understand the message.
Other forms of Communication :
Interpersonal communication differs from other forms of Communication because fewer

Participants are involved and interactants are in close physical proximity to each other. Many
sensory channels are used. Feedback is immediate. Contextual definition does not take into
account the relationship between the interactants Kaizen English Academy - Sec 32
(Chandigarh)
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We have many different relationships with people, Researchers say that our definition of
Interpersonal Communication must account for these differences For Example: Interacting with a
sales clerk in a store is different when compared to the relationship we have with our friends and
family members. Kaizen English Academy - Sec 32 (Chandigarh)
Direct and Interactive :

Direct and Interactive Interpersonal communication refers to face-to-face or person-to-person
Communication. It is extremely relevant to achieving personal as well as professional success.
Often Direct and Interactive: Makes effective use of oral as well as non-verbal channels – words,
body language, facial expressions, space, tone, gestures, actions. Kaizen English Academy - Sec
32 (Chandigarh)
Other skills essential to build effective Inter Communication skills is the ability to win trust,
build rapport, ask the right questions and elicit full information. It involves creating right
impressions and communicating the intended message convincingly Kaizen English Academy -
Sec 32 (Chandigarh)
It is an interactional process between two people (a dyad), either face-to-face or through

mediated forms.
Dyadic communication is the part of a relationship that calls for "something to happen". Partners
will either talk or argue with one another during this point of a relationship to bring about
change. When partners talk or argue with one another the relationship may still survive at this
point.
Bochner (1979) stresses inherent dialectic in interpersonal communication as the key to healthy
marital dyads. He proposes that people in intimate relationships are looking to find an
equilibrium point between needing to be open with their partner and needing to protect their
partner from the consequences of this openness. Therefore, the communication in romantic,
long-term relationships can be viewed as a balance between hiding and revealing. Taking this
theory even further, communication within marriages can be viewed as a continuing refinement
and elimination of conversational material. The partners of the marriage will still have things to
discuss, but as their relationship and communication grows, they can decide when to not speak
about an issue, because in complex relationships like marriage, anything can become an issue.
7.1 Definitions and meaning of interpersonal communication
Several scholars have been studying communication for centuries. As such great deal has been
learnt about what it is and how it works (Bell and Smith, 2006). To do this you need to consider
i) how communication takes place, and ii) how people could communicate even better.
The word ‘communication’ is derived from the Latin word ‘communicare’, which means ‘to
make common’ (Bell and Smith, 2006, p. 14). The primary meaning of communication is not to
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recite, deliver, speak, write or sermonize. These do not make the flow of ideas and feelings
common because communication is not a one-way activity or process. It involves promotion of
common interests shared by all the participants in the communication process. Communication
means ‘making common’ your thoughts, ideas, opinions, feelings and attitudes with the
audience/receiver and receiving the response of your audience to your thoughts and feelings.
This is what skilled communicators do.
To do this, skilled communicators are able to send their information to the intended receiver so
that the receiver understands the information. According to Bell and Smith (2006), it is essential
for the communicator to be aware of the following aspects of communication:
a. The information source ( the idea or message they want to communicate)

b. The signal (the stream of words or images they use to send the message)
c. The transmit (the sending of the message)
d. The channel (the medium in which they send the message), and
e. The destination or receiver of the message.
Further, Adams and Calanes (2006) state that communication refers to the perception,
interpretation and response of people to messages produced by other people. It is an exchange of
information, ideas, opinions, feelings and attitudes between two or more people. People send
verbal and nonverbal messages, words, gestures, facial expressions and so forth, and others
observe, interpret and respond to the messages in order to create mutual understanding.
This means that members of a group pay attention to each other and coordinate their
communication behaviour to accomplish group tasks. It is communication with others that
creates the interdependence necessary for individuals to be called a group.
Communication can also be viewed as a dialogue between the sender and the receiver of the
message using previously agreed symbols to present their thoughts. The primary aim of this
exchange of thoughts is to create mutual understanding between the sender and the receiver; to
share meaning. It is therefore, a two-way process in which people share human experiences.
This exchange of information can be through speech, writing and visual means or the
combination of the three methods.
There are seven characteristics of the various definitions of communication (Leggett, et al,
1978):
i. Communication is symbolic. People communicate with one another through the use
of symbols to convey their thoughts. These symbols include use of words, gestures,
numerals, sounds, pictures and actions. The symbolic nature of communication is
central to any definition of communication. A symbol is anything that arbitrary
represents something else with which it has no natural or direct relationship. For
example, your name has no relationship with who you are. It is merely a symbol that
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represents you. All words are symbols and there is no inherent or direct relationship
between the word and what it represents. Another example is that the same food can
be referred to as dinner, supper or evening meal.
The use of symbols in communication allows people to travel simultaneously in the
past present and future. Symbols allow us to name individual and group experience
and naming our experiences is the primary way we have to fuse that experience with
meaning. That is, the name carries with it a complex set of meanings (denotative and
connotative meanings). For example:
 Leader
 Chairperson
 Secretary
 Africa
 Fail
 Student.
Because symbols (words) are arbitrary, their meaning must be interpreted. A problem can arise
from misuse and misinterpretation of symbols (words). For example by passing each other’s
meaning (when you use homonyms).
ii. The second characteristic of communication is that communication is personal.

This means that since communication is symbolic, meanings are in people, not in
words themselves. Consider the following examples and see if everyone will have the
same factors of measurement/the same meaning:
 A nice person
 A beautiful woman
 A good student
iii. The third characteristic of communication is that it is a transactional process, not a
state. This means that communication is a complex process involving human senses,
feelings, emotions, meanings and cultural experiences, not just words. It is difficult
to tell the impact of what you say on the listeners/receivers. It is also irreversible and
affects your future communication. It does not only involve sending but also getting
responses.
iv. Communication is both a sender and receiver phenomena. It is interactive and has
a dual nature. It is not a one-way process but rather a two-way process. In this
process no one is a permanent sender or receiver. Communication is effective when
two or more people interact through exchange of information.
v. All messages involve content and relational dimensions. The content dimension
refers to the ideas or ‘what’ of the message while the relational dimension refers to
how the message is expressed.
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vi. Communication is intentional. Communication has as its central interest those

behavioural situations in which the source transmits a message to the receiver with
the intention to affect the latter’s behaviour (Miller, 1966).
vii. Communication is contextual. Communication always occurs within some context
such as cultural, relational, academic, religious, business/organsational or
psychological.
7.2 Nature of Communication
Communication is an integral part of human life. People spend most of their time
communicating with one self and with others. It is the art of sending and receiving
messages.Human communication has a profound effect on people. It is through
communicationthat people conduct their life, define themselves, and it is vehicle by which
people initiate, maintain and terminate relationships with others.It is the life blood of human
relationships and experiences.It helps us to develop relationships, understand ourselves and
others and the world we live in.
It is a means through which people influence and persuade others to do what they want done and
influence change of behaviour. People are usually persuaded by those they consider:
 As experts or specialists in that field;

 By those who are close to them;
 By those they like;
 By those they believe.
Persuasion is also dependent on one’s self-esteem. It is easier to persuade people with low self-
esteem than it is those with high self-esteem.
It is through communication that people manage and resolve conflicts.
7.3 Aspects of Communication
Leggett et. al (1978) identify three aspects of communication:
i. As an exchange of ideas, information, facts, opinions, feelings and attitudes among

people, communication is concern with getting things, tasks done. It is a tool that is
used to get tasks done, to meet human needs: get others do what you want them to do
willingly in order to achieve certain goals and objectives. In this aspect,
communication is used to inform others, command, instruct, influence, persuade
others, educate, make requests, seek information or entertain others.
In this aspect, communication affects an individual’s performance. The quality of work

done largely depends on how effective communication is. To be effective,
communication should be:
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 Clear to both parties involved;

 Complete by providing all the relevant details needed (being factual);
 Correct in all aspects (facts, spellings, grammar, punctuation, style, format and
tone);
 Concise by being brief and to the point, and avoiding unnecessary information;
 Courteous by being polite and tactful, choosing your words and tone carefully;
and,
 Ethical – do not distort information; manipulate figures, lie, or cheat.
Truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, respect for self and others, accuracy and
honesty are essential in ethical communication practice.
ii. The second aspect is that communication is used as a powerful strategy to create, and
maintain human relationships. We use communication to get to know and understand
ourselves and others. If communication is used to get tasks done, then it is important
to create supportive relationships with others. We need to establish and maintain
meaningful and satisfactory human relations with others in order to achieve our goals.
Human relations is a term that is used to describe how people who work together
THINK and TREAT one another. What you think about yourself will determine
how you treat yourself and what you think about others will surely determine how
you treat them. Human communication is the heart of human relations.
Communication is what connects human beings and it helps you in the following
ways:
 Self-awareness which helps you to understand yourself better. Help you
understand why you behave and act the way you do. This in turn, helps you to
understand why other behave and act differently. How you behave affects others;
 Self-acceptance-accepting yourself as you are
 Self-disclosure enables others to know and understand you;
 Trust yourself and others;
 Conflict management and dispute resolution-human relationships are conflictual
by nature and communication helps you resolve conflicts caused by
misunderstanding by avoiding ‘blame game’, confrontation, or use of power but
rather build consensus.
iii. The third aspect of communication is concern with improving skills that will enable
us to convey information from one person to another.In order to get work done, meet
human needs and establish and maintain mutual human relations, we all need to
obtain and develop sufficient competence at communicating early in our lives and
careers.
Since communication affects performance of individuals and their relationship with
others, we need to develop both sending and receiving communication skills. We
need to learn how to listen, speak, read and write and interpret information, feelings
and needs of others.
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7.4 Contexts of Communication
As we have outlined previously, one of the characteristics of communication is that it is

contextual. This means that communication does not happen in isolation, but within specific
contexts. It can occur in any of the following contexts:
a. Small group context- sharing of ideas and experiences among people in groups. Effective
group interactions are based on shared purpose, goals, vision, values, met needs and
active participation by each member of the group.
b. Organisational context- communication in organisations is primarily between
management and employees and secondly between the organisation and its publics using
both internal and external communication networks.
c. Political and religious contexts
d. Academic and business contexts
e. Intrapersonal context- this refers to communication that takes place within oneself;
communicating to yourself for self- discovery, knowing and understanding yourself (your
strengths and weaknesses)
f. Interpersonal context. One way to define interpersonal communication (IPC) is to
examine how many people are involved, how physically close they are to one another,
how many channels are used and the feedback provided. Interpersonal communication is
different from other forms of communication because there are few participants involved,
the interactions are in close proximity to each other and there are many sensory channels
used and feedback is immediate. This definition does not take into consideration the type
relationship between the communicating parties.
Interpersonal communication occurs when two people are engaged in an interaction. But
this interaction may be impersonal. Therefore, the best way to define IPC is that it is a
dyadic qualitative relationship in which two parties involved have special responsibility
to each other.
According to Schutz (1976) cited in Pierson (2003, p.170) there are three basic IPC needs
that are met when we interact with others;
 Need for inclusion or being involved with others;
 The need for affection (to love and be loved by others);
 The needs for control, influence others, and control our environment.
 There are also negative aspects of interpersonal relationships such as obsession
which includes fatal attraction, and jealousy misunderstandings, gossip, conflicts,
sexual, physical, mental and emotional abuse. All these are harmful to
individuals and destructive to relationships.
7.5 Improving interpersonal communication/relationships
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 Interpersonal relationships can be achieved and become meaningful when people

are honest, sincere, polite, trustworthy, have good manners, and genuine feelings
and respect for others.
 Effective interpersonal communication can be achieved when non-threatening
communication behaviour is used. Use assertive behaviour when you deal with
others. This type of behaviour acknowledges your rights as well as the rights of
other people. Treat others as equals.
 Assertive people usually display open, expressive and relaxed behaviour and are
likely to be honest and build mutual relationships with others.
 Avoid aggressive and submissive behaviour when interacting with others. An
aggressive person has a desire to win all the time. Such a person will want to
dominate discussions, often ignore other people’s suggestioneven though they
may offer better solutions and sometimes humiliate others.
 An aggressive person is unlikely to create and sustain mutual relationships with
others because of being in conflict with others most of the time.
 Submissive behaviour is equally unacceptable to meaningful interpersonal
relationships and interactions because a submissive person is unable to promote
and sustain an independent point of view. Such a person will support other
people’s suggestions to the extent of ignoring his or her own rights.
 Be pleasant and cordial. Making others feel welcome and wanted builds morale
and a source of great satisfaction to the human need for a sense of belonging.
 Listen attentively and give prompt service.
 Control your temper and be patient with others.
7.6 Common myths about communication
Although communication is essential in human life, many people take it for granted and think
that it is a matter of common sense. Most people have misconceptions about communication and
some of these misconceptions include the following:
 Meanings are in words- This is a myth because words do not mean the same thing to
everyone. Words have denotative and connotative meanings. Consider the meaning of
the following words:
-fail may mean being unsuccessful or being dull,
-Africa may mean a continent to one person or may mean backwardness, disease,
poverty to another.
-employee appraisalmay mean assessment to identify training needs (management
view). To employees it may not have the same meaning.
Therefore, meanings are not in words but in people. It is people who determine the
meaning of words.
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 Communication is a verbal process- This is misconception because we do not only use

words to communicate. We also use non-verbal communication such as body language,
graphics, and clothing to send messages to others.
 Telling is communicating
FACTORS ENHANCING THE INFLUENCE OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

The degree of influence depends on the perceived attributes of the source and the perceived
nature of the communication message.
Perceived Source Characteristics
Two aspects of the source explain the extent to which an individual influences others. The first
deals with the credibility of the source, and the second with the attractiveness of the source. Both
notions have been developed in communication theory. However, the individual nature of
interpersonal communication adds new elements to the theory, beyond those which are typically
pursued in the mass communication context. In general, the degree of interpersonal influence
increases as the source is perceived as more attractive and as the source credibility increases.
Source attractiveness. The attractiveness of a source is determined by the individual's prestige,
similarity to the receiver, and physical attractiveness. The mechanism by which attractiveness
enhances interpersonal influence is the greater attention paid to the communication (Sternthal
and Craig 1982).
Source credibility. The source credibility literature borrows more from cognitive theories. A
highly credible source is typically more persuasive than a less credible source (Brock 1965)
because the high credibility of the source inhibits counter-argumentation (Sternthal, Dholakia
and Leavitt 1978). [Although Sternthal, et. al. (1978), have hypothesized an interaction of source
credibility with prior opinions, a less credible source would be more persuasive if the receiver's
prior opinion is positive because it would generate a greater support argumentation in the
receiver's cognitive responses.]
Further determinants of the credibility of a source can be derived from the concept of the
strength of ties (Granovetter 1973, 1983). The strength of an interpersonal tie is defined as the
"combination of the amount of time, the emotional intensity, the intimacy (mutual confiding),
and the reciprocal sources which characterize the tie" (Granovetter 1973, p. 1261). The stronger
the tie, and therefore the greater the emotional intensity and intimacy between two individuals,
the greater the credibility of each of these individuals to the other.
According to Granovetter, the strength of the interpersonal tie is greater between individuals who
are similar and between individuals that interact frequently. Consequently, personal influence
will be more readily accepted from sources who are perceived to be similar to the recipient. Also,
personal influence will be more readily accepted from sources who interact frequently with the
recipient. These similarity and frequency of interaction concepts are, in fact, indicators of a more
general level of social integration which provides an individual with access to information
available within the social system. More specifically, the credibility of the source depends on the
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past experience that a recipient has with the advice and information given by the source. (Barone
and Byrne 1984).
Communication Characteristics
A message contains information which is being given to the recipient. However, there is
uncertainty as to what the information really means. The degree of uncertainty or confidence
associated with a piece of information acts as a weight determining the degree of persuasion of
the message. There are three main determinants of the uncertainty associated with a message: the
clarity of the message, the consistency with other information, and the strength of the source
commitment.
Clarity of the message. Personal influence will be more readily accepted if the signals sent by the
source are high in clarity. High in clarity refers here to the lack of ambiguity in the
communication, or the absence of noise in the communication (Shannon and Weaver 1949). As
indicated earlier, in terms of the power of the source, technical expertise is not sufficient for
information to be used by the recipient. Adapting the message so that the information is
communicated at the technical level at which the recipient is knowledgeable and comfortable
leads to a clearer message and therefore to a lower uncertainty associated with the message.
Consistency with other information. The degree to which information from one source is
compatible with other information that the receiver has is a determinant of influence potential.
The consistency of the information with other information enhances the acceptance of the
information by the receiver (Howell and Burnett 1978). In fact, the recipient will evaluate new
information against the prior opinion and the strength of (uncertainty associated with) this
opinion (Wyer 1974). The consistency is important since previous information creates
expectations and individuals react differently to confirmation or disconfirmation of expectations
(Oliver 1977).
Strength of source commitment. The uncertainty attached to the message depends on the strength
with which the information giver has committed himself or herself to the recommended
behavior. The greater the commitment that the influencer has made to the recommended
behavior, the greater the acceptance of the recommendation by the receiver. For example, if the
source has bought the technology, the weight given to the information by the receiver will be
greater. This, however, depends also on the type of information being given.
Improving Communication Strategies:
Improving Communication Strategies Avoid leading questions Statements that are stated in the
form of a question and whose purpose is to get the other person to agree with us. Ex: “Don’t you
want to be a good student?” vs. “What are your goals for college?” Leading questions reflect the
values of the questioner much more than the values of the listener Typically used to control
another’s behavior
Improving interpersonal communication/relationships
 Interpersonal relationships can be achieved and become meaningful when people

are honest, sincere, polite, trustworthy, have good manners, and genuine feelings
and respect for others.
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 Effective interpersonal communication can be achieved when non-threatening

communication behaviour is used. Use assertive behaviour when you deal with
others. This type of behaviour acknowledges your rights as well as the rights of
other people. Treat others as equals.
 Assertive people usually display open, expressive and relaxed behaviour and are
likely to be honest and build mutual relationships with others.
 Avoid aggressive and submissive behaviour when interacting with others. An
aggressive person has a desire to win all the time. Such a person will want to
dominate discussions, often ignore other people’s suggestions even though they
may offer better solutions and sometimes humiliate others.
 An aggressive person is unlikely to create and sustain mutual relationships with
others because of being in conflict with others most of the time.
 Submissive behaviour is equally unacceptable to meaningful interpersonal
relationships and interactions because a submissive person is unable to promote
and sustain an independent point of view. Such a person will support other
people’s suggestions to the extent of ignoring his or her own rights.
 Be pleasant and cordial. Making others feel welcome and wanted builds morale
and a source of great satisfaction to the human need for a sense of belonging.
 Listen attentively and give prompt service.
 Control your temper and be patient with others.
Interpersonal communication can be improved by using strategies that avoid conflicting non-
verbal messages, tone of voice, gestures, etc. which can support or contradict what we say.
Oftentimes, these nonverbal messages are unconscious. Receiving feedback is important in
overcoming this practice.
Humans communicate with each other across time, space, and contexts. Those contexts are
often thought of as the particular combinations of people comprising a communication situation.
For example, theories of Interpersonal communication address the communication between
dyads (two people), Group Communication deals with groups, Organisation
Communication addresses organizations, mass communication encompasses messages broadcast,
usually electronically, to mass audiences, intercultural Communication looks at communication
among people of different cultures, and Gender Communication focuses on communication
issues of women and between the sexes.
UNIT 8 THEORIES OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
8.1 Theories of Interpersonal Communication (IPC)
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There are four perspectives from which to study IPC:

 Relational (qualitative) perspective is concerned with the relationship between
the sender and the receiver. In this perspective the roles of the sender and the
receiver are shared in order to create meaning and there is no one of these roles is
permanent. In other words, the relationship is dynamic because you keep
changing your roles.
 The situational (contextual) perspective refers to communication that takes
place between two people in a specific context. It is concerned with how the
situation affects the communication.
 The quantitative perspective looks at the dyadic interaction including
impersonal communication
The Functional (Strategic) perspective looks at communication for the purpose of achieving
interpersonal goals such as information, comfort, recognition, persuasion, and so on. That is, we
engage in IPC for a strategic purpose.
8.2 Definitions of Theory

A theory is a way of clearly and logically organizing a set of facts or ideas (Ambrosino,
et al, 2008). A theory helps us to describe, understand, and predict our environment.
We can also define theory as a contemplative and rational type of abstract or generalizing
thinking, or the result of such thinking. Depending on the context, the results might for
example include generalized explanations of how nature works. The word is derived
from a Greek word ‘theoria’ which means ‘’a looking at, viewing, beholding.’’ A theory
is not the same as a hypothesis, as a theory is a ‘proven’ hypothesis that, in other words,
has never been disapproved through experiment, and has a basis in fact.
Theories are analytical tools for understanding, explaining, and making predictions about
a given subject. There are theories in many fields of study including communication. A
formal theory is syntactic in nature and is only meaningful when given a semantic
component by applying it to some content (facts and relationships of the actual world).
In other words, theories are expressed in sentences which consist of statements about a
subject matter being considered.
If a theory is to widely used, it must have three attributes/qualities or characteristics (Ambrosino,

et al, 2008):
 A good theory must be inclusive, or able to explain consistently the same event in the
same way.
 A good theory must be generalizable, which means that a general conclusion about what
happens in one situation must be able to be transferred to another, similar situations.
 A good theory must be testable, which means that we must be able to measure it in some
way to ensure that it is accurate and valid.
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There are many theories on interpersonal communication. However, we shall highlight some of
them related to the four perspectives discussed above.
i. Uncertainty Reduction Theory by Berger and Calabrese (1975)
This theory suggests that initial interaction between strangers is characterised by

information seeking in order to reduce uncertainty. Uncertainty is reduced as levels of
self-disclosure, non-verbal warmth and similarity increase. The desire to reduce
uncertainty is a legitimate because no meaningful dialogue can take place between people
who know little or nothing about each other.
Berger and Calabrese (1975) identified three basic strategies by which people seek
information about others:
 Passive strategy which is done through passive observation of the other person;
 Interactive strategy which done through direct/deliberate communication with the
other person;
 Active strategy where you ask someone to arrange a meeting where you can
observe (passive strategy) or talk (interactive strategy) with the other person. For
example, you speak to your uncle to help find a job for your friend. Your uncle
invites you to his house and asks you to come with your friend. During the visit,
your uncle observes your friend and interacts with her about her job requirements.
There are many situations when this theory could be applied in the business context.
For example new employees need to be given orientation in order to reduce their
uncertainty at the point their entry in the company. In the same way, new students
need orientation to reduce their uncertainty in the new environment.
ii. Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Message Interpretation) by Leon Festinger (1962)

Festinger (1957) suggests that dissonance is a motivational state that impels the
individual to try to reduce and eliminate it.
An individual usually strives toward consistency within herself. Her opinions and
attitudes exist in clusters that are internally consistent. That is, consistency between
what a person knows or believes and what she or he does. For example a person who
believes university education is important will most likely encourage her or his
children to go to university. A student, who knows that she/he will be punished for
plagiarism, will not commit it or at least will try not to be caught.
However, there are exceptions. For example, a person may know that smoking is bad
for his health and yet continue to smoke. Many people may commit crimes even
though they know the consequences.
A person who steals even when he knows it is bad may rationalize and feel:
 That steeling is worth the risk
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 That the chances of being caught are not as serious as some may think
 That he cannot always avoid risks, or,
 That if he does not steal it someone else will.
So his actions will be consistent with his ideas of stealing. This consistency is known as
consonance.
However, sometimes, it is difficult to achieve consistency. Sometimes we fail to achieve

consistency. The inconsistency may continue to exist and the presence of inconsistency
results in a psychological discomfort. This discomfort or inconsistency is known as
dissonance.
The basic assumption of this theory is that:
 The existence of dissonance, being psychological, uncomfortable, will motivate

the person to try to reduce the dissonance and achieve consonance. This may lead
to change of behaviour to avoid discomfort/dissonance. People resist change
because the desired change may be painful or may involve a loss or present
behaviour may be satisfying.
 When dissonance is present, in addition to trying to reduce it, the person will
actively avoid situations and information which would likely increase the
dissonance.
Dissonance could be substituted by concepts such as hunger, frustration while cognitive refers to
any knowledge, ideas, opinions, beliefs or attitudes about the environment, about oneself or
one’s behaviour.
Cognitive dissonance leads to activities that reduce the discomfort. Cognitive dissonance occurs
when what you know contradicts new information or ideas, opinions, attitudes and beliefs. Your
beliefs and attitudes affect the level of dissonance you experience and you can reduce dissonance
by:
 Changing your beliefs or attitudes

 You change your view about the situation
 You seek evidence of support.
The amount of dissonance depends on:
 The importance of the decision

 The attractiveness of the chosen alternative.
Any two cognitive elements(perception, knowledge or behaviour) will have one of three kinds of
relationships:
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 Null or irrelevant
 Consistent
 Dissonance.
Dissonance occurs when one element would not be expected to follow another. Dissonance
varies from person to person. What one finds dissonant another may not. Dissonance
produces stress which pressures the person to change in order to reduce the dissonance.
iii. Social Exchange Theory

This theory proposes that we work to maintain a relationship as long as the benefits
we receive outweighs the costs. The benefits one may derive from a relationship may
be perceived or actual and may include:
 Additional resources to solve one’s personal problems
 Feelings of self-worth
 Rise in status
 A greater sense of security.
On the other hand, costs, perceived or actual may include:
 Time and energy spent in trying to make the relationship work

 Psychological and physical stress, and
 Damage to self-image.
For example, an organisation may spend energy and money in maintaining relationship with
organisations they believe offer them greater benefits and do away with others if the cost for
maintaining them outweighs the benefits. An organisation will maintain relationship with a
commercial bank that offers lower lending rate and suppliers that offer discounts.
Another example is that an organisation may terminate services of an employee on the basis of
misconduct or poor performance.
iv. Attitudes, Beliefs and Values (Message Interpretation) Theory by Milton Rekeach
This theory suggests that each person has a highly organized system of beliefs, attitudes and
values which guide his/her behaviour. The more central a belief is, the more resistant it is to
change and the more impact such change will have on the overall system.
Attitudes are groups of strong beliefs organized around a focal object and predispose you to
behave in a certain way towards that object. You have attitudes toward an object and
attitudes towards a situation. How you behave in a any given situation is a combination of
both.
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Values are the most important. They are central and act as life guides. We have
instrumental values such as hard work and loyalty for living upon which we base day to day
behaviour and terminal values such wealth and happiness. These are aims of life which we
strive for. We also have self-concept (one’s belief about self) which is the guiding goal or
purpose.
People are guided by the need for consistency and inconsistency creates pressure to change.
The most important inconsistencies are those involving cognitions about the self.
v. Self-Disclosure Theory by Sidney Jourard (1958)

This theory suggests that honest interpersonal communication relies on openness or
transparency. Transparency refers to allowing the world to disclose itself freely and
disclosing oneself to others. Personal growth (change) is a direct result of openness.
Self-disclosure increases:
 With intimacy
 When rewarded
 With the need to reduce uncertainty
 When reciprocated
 With women more than men (this might be cultural)
-Satisfaction in a relationship is highest when the level of self-disclosure is moderate.
-women self-disclose more with people they like and men with people they trust.
-There also wide differences in the levels of self-disclosure between cultures.
Vi.Social Penetration Theory by Gerald Miller
This theory proposes that relationships become more intimate over time when disclosure takes
place. It also tries to forecast the future of a relationship 9is it worthwhile) on the basis of
projected rewards and costs.
Self-disclosure occurs in five stages, like peeling an onion and these stages are:
 Superficial, what type of music you like

 Political
 Religious beliefs and attitudes
 Deeply held fears and fantasies
 Concepts of self.
Outer stages occur more rapidly than inner stages and self- disclosure is reciprocal.
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Interpersonal closeness proceeds in a gradual and orderly manner from superficial to intimate
levels of exchange as a function of both immediate and future outcomes. Lasting intimacy needs
continuous mutual self-disclosure.
viii. Diffusion of Innovations Theory by Everett Rogers (1962)
Everett Rogers' Diffusion of Innovations is a theory that seeks to explain how, why, and at
what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures.It seeks to explain how
innovations are taken up in a population. The diffusion of innovations approach relies upon
well-established theories in sociology, psychology, and mass communications to develop a
concise and easily understood approach to consumer acceptance of new ideas and
technologies. Rogers reminds us that diffusion of innovations offers three valuable insights
into the process of social change.
Diffusion is a process whereby an (1) innovation is (2) communicated through certain

channels (3) over time (4) within social systems. These are the elements in diffusion of
innovations.
An innovation is an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new. What might seem
familiar to some is new to others. Innovations can be material or nonmaterial. The adoption
of material innovations brings about changes in social relations, which means that
nonmaterial issues arise in the adoption of material innovations. That is, culture changes
with changes in material conditions. Understanding relationships among culture, values,
existing practices, and political/social/economic relations is a necessary element of
technology transfer.
Characteristics of Innovations
Innovations vary in the extent to which they offer easily observed costs and benefits
compared with existing ideas or practices. The key characteristics of an innovation are its:
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1. Relative advantage: the degree to which the innovation is perceived as better than
the idea it supersedes. Relative advantage refers to the extent to which the
innovation is more productive, efficient, costs less, or improves in some other
manneruponexistingpractices.
It might seem like relative advantage alone should be enough to persuade persons
to adopt an innovation. Certainly relative advantage is a key indicator of adoption.
But sometimes relative advantage is a matter of debate (e.g., legalized abortion),
not immediately evident (e.g., sustainable agricultural practices), complex to
understand (e.g., food irradiation), male circumusicion, use of condoms.
Don't better ideas eventually win out? Not always (ask users of Macintosh
computers). And sometimes good ideas like genetically modified food (accept, for the
sake of argument, the value judgment here) undergo delays and considerable costs
to developers due to initial public resistance that might have been avoided if change
agents had focused upon factors other than just relative advantage (e.g.,
biotechnology companies have had to spend much money on repairing public
relations by not anticipating public resistance in Europe to genetically modified
foods).
Thus, good ideas do not sell themselves because "good" can be relative, not
immediately evident, complex to understand, circumvented by the market,
considered to be morally abhorrent, or difficult to implement.
2. Compatibility: the degree to which the innovation is perceived as being consistent

with existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters.
Compatibility is the trump card for all innovations, even those with high relative
advantage. An innovation must be considered socially acceptable to be implemented.
And some innovations require much time and discussion before they become socially
acceptable.
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o If the idea seems morally irreconcilable, then the innovation will not be
adopted (e.g., euthanasia for the terminally ill is having a hard time catching
on with the American public; human cloning might never be accepted).
o If the innovation is very or sometimes even just a little bit different from
current practices, then the innovation will not be adopted (e.g., news reports
state that the U.S. Treasury might have to give up on Sacagawea dollars
because people do not like to use them).
3. Complexity: the degree to which the innovation is perceived as difficult to

understand and use.
An innovation need not be particularly complex from the viewpoint of its developers.
Feminists, for example, often complain that the public simply doesn't "get it." It is
the perception of the end user that means the most for achieving public adoption of
a new technology.
o Food irradiation is difficult to understand and that is part of the reason it has
been slow to be adopted by Americans.
o Personal computers were difficult to learn about when they first were
introduced, which slowed their adoption despite their clear relative
advantages.
o No-till farming was complex to understand and also difficult at first to
implement because one had to make required adjustments to existing
machinery oneself before manufacturers saw sufficient demand to mass
produce no-till equipment.
4. Trialability: the degree to which the innovation may be experimented with on a

limited basis.
Innovations are easier to adopt if they can be tried out in part, on a temporary basis,
or easily dispensed with after trial.
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o Nuclear waste storage facilities have to be located and built correctly the first
time.
o There is no going back from affirmative action, civil rights legislation,
legalized marriage for gay/lesbian couples, and so forth.
5. Observability: the degree to which the results of the innovation are visible to others.
The chances of adoption are greater if folks can easily observe relative advantages of
the new technology. In fact, after some adopt, observability can improve the
diffusion effect, a critical component of technology transfer we will learn about later
in Part I.
o The advantages of genetically modified foods are not easily observable, at
least not at present, for consumers. Therefore, challenges to gm foods carry
greater weight than if gm foods had highly visible benefits.
o A no-tilled farm field had negative observability at first because "good"
farmers did not leave plant residue on their fields; they instead left the
ground clean of plant residue with deep furrows.
Diffusion Networks
Communication and the Diffusion Effect
Mass media presentations create awareness, disseminate hardware (information about

the innovation), software (information about how the innovation works), and innovation-
evaluation (information about how well the innovation works) messages, and provide
feedback to potential adopters about those who have adopted. Because they create
awareness, mass communications place some pressure upon opinion leaders to make
decisions about the new technology, the importance of which will be explained later.
Importance of peer-peer conversations and peer networks.Interpersonal

communications between experts and the public, opinion leaders and the public and
among friends and family are equally as essential as mass communications in bringing
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about innovation adoption. Knowing the viewpoints of close referent others (e.g., family and
friends) and opinion leaders is a critical element of the social comparison process leading to
choice shift.
Diffusion takes place within the context of structures of social relationships based upon
power, norms, and public acceptability. Recognizing the influence of social comparison
processes on technology transfer is the first essential contribution of the diffusion of
innovations model beyond the risk communication techniques. To understand the role of
social comparison processes, we begin by defining the diffusion effect as the cumulative
increasing degree of influence upon an individual to adopt or reject an innovation, resulting
from the activation of peer networks about an innovation in a social system.
Technology adoption, as a form of human agency, depends strongly upon social comparison
processes that lead to choice shift. Social comparison processes gather inertia as more
persons shift their choice in the prevailing direction of others. Consider the introduction of a
complex technology. This innovation creates uncertainties about safety, environmental
quality, and so forth. So, people listen to persuasive arguments in favour of and in
opposition to the new technology. The public, being ignorant (not irrational) about the
science of the technology, then faces the consumer's dilemma of choosing whom to trust.
The social comparison process then becomes critical because people seek information
beyond that provided by proponents and opponents; that is, they seek some indication of
whom to trust.
The important aspect of social systems to recognize is that social collectivities have prestige
hierarchies; the opinions of some persons/organizations carry more weight than those of
others during the social comparison process. Rogers refers to these more prestigious
persons/organizations as opinion leaders. Opinion leaders, as highly prestigious social
comparison others, have the ability to sway choice shift towards adoption or rejection. Thus,
it is the opinions of opinion leaders that strongly influences adoption or rejection.
Recognizing the importance of the viewpoints of opinion leaders in influencing adoption

decisions provides the change agent with insight into how to bring about desired change,
which is to focus upon gaining adoption by opinion leaders with the knowledge that it will be
opinion leaders who will persuade others to adopt. We will return to the role of the change
agent later in this section.
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Models of Mass Communication Flows:
As noted regarding relative advantage, transmission of scientific facts about a new

technology sometimes is insufficient to gain adoption. Rogers refers to the hypodermic
needle model as the attempt to gain adoption of a complex and controversial technology by
transmission of facts alone. He states that this model has had limited success. The two-step
flow model, on the other hand, which posits that interpretations of facts are mediated by
interactions with others, particularly in learning the viewpoints of opinion leaders, has been
shown to provide better explanation of adoption of complex technologies. The "two steps"
refer to mass media presentations of the viewpoints of proponents and opponents followed
by interactions with others and opinion leaders.
Change agent communication with others is aided by homophily--similarity in socioeconomic

characteristics--and hindered by heterophily--dissimilarity in socioeconomic characteristics.
The negative effects on interpersonal persuasion resulting from change agent heterophily
with potential adopters can be mitigated by understanding and operating within
communication networks (i.e., interconnected individuals linked by patterned flows of
communication). The structure of a communication network might be such that change
agents can gain access to heterophilous opinion leaders by relying upon the strength-of-
weak-ties provided by interstitial persons. Imagine a communication structure consisting of
two cliques of relatively heterophilous persons, wherein each clique is strongly influenced by
one opinion leader. Imagine further that one person (typically, not a strong opinion leader)
from each clique has a "weak" tie (i.e., occasional meetings, conversations; perhaps a
common interest) with one another. The "strength" of this weak tie between these two
interstitial (i.e., bridging) persons is that the change agent can ask the interstitial person
with whom he/she is homophilous to provide an introduction to the heterophilous interstitial
person and thereby gain access to the heterophilous opinion leader.
Characteristics of Opinion Leaders:
A key aspect of understanding how the social system affects diffusion is that social systems
have prestige hierarchies: some persons/organizations are more influential than others. The
social comparison process is affected most by opinion leaders. To effectively gain adoption
of a new technology, the change agent should know how to identify opinion leaders in the
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social system. Sometimes, this task is fairly straightforward in that highly influential
persons/organizations can be named by members of the social system in a social survey. To
learn opinion leaders regarding food safety, for example, one might conduct a nationwide
social survey of adults to ask them whom they most trust regarding food safety information.
In other cases, for example within a community, opinion leadership can be more difficult to
identify. This segment describes opinion leaders and a procedure for identifying them within
a community.
The defining characteristic of opinion leaders is they are well respected in their social
system. Respect can be associated with higher socioeconomic status (i.e., education,
occupation, income), but does not require it. Opinion leaders, for whatever reason, sway
adoption decisions through their influence (i.e., informal persuasion), not power (i.e., affect
on behaviour arising from the use or threat of using force).
Monomorphic opinion leaders affect decisions within a relatively narrow range of issues
(e.g., the American Medical Association is influential regarding health-related technology
choice); polymorphic opinion leaders influence decisions across several issue areas (e.g.,
the opinion of the magazine Consumer Reports is respected on many topics).
Five Approaches to Identifying Opinion Leaders
The five approaches listed below vary in their expense of implementation and
accuracy in locating opinion leaders. To illustrate these approaches, they are
presented within the context of locating opinion leaders in a community, say for the
purpose of gaining adoption of a municipal bond levy to fund additions and
improvements to the school system.
1. Positional: In this approach, persons in elected or appointed positions in the

community are assumed to be opinion leaders. Thus, the school
superintendent, city council persons, and the mayor would be assumed to be
opinion leaders on school-related issues. This approach is inexpensive--one
could learn with a telephone call to the local courthouse who occupies elected
and appointed positions. But the approach can be highly inaccurate because it
assumes opinion leadership based upon position, rather than respect.
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2. Self-Designating: Here, the change agent asks selected individuals to identify

themselves as being influential on school-related issues. The approach has
the advantage of getting input on influence from community members, and
therefore is more accurate than the positional approach. It requires a bit
more expense in that the change agent typically will travel to the community
to interview persons for the needed information. A potential pitfall of the self-
designating approach is that persons might over- or under-estimate their
influence on others.
3. Reputational: The reputational approach relies upon the nominations of

selected individuals on, for example, "the ten most influential persons in this
community regarding school-related issues." Using the reputational approach
generally improves the accuracy of identifying opinion leaders because one is
getting information from more than one source about the influence of others
in the community. Typically, persons using the reputational approach will
"snow-ball" their nominations from key informants. Key informants are
persons who have a thorough knowledge of the community and how it works:
newspaper editors, bankers, real estate agents, school superintendents, and
city council members make good key informants (the newspaper editor likely
will only provide names to talk with, rather than more information, due to
issues of confidentiality). Nominations from these key informants are
contacted and asked to name their "10 most influential persons...," and so
on, until the list of nominations is "snow-balled" into a comprehensive list of
persons. Using informal "eyeballing" of the nominations, or sometimes very
sophisticated network analysis software, the change agent selects from all
nominations the "most often nominated" persons as "reputational" opinion
leaders. Remember to ask about opinion leadership with respect to some
specific area of skill (e.g., "school-related issues") because opinion leaders in
one issue area might not be opinion leaders in another area.
4. Sociometric: As noted by Rogers, opinion leaders typically are located at the

center of communication networks. Sociometry is the mapping, usually using
sophisticated network analysis software, of contacts among a potential list of
opinion leaders (usually those identified by the reputational approach). This
mapping of contacts helps the change agent locate persons who are at the
center of communications about the issue area. A question asked of
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reputational leaders to map contacts might be, "How often do you contact
[person X] about school-related issues in this community?"
One interesting use of sociometric analysis is the identification of cliques of

leaders. Personal histories or acquired characteristics such as skin color or
gender can underlie the formation of leadership cliques in a community.
Sociometric maps can help identify "natural" boundaries among cliques of
opinion leaders. Sociometric maps also can help identify interstitial persons,
who link leadership cliques. Interstitial persons might be somewhat marginal
to their respective cliques, but because they are connected with other cliques,
they can provide the change agent with access to cliques that might
otherwise be difficult for the change agent to gain rapport. Interstitial persons
might have a "weak" tie to one another (i.e., they might not contact one
another very often). But the strength" of this weak tie is it gives the change
agent access to different cliques of opinion leaders.
5. Observation: There is no substitute for observing social action within the

community. Some opinion leaders are not located at the centre of a
communication network, but prefer by their personality to be located a bit
outside the everyday communication pattern. Also, reputation can be
misleading. If the sociometric analysis is conducted using reputational
leaders, an important leader might have been left off of the map altogether.
Observation, because of costs related to lodging, food, and travel, is the most
expensive of the techniques described here, but it is also the most accurate.
The Innovation Decision Process
This segment describes the time sequence of events leading to adoption.
Stages of the Innovation-Decision Process:
1. Knowledge. Most often, potential adopters become aware of the innovation through
mass media messages distributed by news outlets, trade journals, internet web sites,
and scientific publications. Because consumers' engage in selective exposure to
preferred sources of information and selective perception of certain types of
information, change agents must carefully plan their presentations of hardware,
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software, and innovation-evaluation information. Knowledge acquisition about low-

involvement innovations--new products with few perceived risks (i.e., consumer
goods)--raises uncertainties for the consumer. Is this a high quality product? Is it
being sold at a good price? Will it be a popular choice for others? Learning about high
involvement innovations--complex, controversial technologies--raises these same
uncertainties and many more. Am I being told all the truth about this technology? Is
it safe for me and others? Will its adoption lead to inequities in the sharing of risk?
Knowledge diffusion can be a difficult period for proponents of a new technology.

Much more information must be disseminated than for low involvement innovations.
The information is more technical and, by nature, less certain because the technology
is new. Most importantly, perhaps, active opposition groups disseminate unfavourable
messages about the technology. It is critical for proponents to recognize that,
because negative information carries disproportionate weight, they usually are at a
disadvantage during the knowledge stage of diffusion. It is equally critical for
proponents to recognize that the consumer is not being irrational by not immediately
accepting the scientific viewpoint of a new technology, but instead is being justifiably
skeptical of a new technology that is being opposed by consumer advocacy
organizations.
2. Persuasion. For low involvement innovations much of the diffusion process rests
upon marketing principles of product, pricing, place, and promotion. Gaining adoption
of high involvement innovations also requires attention to these four p's, but
demands further that the social comparison process be influenced by opinion leaders
supportive of the technology because, unlike for low involvement innovations,
consumers are being exposed to messages that oppose high involvement innovations.
Thus, gaining adoption of a complex, controversial technology requires a good
product, price, and so forth, but it requires also that respected opinion leaders who
support it to counter the opposition arguments. One has to sell a low involvement
technology to a passive audience; one has to sell a high involvement innovation to an
audience who is exposed to active opposition to it.
Whereas opponents typically have the advantage at the knowledge stage, proponents
usually gain the advantage at the persuasion stage. This shift occurs because
research and development organizations usually are university based or are otherwise
respected technology development firms. Thus, they enjoy the reputation of being
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relatively correct in their risk assessments and trustworthy in their pursuit of

improving society. Respected opinion leaders, therefore, because they have close
contacts with centralized research and development organizations and because they
know that most often the technologies produced by these organizations will be based
upon sound scientific principles, support the new technology. Given that support from
opinion leaders is critical to gaining adoption of high involvement innovations in the
face of arguments by well-organized opposition groups, proponents typically regain
their lost initiative at the persuasion stage.
We might at this time begin a healthy debate about the characteristics of an ideal
society. We might discuss and debate about the concept of progress. We might argue
that scientists usually receive support from opinion leaders because they usually are
correct. We might also consider the interlocking nature of relationships among
powerful research and development organizations and opinion leaders and whether
these relationships further the common good. The good change agent, as we will
discuss in Part II of this section will ask many questions about the inevitable negative
consequences of new technology adoption. For now, it is important to realize that
centralized research and development organizations and opinion leaders often are of
the same mind and therefore proponents usually have the advantage over opponents
at the persuasion stage.
3. Decision. The decision that the innovation is worthy of being adopted represents a
major advance for proponents of a high involvement technology. Proponents, with
support from opinion leaders, have overcome opposition arguments to convince
consumers to accept the technology. This act of symbolic adoption, however
important it is, does not assure behavioural adoption. Symbolic adoption by more and
more consumers does add inertia to the diffusion effect. As more persons adopt,
there is increasing pressure for non-adopters to adopt. This pressure to adopt comes
about because adoption of a new technology:
o Oftentimes brings about changes in related technologies. Changes in computer
hardware and software capabilities, for example, often go hand-in-hand,
making it difficult to hold on to a personal computer and still be able to utilize
software that others have adopted.
o Can be accompanied by changes in infrastructure support for older
technologies.
o Can sometimes bring about changes in laws that favour the newer technology.
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o Can shift economic advantage to use of the newer technology.

o Is accompanied by cultural changes that favour the newer technology.
That is, not adopting sometimes can bring about social, economic, and political
disadvantages as others adopt.
Two factors determine what type a particular decision is:
 Whether the decision is made freely and implemented voluntarily

 Who makes the decision ( for example, is it the husband or wife).
Based on these considerations, three types of innovation-decisions have been identified

within diffusion of innovations:
 Optional innovation-decision is made by an individual who is distinguished from other

in a social system;
 Collective innovation-decision is made collectively by all individuals of a social
system;
 Authority innovation-decision is made for the entire social system by few individuals
in positions of influence or power.
4. Implementation. Implementation refers to the initial trial period for the new
technology. The move from symbolic adoption to implementation is not necessarily an
easy one. Obstacles to implementation include:
o Transaction costs: It might be expensive to make the move to the new
technology, even though it has long-term economic advantages.
o Infrastructure support: Because the technology is new, technical support,
servicing, retail chains, and other aspects of market development might not be
sufficient to encourage implementation.
o Personal decisions: The end-use might recognize the relative advantages of
the new technology, but find themselves in cash-flow problem, in the middle
of another transition, or at the end of their career and not willing to invest in
change that reaps only long-term benefits.
Implementation often entails re-invention, an alteration of the innovation by the

adopter. Adopters alter the new technology to fit their specific needs. Sometimes,
alterations are trivial in nature, reflecting more a narcissism of small differences
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rather than a substantive change in the makeup or functioning of the innovation.

Such modifications might be nevertheless important for confirmation in that people
usually like to feel some sense of ownership over new technologies. The advantages
of re-invention include:
o increased flexibility in applications of the innovation,

o increased relative advantage for local use, and
o increased sense of ownership over the new technology.
Re-invention can create problems for the adopter, however, and is not always
encouraged by research and development organizations. Disadvantages of re-
invention include:
o Improper application leading to less effectiveness of the innovation,

o Inability of the research and development organization to maintain quality
control over the technology in use,
o Legal problems if the change infringes upon the protection of a closely related
technology.
5. Confirmation. Confirmation involves seeking of reinforcement for the adoption
decision and integration of the new technology within the framework of existing
practices.
Because social comparison is critical to adopting high-involvement innovations,

reinforcement of the social acceptability of the innovation after implementation is an
important aspect of the innovation-decision process. Social psychologists working in
the 1950's recognized the importance of dissonance reduction on behaviour change.
Once a difficult decision has been made the adopter finds it psychologically satisfying
to accentuate the good reasons for making the decision to adopt and decentuate the
good reasons for not adopting. Note for yourself how your thoughts about the good
qualities of that other car (an expensive item for most persons to purchase) diminish
after taking ownership of the car you selected to purchase.
This game we play to sooth our anxieties about difficult decisions becomes more
important the greater the stakes involved in the adoption decision. Adopters of
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complex, controversial technologies, therefore, look for signals that their decision
was the correct one. Good change agents, therefore, will reinforce the decision and
seek ways to facilitate the transition to using the new technology (most likely, your
car dealer contacted you shortly after your purchase to confirm your decision and
seek your feedback on the product).
Discontinuance, or rejection of a technology, can occur anytime including during

confirmation. Replacement discontinuance occurs when a better innovation is
introduced and adopted. Disenchantment discontinuance results when problems arise
with the design or usefulness of the innovation that were not anticipated. Highly
complex innovations can be discontinued when persons think they can master them
but find they cannot. Changes in policy or in economic, social, or environmental
conditions can lessen the effectiveness of the innovation. Nothing is certain but
change, right?
Innovativeness and Adopter Categories
Experience has taught diffusion scholars that adopters can be classified within five
categories: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards. The
specific percentage of adopters in each category is not critical information; neither are the
differences in characteristics that separate any two of the categories. The importance of the
classification scheme is to highlight that the characteristics and needs of potential adopters
differ during the diffusion process. Of special importance is recognizing the roles played by
innovators and early adopters.
Innovators with respect to one new technology but be laggards with respect to another.
People do, however, tend to exhibit socioeconomic and psychological qualities that place
them within certain adopter categories:
1. Innovators (first 5 percent of adopters) tend to be venturesome, cosmopolite,

networked with other innovators, have available financial resources, understand
complex technical knowledge, and be able to cope with uncertainty. Change agents
should recognize that, for high-involvement innovations, innovators do not
significantly affect adoption decisions. Innovators, by definition, are too socially
marginal to gain the respect needed to be an opinion leader. Thus, while adoption by
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innovators might encourage the change agent (as it did Nelida in Los Molinas), it
cannot be expected that innovators will generate much diffusion effect.
2. Early Adopters (next 10 percent of adopters) are respected and more local than
innovators. It is from this category that the change agent should expect to locate
opinion leaders. These persons are venturesome, but sufficiently skeptical to
recognize good innovations from poor ones. Because opinion leaders have more
influence on the diffusion effect than persons in any other adopter category, it is
persons in this category that the change agent attempts to persuade to adopt.
3. Early Majority (next 35 percent) tend to interact frequently with peers, seldom hold
positions of opinion leadership but have strong interconnectedness within the
system's interpersonal networks, and tend to have a long period of deliberation
before making an adoption decision.
4. Late Majority (next 35 percent) tend to adopt from economic/social necessity due to
the diffusion effect. They usually are skeptical and cautious and have few extra
resources to risk on high-involvement innovations.
5. Laggards (final 15 percent) are the most localite, suspicious of change agents and
innovations, and have few resources to risk. It might sound as if the laggards are a
doltish lot. In fact, persons within this category might be highly innovative in their
symbolic adoption but slow to implement because they have few financial resources
to offset transition costs or little access to innovation-evaluation information. By
coincidence or design, laggards are the "smartest" ones when seemingly beneficial
innovations become unexpectedly costly or ineffective.
The inability of some to adopt when they would like to do so underscores the fact
that new technology adoption can further existing inequalities. That is, if the new
technology creates economic advantages, but requires resources to offset transaction
costs, then income inequalities can widen as a result of new technology adoption.
The innovativeness-needs paradox refers to the social problem wherein the
individuals who most need the benefits of an innovation generally are the last to
adopt it.
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Unit 9: Cross-Cultural Communication and Interactions
Introduction
Welcome to this unit on cross-cultural communication and interactions. Our
aim in this unit is to help you explore, appreciate and discuss topical issues in
cross-cultural communication, and to help you become gender sensitive in
your communication and interactions. It is our hope that as you explore the
world we live in, the people we share our world with, of the gender uniqueness
we possess, you will be stimulated to develop a sense of modern culture and
global consciousness, which aspects will be demonstrated in your
communication and interactions. Such attributes would help to sustain your
behavior as a well adjusted student as well as a good global citizen who should
endeavor to be understood just as they should strive to understand others.
Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Discuss topical issues in cross-cultural communication and interactions.

2. Demonstrate gender sensitive communication in your interactions.
Concept Definitions
Culture: an integrated system of learned behavior of the patterns that are characteristics of the members of a group
or organization.
Cultural diversity: differences in perception and ways of doing things etc based on differences in cultural backgrounds
as present in a group of people.
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Cultural relativism: recognizing cultural differences and accepting that each social group has its own set of cultural
norms.
Cultural sensitivity: being aware of the common rules and patterns of behavior in other cultures/countries.
Encounter: the first meeting or situation in which you come into contact withsomething/someone from a culture
different from yours, you.
Foreign/Foreigner: a culture, a person, language, behavior, etc different fromyour own or from that of the person in
question.
The other: see foreigner above.
1.0 Culture – Definitions and Meanings
1.1 Defining Culture

1.2 Perspectives
1.3 Culture’s Influence
1.4 Co- Cultures
1.5 Culture Dynamism
1.6 Some Key Characteristics of Cultures
1.1 Defining Culture
The word ‘culture’ is assigned various meanings according to the context.
In this unit, we shall concentrate on culture in its sociological and

anthropological meaning, that is, when talking about the culture of a
community or nation or a group of people. In this context, culture, can be
defined as a system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviours, and artifacts
that the members of a society use to cope with one another and with the world
(Pearson et al.2003, p.212).
1.2 Perspectives
“We see things not as they are, but as we are” (unknown-, u.d)
 Geographical Views
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Imagine what the world looks like to a bird flying high over the Andes, to a
polar bear roaming the Arctic wastes, to a dolphin gliding through the waters of
the Pacific Ocean, or to a rat in the desert regions of the Sahara. Imagine what
it feels like, what each of them is able to see, hear or smell.
These creatures are all products of their environment. They have adapted to
their surroundings and are conditioned by their need to survive. In each case,
their perspective of the world is different. The same is true of human beings,
though the forces working on us are in some cases more complex. We are
conditioned not only by our natural environment but also by our political and
geographical location, by our history, by our cultural heritage and the attitudes
of those around us, by our social structure and the language we speak, by the
buildings we live and work in, by our physical surroundings, by the air we
breathe and the food we eat.
What does the world look like to someone born and brought up in Berlin, in
Detroit, or in Melbourne? Or even to people coming from different locations in
the same country, such as the city of Milan in the north of Italy and part of
mainstream Europe, or from Palermo in the south which is both geographically
and historically closer to Africa? What different perspectives do they have of the
world and their immediate surroundings? Why are they different?
Our geographical relationship to other countries influences how we view

ourselves – as isolated societies or interrelated, interdependent nations. It
determines whether we feel protected or threatened, to what extent we see a
need for cooperation or not. This in turn influences other cultural identities.
 Time Perspectives
Another factor that influences our perspective of the world is time. In his book
“Future Shock” (1970) Alvin Toffler has a chapter entitled “The 800 th Lifetime”.
He begins by quoting Kenneth Boulding, economist and social historian, who
remarked that
“… the world of today is as different from the world in which I was born as that
world was from Julius Ceaser’s. I was born in the middle of human history …
Almost as much has happened since I was born as happened before”
Toffler then illustrates this by dividing up the last 50,000 years of man’s
existence on earth into lifetimes of approximately 62 years each. There have
been about 800 such lifetimes. We are living in what he calls “the 800 th
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lifetime”. If we put this into a time scale, we then understand better the
quotation above:
 Of those 800 lifetimes, fully 650 were spent living in caves in a Stone Age
existence
 Only during the last 70 lifetimes has it been possible to communicate
effectively with future generations by the development of writing
 But only during the last 6 lifetimes have masses of people seen the
printed world
 Only during the last 4 have we been able to measure time with any
degree of accuracy
 It is only in the last 2 that anyone, anywhere, has used an electric motor
 And the overwhelming majority of all the material goods that we use in
daily life today have been developed within the present, the 800 th,
lifetime.
The quotations and examples above are taken from an American viewpoint,
based on a western, industrialized experience of the world. They are certainly
not true, though, for everyone in the world today.
This concept of accelerating time, of a materialistic existence, may not be felt

by the majority of people in, say,
 A Himalayan village
 The rural areas in Bangladesh or Angola
 Suburban shanty towns in Cairo or Medellin
 The highland areas of Scotland
 The islands of the Greek archipelago
… to name but a few examples. There are still many people in the world today
living the same kind of lifestyle that has been handed down from generation to
generation throughout the centuries. Even these cultures or subcultures,
however, have been touched in some way by developments elsewhere in the
world.
Attitudes to time differ greatly from culture to culture. A common view in the
Western world is that the past is behind us and the future in front of us. But
for the Maoris of New Zealand, for example, it is just the opposite. In their view,
the future cannot be seen or experienced. It therefore lies behind us. The
present and the past can be experienced, seen, and remembered, and are in
view in front of us.
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Societies can be roughly divided into two categories according to their attitude
towards time. There are cultures which are basically monochromic
(single/onetime).and those which are essentially polychromic (many/multiple
time). People in a monochromic culture tend to see time as a linear
progression. It extends from the past into the future. One can plan, make
deadlines, draw up time schedules, and so on. People in these cultures usually
concentrate on one thing at a time, hence the name monochromic. In contrast,
those living in a polychromic society exist in the present, though the past and
its traditions exert a strong influence on the present. The future is something
over which one has no self control. In such societies, people deal with many
things at once, just as they turn up. A European businessman visiting an Arab
country, for example, would soon experience this contrast in attitudes to time.
Meeting times may not be followed, an important discussion may be
interrupted repeatedly by other people, social rituals may take priority over
business matters, and so on.
India and China are characterized by their essentially past-oriented lifestyle,

whereas North America, Scandinavian countries and some western European
countries are examples of primarily future-oriented cultures. Japanese culture,
on the other hand, combines strong elements of both the traditional, past-
oriented and of the changing and future oriented.
Within the same country, there may be quite distinct differences in attitudes to
time from one kind of community to another. Those living a rural, farming
existence tend to be more in tune with nature and the seasonal changes. Their
concept of time is more cyclical compared with city dwellers that have their
sights set on careers and ambitious plans for the future. Age, of course, is
another factor. Generally speaking, the young live in the present, adults in the
future and the elderly in the past.
 A World of Languages
The language we speak provides another perspective on the world we live in. we
identify strongly with the language we speak and with others we are able to
communicate with in the same tongue. In his “Encyclopedia of Language”
David Crystal defines a number of different aspects of identity which are closely
linked to language. These aspects of personal identity include:
 Physical identity (age, sex,…)

 Psychological identity (personality, intelligence,…)
 Geographical identity (regional background: accents, dialects)
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 Ethnic identity (nationalism, minority,…)

 Social identity (class, status, role,…)
How many languages are there in the world? More than 20,000 languages and
dialects are listed in Voegelin’s “Classification and Index of the World’s
Languages (1977). These have been grouped into about 4,500 living languages.
Living languages are, however, in a constant process of change, despite efforts

of various academies and national organizations to counteract it. Due to
economic interdependency, there is a growing tendency towards
internationalization, towards the formation of a common language. This
movement is fostered by the spread of multinational corporations, the influence
of telecommunications and mass media, and increased automation and data
processing world-wide. Much of the early development of these technologies
took place in the USA. These factors help to account for the growth of English
as a lingua franca throughout the world, surpassing Esperanto, the language
created by linguists specifically for international use.
At the same time there is a tendency towards diversification. New versions of

languages are constantly developing from subcultures within, from the need to
create new terms and expressions, or from external contact with another
language. One form of language development is pidgin, which is a simple,
makeshift form of communication between people who do not share a common
language. When a pidgin language becomes the mother tongue of later
generations, gaining in complexity, it reaches the status of a Creole language,
in that it is the product of the interaction of Germanic and Latin-based
languages over a period of many centuries. English is itself in the process of
diversification; however, reference is often made now to forms of English such
as Euro-English (as distinct from British), Asian-English, Afro-English and so
on.
The Proto-Indo-European language, from which all the others derived, has not
yet been identified by linguistic researchers, though attempts have been made
to reconstruct it from the earliest known records of languages such as
Sanskrit. It is difficult for a layman to imagine how languages as different as
Hindi, Polish, Greek and Icelandic, for instance, are related and that they grew
from the same roots.
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1.3 Culture’s Influence
i. Practices
In the sociological/anthropological sense, a culture system influences what we

do and how we behave. How these patterns of behavior come to exist can be
explained by Darwin’s theory of survival of the fittest. According to this theory,
how we behave and how we understand the world in which we live are directly
affected by the demands placed on us by the environment we must survive in.
If we live on land, we learn to farm for food. If we are to farm for our food, we
must learn to understand: the patterns of the seasons on which successful
farming depends, the art of farming so that we can grow more food, the skills
of preserving the harvest, and how to cooperate with each other as farmers and
other support groups. In all these, the patterns of behavior that work are the
patterns we keep.
ii. Cultural identity
Environmental and historical influences in any society form the culture that
such a people experience as Zambian, Indian or as English. The cultural
environment that an individual is raised in affects how that person grows and
develops, much like the influence that the physical environment has on other
growing things. To use the analogy of a tree, a person is shaped by culture just
as a tree is shaped by its physical environment. Its growth may be accelerated
by good soil and adequate water, but hampered by inadequate light and so on.
The tree that you see in any one location is the result of all these local factors
and more. It would probably have looked quite different if planted in another
environment. If the same tree were to be uprooted and transplanted in another
location, it would require care and support before it could begin to take root
again and grow in its new surroundings. The function of culture is to see to it
that we get what we need to survive, both psychologically and physically.
Culture is our rain, sun and soil and we human beings are formed by the
conditions of our culture. Similarly, university students are uprooted from the
environment in which they have been nurtured and so need much adjustment
in the new university environment before they can become fully productive in
their engagements.
iii. Expressions
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Politenessis another aspect of cultural behavior that has been brought about
by the peculiarities of environment. Behavior that is called “polite” is a feature
of all cultures, though the ways in which politeness is expressed and defined
may differ considerably from one culture to another. If we take English
politeness for the purpose of illustration and look at the cultural, historic and
environmental background in which it developed and compare that with
several other cultures, this may help to explain how differences arise.
English Politeness is characterized by codes of behavior which have evolved to

show mutual consideration and create social distance. Appropriate language
formulae, such as ritualized politeness phrases, are common between
individuals who are not well known to each other or who are divided by social
or class backgrounds. In contrast, friends and family often have a bantering
relationship that includes teasing and insulting one another. This latter
behavior is an expression of social closeness.
To understand better how patterns of polite behavior have developed in

England, we can look at the historical and environmental background of that
country.
Background: England has been invaded several times throughout the centuries,
by the Romans, the Angels and Saxons, the Vikings, and the French. For
periods of time these invaders often functioned as ruling classes, requiring
demonstrations of respect and subordination by those they had invaded. The
attitudes of the invaded people, as can be imagined, were mixed. Most people
made the required gestures not just to show politeness but also to maintain a
feeling of distance, and therefore non-compliance. This provided the framework
for English politeness as we see it today.
For the sake of living in harmony together, the need for the distance-making
behavior formed earlier has been reinforced by the physical environment. The
present population of England is about 48million. Most of the population has
been living in towns and cities since the industrial revolution. The distance-
making behavior not only provided a way of showing consideration for one
another, but also of creating psychological “space” by shielding the individual’s
real self behind a behavior commonly performed by any member of the culture.
Close relationships, on the other hand usually take the form of lively
interaction, teasing, etc. that contrast strongly with the formality of the more
public behavior.
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These factors, both historical and environmental, helped to form English

expressions of polite behavior. However, as with most generalizations, there are
exceptions to the rule. Regional variations exist, as do social class differences.
Similar patterns of polite behavior can also be seen in other cultures with
similar environments. In Japan, the system of keeping harmony, or “wa”, is
highly developed and complex, with expression of formality and politeness
playing a major role.The Japanese have historically lived under crowded
conditions in houses with rice paper walls. In such an environment, it was
necessary to create behavior patterns that could provide a sense of privacy in
order to maintain harmony with others. Many other Asian and African cultures
where people live in extended family systems have developed similar behavior
patterns in order to create a feeling of space for personal thoughts. In some of
the cultures in Zambia, kneeling, clapping and even use of the third person are
some of the ways used to create space and to demonstrate respect between
people relating at different levels. Also, in order to create and maintain some
private space for themselves, a couple’s bedroom is usually kept locked in
many Zambian homes.
A distance-making pattern of politeness is just one of the ways in which

harmony can be achieved or maintained. Where space is great, patterns of
politeness may often be aimed at bringing people closer together. This can be
seen in North American patterns of hospitality where open-house informality is
most common in this large and relatively under-populated part of the world.
Patterns of politeness take many forms. In some cases, the main concern of the
members of a culture may be to show respect for another’s time. Quick, direct
information sharing, which is common in North American and Nordic cultures,
may be one of their highest forms of politeness. This contrasts with the
sometimes stronger need to spend time socializing and getting to know one
another, common in Latin American, Africa and other cultures, where direct
and quick information sharing would be seen as anything but polite.
In Arab cultures, sensitivity to religion is of great importance and is seen as the

ultimate expression of politeness. Religion in these cultures provides the basis
for all interaction and for the continuation of the culture. In such cultures,
there are large numbers of situations which call for predetermined expressions
that reinforce religious belief. The language is usually poetic, as is common in
religious texts. Here are two examples ofcommon conversational formulae:
 “Morning of goodness”
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“Morning of light”
English equivalent: “Good morning”/”Good morning”
 “May you reach morning in goodness?”
“And may you be of the same group.”
English equivalent: “Good night”/”Good night”
A highly elaborate form of politeness, an exchange of formalities that can last

for perhaps five to ten minutes is not uncommon in these contexts.
Every culture has rules of behavior which include politeness rules. It may be
hard for us to explain the rules of our culture to a foreigner because they seem
so obvious and natural to us, but we are usually very aware when someone has
broken them. Each set of rules has been created to satisfy a need, and would
probably be quite inappropriate outside that particular context. Equally, what
people do is a way of survival based on the environment in which they live.
1.4Co-cultures (culture within culture)
Within every group of people are smaller groups who - because of their age,
social status, religion, profession etc - relate more closely to each other than to
the larger group. Even though they still belong to the basic culture of the larger
group, the smaller groups are likely to have some values, ideas and codes of
behavior that differ from the main culture. These groups are usually called
subcultures by some scholars, while others like Pearson (2003) call them co-
cultures, to remove the aspect of inferiority impressed on such groups by the
term sub-culture.
Most people tend to expect their countrymen to see and interpret things the
same way they do. But sometimes one’s countrymen do not, and often this is
because they come from different subcultures. Expectations of similarity where
there is none and the conflicts that arise from the disappointment of being
dissimilar often occur in marriages or other close working relationships
between members of different subcultures. For example, Lozis born and bred
on the Copperbelt Province of Zambia may have values, beliefs etc, that may be
quite different from the Lozis in the Western Province, although they would still
share a lot of similarities. Learning to recognize when problems are arising
because of cultural differences can make these problems easier to understand
and to solve.
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An example of how subcultures can find themselves in conflict can be seen in

the relationships between the elderly and the young in many societies. The
20th and the 21st Centuries have seen rapid widening of the gap of commonality
between the youth and the elderly. This is more so in the last 50 years than
took place in the 600 years before. Understandably then, while the elderly of
today had strong connections in their youth with their elderly, and from whom
they learnt appropriate behavior, today’s youth fail to connect with the elderly
because the formers’ behaviors seem not to hold any relevance for these youth.
The two seem to be worlds apart! For example, the elderly expect a kind of
respect from the youth, but which the latter has little knowledge of or relevance
for. Sub-culture groups can also cut across other cultural and language
boundaries. For example, a Zambian academician would more easily and
quickly connect with another from say, Canada, than they would do to a fellow
Zambian non-academician. In the same vein, a university is a co-culture of the
overall culture of the country in which it is located. Yet, within universities are
more and more co-cultures!
1.5Culture Dynamism
Just as any living organism must develop and grow in order for it to sustain
itself; any society must embrace cultural change for its own development,
growth and survival. Culture evolves as a reaction to new influences and
changes in the political, social and physical environment.
For example,
 immigrants introduce into their new societies new ideas and influences;
 with new religions come new beliefs, value systems and practices;
democracy has changed the way political conflicts are handled and
heightened social consciousness in many countries;and
 information, communication and technologies have brought the peoples
of the globe closer.
With such rapid changes taking place in many spheres of societies, culture
change is inevitable. In short, no society can resist culture change without the
inevitable consequence of extinction.
Although most times negative aspects of a new culture may seem to be

exchanged, e.g., criminality; culture exchange also brings about positive
change for example, in such areas as literature, music cuisine, technology etc.
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Mulungushi University will expose you to different cultural exchanges with

students from other universities at both the local and the international levels.
1.6 Some Key Characteristics of Culture
Are there really such things as cultural – or national – characteristics? When

making generalizations there is a tendency to ignore individual differences. A
number of commonly-held generalizations about a group of people sometimes
form a composite image. This is often referred to as a stereotype. Carrying
stereotyped images of people around can lead to a form of partial blindness, as
they are often based on preconceived ideas and even prejudices.
There are, nevertheless, general cultural tendencies which, when kept in

perspective, can be used as tools and guide-lines for a deeper understanding of
cultures. People do behave and react differently in different cultures. In order
for a particular society to function properly, it is necessary to be able to predict
the way people will behave. People tend to conform to behavior patterns, which
is why cultural characteristics arise.
Given that there are numerous cultural differences betweenand within main
stream cultures, we need to understand some of the key ones. Learning key
characteristics of different cultures will help us to appreciate one another and
to live in harmony with each other. Here are five of these characteristics as
summarized by Pearson (2003, p. 223-224)
(i)
INDIVISUALISTIC CULTURES COLLECTIVE CULTURES

Value individual freedom; place “I” Value the group over the
before we individual; place “we” before “I”.
Value independence. Value commitment to family,
tribe, and clan.
Value competition over cooperation Value cooperation over
competition
Value directness and clarity. Value indirect communication.
Value telling the truth over sparing Value “saving face” by not
feelings. causing embarrassment.
Examples: United States, Australia, Examples: Venezuela, Pakistan,
Great Britain, Canada, Netherlands Peru, Taiwan, Thailand.
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(ii)
UNCERTAINTY-ACCEPTING UNCERTAINTY-REJECTING
CULTURES TEND TO: CULTURES TEND TO:
Be less threatened by ideas and Be threatened by ideas and people
people from outside. from outside.
Be willing to take risks in the face of See uncertainty as a continuous
uncertainty. hazard.
Avoid rules and seek flexibility. Establish formal rules for behavior.
Dislike structure associated with Prefer stability, hierarchy, and
hierarchy. structure.
Prize initiative and doing things on Seek argument, consensus.
one’s own.
See truth as relative, and question Believe in absolute truths and expert
authority. authority.
Value individual opinion, general Embrace written rules, planning,
principles, and common sense. regulation, rituals, and ceremonies.
Examples: United States, Great Examples: Japan, France, Spain,
Britain, Denmark, Sweden, Greece, Portugal, Belgium, Peru,
Singapore, Hong Kong, Ireland, India Chile, Argentina.
(iii)
IMPLICIT-RULE CULTURES TEND EXPLICIT-RULE CULTURES TEND

TO: TO:
See cultural rules as implied, already
See cultural rules as explicit;
known to participants. procedures are explained and
discussed.
See an attack on an issue as an Person and issue are separate.
attack on the person; person and
issue are perceived as one.
Prefer “saving face”, the need to Expect communicators to be
soothe an embarrassed or insulted straightforward; people have to cope
person. with embarrassment or insult.
Examples: Middle East, Africa, Latin Examples: Northern and Western
America Europe, Unites States
(iv)
LOW- CONTEXT (LC) CULTURES HIGH-CONTEXT (HC) CULTURES
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TEND TO: TEND TO:

See communication as centered on See communication as centered on
the source, “I”. the receiver.
State intentions overtly. Approach subjects obliquely or even
circuitously.
Employ a direct verbal style. Load much of the meaning into the
setting or context.
Load information into transmitted Treat language as a device for
message. preserving and promoting social
interests.
Reduce the importance of context. Demonstrate considerable respect for
the receiver.
Examples: United States, Western Avoid saying a direct “no” to a
Europe, Scandinavia request.
Examples: Asian Pacific Rim, Central
America, South America.
(v)
MONO-TIME CULTURES TEND TO: POLY-TIME CULTURES TEND TO:

Compartmentalize time. Factor in time as one element of a
larger context.
Say that they can waste or save time. Value social relationships and time
considerations together.
Separate work and social time, task Orchestrate family and social
and relational time. responsibilities and task dimensions.
Point to the future. Not see time as a commodity that
can be saved, advanced, or wasted.
Examples: North America, Northern Examples: Latin America, Middle
Europe, and Germany. East, Asia, France, Africa, and
Greece.
Cultural Characteristics Scale
TO DO
Below are a number of different characteristics managed on a scale. This scale

indicates a spectrum and is not intended to place any relative value on any
particular characteristic.
Read each pair of characteristics, and then decide where on the scale you
would put the majority of people in your country. For example, if you think
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that most people tend to be ‘rather formal’; you might mark “b” on the scale
like this:
Formal a __________ (b) __________ c ________ d _________ e informal
If, on the other hand, you think they are very informal, you might mark “e”
instead:
Formal a _______ b _______ c_________ d _______ (e) informal
Now do the same with the 10 pairs of characteristics below.
1. Group oriented a____ b _______ c _______ d ______e individualistic

2. Traditional a____ b ______ c _______ d ______ e progressive
3. Open a____ b _______c _______d _______ e reserved
4. Egalitarian a____ b _______ c _______ d ______ e class-conscious
5. Materialistic a____ b _______ c _______ d ______e spiritual
6. Formal a____ b ______ c _______ d_______ e informal
7. Obedient a____ b _______ c ______ d _______ e Independent
8. Unemotional a_______ b _______ c _______ d ______ e emotional
9. Serious a_______ b ________ c _______ d ______ e easy-going
10. Work-oriented a _____ b _____ c _____ d _______ e leisure-oriented
TO DISCUSS
Compare your answers in groups. How closely do you agree with one
another?
Next as a class, discuss and agree on 5 qualities that you think are
especially typical of people in your country. You may choose from the list
above, or add other characteristics of your own.
Then, as a class, take another culture that you are familiar with and, using
another symbol or color, mark on the scales above what you think are their
national/cultural characteristics. Compare your answers with someone
else’s.
Keeping in mind that these are generalizations, can you see any areas where
characteristics are so different from your own that they can lead to cultural
clashes?
People usually have an image or expectation of what another culture is like,

but it is important to be aware of how this matches with reality. We can
make generalizations, in order to understand both cultures and our own.
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We can then use these generalizations as a basis for comparing for our own
culture with others. Swedes, for example, tend to communicate more
directly than Americans, who in turn are usually more direct than the
British. This comparison may help us to acquire a perspective on ourselves
in relation to others. Stereotypes and generalizations are therefore useful
when …
 We are aware that we are using them and that they are simple
stereotyped images and generalizations - not facts.
 We use them to describe a nationality or culture, rather than to
evaluate one as being “good” or “bad”
 We use them as first best guesses to try to describe the norms of a
culture, based on information available, and allow for individual
differences
 We consciously seek information in order to update and modify our
stereotypes.
Everything is not always as it appears to be. When making generalizations

remember that the cues and signals that indicate an emotion, such as anger or
satisfaction for example, in one culture might be misinterpreted by people from
a different culture. Silence in Scandinavian cultures frequently indicates
respect, thoughtfulness or shyness, while in Britain and America it often
communicates a lack of interest, arrogance, or even anger. Similarly, a show of
anger can be evaluated quiet differently in different cultures. In some cultures
such as Italy, France and parts of North America, the ability to show anger is
often considered a sign of character and color, but in most Asian countries it
shows a lack of self-control, and disrespect for the harmony of the group.
An unconscious facial expression, a gesture, a word or expression, even silence

may, in a cross-cultural situation, express something to the other person that
was not intended. Beware, then, of making hasty judgments about
characteristics, in particular when it concerns a culture or a people you are not
farmiliar with. Generalizations are useful, but the more you know about a
culture, the more specific your generalizations about it become and the more
numerous the reservations and qualifications you have. As a foreign worker in
Japan once observed:
“A person who has never been to Japan will claim to be able to write a book
about the culture. A person who has been here for one year can claim to write an
article about it. A person who has been here for three years will find it difficult to
come up with one definite statement about Japan without qualifying it”.
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Our first contact with another culture may be at a railway station, in a taxi, a
café or a department store. At this stage, all our senses are alert and open to
new impressions. That is why these first impressions are often so strong, and
why they usually remain with us and can color our whole experience of another
culture, either favorably or negatively, depending on the experience.
Topic re-cap: definitions and meanings of culture

 Culture is defined in its social/anthropological sense as the basis of all
human behavior. It also determines the meaning we give to our
experiences.
 We are influenced and shaped by the culture in which we grow up, the
same way that other growing things are influenced and shaped by their
environment.
 Every culture rule or pattern is based on satisfying a need in society.
 The cultural training we receive as we grow up gives each of us an
identity and a role within our own cultural setting.
 Each culture is appropriate in its own setting. No culture is inherently
good or bad, right or wrong, only appropriate or inappropriate depending
on the context.
 Every culture contains a number of subcultures which share certain
values with the mainstream culture, but which also have other, differing
values.
 Understanding culture is essential to our survival as we increasingly
interact with people who see the world differently, and as our own beliefs
are challenged and we are faced with assimilating new ideas.
2 Managing Cultural Differences
We have looked briefly at what culture is and how it influences us as

individuals. But how can we manage cultural differences in order for us to exist
in harmony? We may learn to manage our differences by appreciating the
following issues about culture.
1) Cultural values
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We have discussed a number of aspects of culture- what aspects make up

culture, how culture affects our behavior, the role of subcultures in society and
the effects of interaction on cultural development. But the real question is why
are cultures the way they are?
Every product, behavior or idea of a certain culture gives us a little insight into
what is considered important, what is valuable, to the people of that culture.
These values – cultural values – are the foundation on which the culture we see
and experience is built.
In many western cultures, honesty – telling the truth as we perceive it – is of

great value. Westerners dislike and distrust people they consider dishonest
who do not tell the truth directly, even if it is unpleasant. We have a saying in
English that communicates the importance of honesty over other
considerations: “the truth often hurts”. But many other cultures around the
world hold group harmony to be of great value, greater than direct honesty. In
such cultures, someone who tells a painful truth, especially directly, shows
gross disregard for people, for group harmony, and is at the very least a rude
individual.
The more we understand about the values of a culture and the reasons why
people act and think the way they do, the more we will be able to act and react
appropriately in the many different and unexpected situations that occur when
people of different cultures come in contact with one another.
 Learning Cultural Values

Information about values is all around us, wherever we are. Every time we visit
a foreign country, watch a foreign movie or television program, even eat foreign
food we can learn something about the values of that culture. Think about the
contrast between the esthetic delicacy of Japanese cuisine and the robust
richness of Mexican. What can these cuisines tell you about these two
cultures?
Imagine how different attitudes can be towards something like time. Consider,
for example, a tropical culture where temperatures change only a few degrees
all year round, and an arctic culture that is dependent on a cycle that allows
for only a few short months of outdoor activity per year. Values are based on
what people need to survive in a certain place, arising from factors of climate,
geography, and so on. In order for a new comer to respond appropriately in a
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foreign culture, it is necessary to understand these factors and their influences

on the people of that culture.
One of the most important methods of learning about the values of another
culture is to have personal contact with the people who live in the culture you
want to know about. A newcomer needs contacts within the host culture in
order to learn the rules, know what to expect and how to interpret what is
experienced. It is even more helpful if one of the contacts knows something
about other cultures and therefore understands what is confusing to
newcomers and can explain things to them. This support, together with the
newcomer’s active observation of how things are done, an active search for
various interpretations of why things are done this way, and a good sense of
humor are the most essential tools for learning about the values of a foreign
culture.
Good support makes possible the newcomer’s transition from confusion and
suspicion to understanding, from resistance and fear to respect, from
frustration and withdrawal to enjoyment of the experience of the new culture,
based on an understanding and appreciation of the values of people.
 Expression of Cultural Values

Basic cultural – a kind of core of values for a particular culture – are passed on
from generation to generation, reinforced by gestures of approval or disapproval
in social interaction, expressed in language, in games, in the way we organize
our time and our environment, and so on. One way in which we commonly
express our cultural values is through proverbs and sayings. Below you will
find two examples of shared British and American proverbs and the values they
express.
Proverb/Saying Value
“Save for a rainy day” thrift, foresight
“If at first you don’t succeed – try, try again” perseverance, not giving up
In what other ways are cultural values expressed? Where else do we look for
clues if we want to learn about a new culture? Cultural values are
communicated in everything we do, in ways both obvious and inferred, at both
conscious and unconscious levels. The key is knowing what to look for and
what to do with what you find. Some ways in which people communicate
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cultural values are given below. Perhaps you can add a list with suggestions of
you own?
 Verbally (both spoken and written language)

 By the use of the voice (loudness, tone, speed of delivery, etc)
 Non-verbally (by the use of gestures, facial expressions, etc)
 By the use of space ( distances between people in conversation, the way
homes and offices are arranged)
 By the use of time (the relative importance of keeping time such as
appointments, the organization of daily routines, etc)
 In play and games
 In literature
 In mass media (TV and radio broadcasts, advertising, etc)
 When Values Clash

Cultures develop in different ways in response to the needs of the people in
their environment. If we observe very different environments, such as
Siberia in contrast with Peru, it should be no surprise that some very basic
differences exist as far as cultural values are concerned. The values of
Siberians are no more superior to those of Peruvians than vice versa – each
system of values is appropriate in its place. What happens, however, when
people from such different cultures meet?
Milton Bennet of the Intercultural Communication Institute in the US

pointed out that cultural sensitivity and cross-cultural tolerance are not
historically a natural state of being. As he puts it – when one group of
cavemen met another unfamiliar group of cavemen, they did not run up and
hug them. Contact between different groups of people has largely been
characterized by fear and flight, bloodshed and oppression, and by
genocide. As the violent history of humanity shows, loving thy neighbor is
easier said than done, when thy neighbor is different.
Interaction between different peoples is increasing because of technological

developments in transportation and communication and because of
economic and environmental interdependency. Can societies afford to close
each other out, eliminate the opportunity for exchange of resources and
knowledge? Such exchange is however, destined to be difficult. The theory of
cultural sensitivity and relativity explains what happens to people when
faced with difference and how these experiences can most constructively be
dealt with.
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The Intercultural Sensitivity Scale

Ethnocentric States
Denial – Defense – Minimization
Ethnorelative States
Acceptance – Adaptation – Integration
A person who is isolated from contact with others will probably find him or
herself in a state of denial. When one has no chance to experience essential
difference, it is difficult to imagine or understand how or why people may be
different. Although it is rare that people these days can be so physically
isolated that they are not aware that difference exists, some recently
discovered tribes in South America and elsewhere fit this description.
However, there are ways of psychologically isolating oneself by being
selective about what one perceives – seeing and hearing only what fits in
with one’s own view of the world, denying anything that does not fit in.
Such people can go quickly from denial to defense. When they become
aware of difference, they become threatened by it. Their reaction may take
the form of negative stereotyping – “that’s typical of Finns!”, “foreigners just
can’t be trusted”, etc. Nearly all cultures have some group that is the brunt
of jokes typifying them as stupid, silly, incompetent. Often these jokes are
made to unify a group of people, creating an “us” mentality, and aren’t really
funny at all but are a defense mechanism. To see if an ethnic joke is truly
funny without it’s ethnic connotations, ask yourself if the joke would still be
funny if it was made about you! Sometimes defense comes out in
statements that proclaim the superiority of one’s own group, e.g. “the
master race”, “the civilized world”.
Sometimes, travelers to other cultures become so impressed with the values

and lifestyles of the place they are visiting that they become defensive in the
opposite way – proclaiming the superiority of the ( for them) new way of life
and rejecting their own home culture. This person is still on the defensive –
still unable to appreciate the value of both cultures in their own contexts. In
English, we often call this behavior “going native”.
Once one has become aware of difference and is not extremely threatened by
it, there is still a tendency to attempt to hold one’s own culture central. One
way of doing this is to minimize the differences one perceives – believing that
‘people are all really the same” and seeking ways to confirm this belief. The
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danger here is that behavior of strangers will most likely be interpreted

according to the minimizer’s own system of values, which may be completely
incorrect from the stranger’s point of view. For example, a person from a
culture that values quiet and reserved behavior might interpret the
talkativeness and loud laughter of a foreigner as disrespectful, silly or
perhaps drunken behavior. For the stranger, this kind of behavior may be
an expression of self-confidence and friendliness. The sympathetic attitude
of the minimizer is “when I do or say that, I mean…, so that must be what
this foreigner means”. But this assessment may be completely inaccurate.
Denial, defense and minimization account for a great many

misunderstandings and cultural clashes. Without awareness, openness,
and acknowledgment of the significance of difference, problems that spring
from interaction between different peoples cannot be solved. Not until we
can understand to the point of being able to explain another person’s point
of view to their satisfaction, do we have any hope of working out a way to
live together that gives us all room to be ourselves.
TO DISCUSS
Have you ever been involved in a cultural clash, a situation when someone
said or did something that turned out to be “wrong” in the eyes of a person
from another culture? Perhaps you yourself have experienced anger, or
confusion about the behavior of a foreigner. Some such experiences may
have nothing to do with culture at all, but surprisingly many do. Form small
groups and share your experiences. What do you think the problem was?
 When Values Complement

The last three states on the Sensitivity Scale describe attitudes that lead
towards the appreciation of difference, beginning with acceptance of foreign
value systems. Such acceptance means having an understanding that there
are many ways of acting and thinking that are just as valid as one’s own…
more than one way to eat rice, more than one way to raise children, more
than one way to be a friend. Acceptance does not necessarily mean
approval, just an ability to see the value and validity of other ways of doing
and being – that are different from one’s own.
Should an individual learn something about an aspect of another culture

that especially appeals to him or her, that person may choose to adapt that
aspect to his or her own way of life. It becomes a part of the person’s own
frame of reference. This is happening more and m ore around the world in
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simple ways. A variety of cuisines from the far reaches of the globe, for
example, can be found in almost any large city in the world. In more
complex ways, for instance, people are becoming aware of different religions
and political philosophies. Music, are, architecture, literature are shared
and reborn the world over.
On the personal level, this adaptation leads to an understanding of foreign

values and behavior from a different foreigner’s point of view. In contrast
with sympathy, mentioned in the description of minimization, an empathetic
attitude is developed – for example “I know she looks at the situation
differently than I do. From her point of view, she means…” In order to be
empathetic, a person must learn to observe as objectively as possible and to
explore alternative explanations for what is observed.
Adaptation can be extensive and involve a blending of cultures. A person

may also adopt an aspect of a culture with no modification. What is adopted
may be obvious – high rise buildings in Tokyo, or less so – for example
Buddism in Western countries. A person may feel a part of more than one
culture, having integrated the value systems so that they seem natural and
make sense. The children of immigrants have often integrated both the
value system of their parents and the value system of the adopted country.
They know how to act appropriately in both cultures and they understand
how each culture sees things. Bowing may be the appropriate greeting at
home for such a person, but might be sees as too formal or silly at school,
where screeching out a ‘Hiya, dude!” would be more appropriate.
This ability to go between different cultures can be an easy transition for

some people, especially if there has been a lot of support from the
environment for it. If not, the person may feel a bit out of place in both
cultures. The individual may not fully understand the value of his or her
perspectives. A person who has integrated two or more value systems can
use such perspectives constructively to be a bridge between both groups –
mediating conflicts, designing policies and programs for mixed groups of
people to work successfully together, and effectively manage multicultural
work teams.
The acceptance and appreciation of difference create an environment where

we can take advantage of the best of what each culture has to offer. We can
move towards avoiding conflicts which in the past seemed inevitable, and
complement each other without losing the sense of uniqueness that each
culture has created.
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Recap: values
 Culture is based on values, which are a product of what the people of
that culture consider most important.
 These values are formed in response to conditions of climate and the
natural environment within which the culture must survive.
 We can learn what the cultural values of a people are by observation
and through contact with the natives of that culture and through
analysis of what we experience.
 Values are expressed in the various ways that people communicate
with each other, in the different roles they find themselves in.
 Cultural clashes often occur when people from different value
systems deny the differences, act defensively towards another
culture, and misinterpret behavior because they based their
evaluations of foreigners on their own system of values.
 In order to work constructively with different value systems, we must
first accept the validity of what is different. Appreciation of other
systems can lead to enrichment of culture through adaptation and
adoption, and to reduce conflict through integration of cultural
difference.
2) Cultural Understanding
 Knowing Your Own Culture

Knowledge of foreign languages and cultures often teaches us much about our
own. At school we study culture-related subjects such as history or geography,
our mother tongue and a foreign language, politics and economics, but these
subjects are normally studied in stages, isolated from one another in a way
they never are in real life. Studying culture as a topic in itself provides us with
an opportunity to bring together these different aspects of our lives and to see
how they are related and how they influence us. The study of culture is the
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study of ourselves as human beings – and leads us to a greater understanding

of who we are, and why we are what we are.
Because we are usually so comfortable within our own cultural setting, it is

sometimes hard to know what is special about it. We take things for granted.
What might tourists and other visitors observe about our culture that we
perhaps are not even aware of ourselves? What sort of things would they want
to know more about in order to understand and appreciate our culture better?
People behave in different ways to a given situation. However, there are

patterns of behavior which are expected, because they are the norms of that
particular culture. In order to gain a perspective on some of the cultural
varieties that exist in terms of behavior, it might help to increase awareness of
what is “normal” in your own culture.
TO DO
Below are a number of situations that could be open to various interpretations

or responses. Read each one and choose the alternative that you feel is most
appropriate for you.
Ten Situations
1. You want to take a bus or taxi but find that there is a queue of people
already waiting. You are in a hurry, so you …
a) Go to the front of the queue
b) Go to the back of the queue
c) Ask if you can go first
d) Stand away from the queue and try to take the next bus or taxi when it
arrives.
2. You ask the price of something you want to buy in a shop. When the
price is quoted, you …
a) Suggest a lower price than you are prepared to pay
b) Ask about a discount or paying any installments
c) Pretend to walk away
d) Pay up without asking any further questions
3. You have been invited to a party, starting at 8 p.m. You arrive …
a) On time
b) A little before 8
c) Sometime after 8
d) Whenever it suits you
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4. You are in the classroom talking to fellow students. When the teacher
arrives, you …
a) Stop talking and stand up
b) Continue talking until the teacher asks for silence
c) Stay seated and greet the teacher
d) Remain seated but look up at the teacher
e) Stop talking and keep your eyes down on your desk.
5. A woman teacher wears trousers, sometimes sits on her desk in front of
the class and often chats outside the classroom with male students as
well as female students. In your opinion she is …
a) Behaving quiet normally
b) Undignified and unprofessional
c) Trying too hard to be friendly
d) Decadent and eccentric
6. Two men are walking down the street arm-in-arm. They are probably …
a) Close friends
b) Business acquaintances
c) Fooling around
d) Helping each other
e) Gay
7. You are sitting in a train compartment. Someone pulls out a packet of
cigarettes. Nobody else is smoking. You expect him to …
a) Offer them around
b) Ask for permission to smoke
c) Go ahead and smoke without saying anything
d) Go and smoke elsewhere
8. You want to cross a busy street. You …
a) Wait until there is a suitable gap in the traffic and then cross
b) Step out and expect the traffic to make way for you
c) Go to the nearest pedestrian crossing or traffic lights
d) Cross by weaving in and out of the traffic as it passes
9. A man sees a woman he has met but doesn’t know very well. He is
expected to …
a) Kiss her on the cheek and/or embrace her
b) Shake her hand
c) Kiss her hand
d) Greet her only verbally
e) Ignore her
10. You see a woman slapping and shouting at her child in the
supermarket. You …
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a) Watch with interest but do nothing

b) Talk to someone else about it
c) Go up to the woman and try to restrain her
d) Call someone in authority
e) Ignore it completely
TO DISCUSS
Now compare your answers with others in your group or class. Do you all
agree? What are the “reasons” for your reactions to these situations? Are they
based on traditions, conventions, taboos, or something else?
Next, consider how most people in your country, in different age groups, would
respond to the same situations and why.
Lastly, think of another culture that you know of. How would you expect the
responses to be different? What reasons can you think of for any such
differences?
3) Contacts across Cultures
 Contact with other Cultures

When coming into contact with other cultures, we tend to judge from our own
experiences, our own sets of values. We use the term of reference that we have
learned from our upbringing and the norms that prevail in our own culture.
This can lead to misunderstandings, as the following story illustrates.
A missionary in an African country was somewhat offended by the sight of

many of the local women attending his church services bare-breasted. Thinking
this is to be indecent and not fit for a religious service in the House of God, he
decided to have a word with the village chief. When the latter heard the priest’s
suggestion that the women should wear blouses in church, he was quiet shocked
and replies: “Do you really expect our village women to dress up like whores
when they go to church?”
TO DISCUSS
The priest and the village chief obviously have different ideas about that
constitutes proper dress. Why do you think this is? Can you think of any
solutions to the problem?
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 Cultural Adjustment
Many pitfalls and misunderstandings lie hidden under the surface of
familiarity. On the other hand, a visit or stay in a country that offers more
obvious contrasts to one’s own culture usually means that the visitor arrives
more prepared psychologically to meet differences and problems of
communicating and understanding.
It is commonly recognized that when moving to another country to live, or to

stay for a longer period of time, there are certain identifiable phases that people
normally experience in the process of adapting to the new cultural
environment. These phases are known as Cultural Adjustment Phases .one
example of this is given below, outlining five phases associated with travel or
residence abroad, following by a re-entry phase which occurs upon returning
home.
Changing cultural environment – 6 phases of adjustment
Phase Description and Characteristics
 PRELIMINARY - making the decision

-making preparations
-the journey and its effects
 OBSERVING -arrival
-the role of spectator
-passive, but alert
-fluctuations of mood
 PARTICIPATING -more active role

-difficulties and challenges
-satisfaction of coping
-frustration of not coping
 SHOCK -identity and personality crisis

-reassessment of home culture
-feelings of depression
-A feeling of not belonging-being in a “no man’s land”
 ADAPTATION -increasing acceptance of new culture

-increasing success in dealing with new situation
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-Feeling of identifying with the circumstances of the

new culture – “shared fate”
 RE-ENTRY -return “home’

-problems of readjustment
-shock emotions: excitement, depression
TO DISCUSS
What sort of “support systems” do you think would help you to cope with the
phases of cultural adjustment and shock at this university?
 Adapting to other Cultures

What do you understand by these two terms – ‘adopt’ and ‘adapt’? Look at the
list of situations below. Which ones would you find it difficult to adapt to?
Which ones would you not be able to adopt?
 Eating off the same plate with others

 Smiling and saying hello to strangers you pass on the street
 Telling people how good you are at something
 Accepting an “untruth” so that the person telling it will not become
embarrassed
 Women being quiet when men are talking, or vice versa
 Young men having a lower status than old womn
Some cultural differences can easily be seen and defined. Examples of these,
such as dress, food, building styles, have been discussed in previous chapters.
Other differences are more subtle, less easily defined and often more
fundamental to the specific culture in which they have evolved. The roles of
men and women, attitudes towards time and the future, social relationships,
hierarchy and work relationships, individual or group orientation, the status
and treatment of young children and the elderly, are just some areas of
cultural difference that must be understood in order to function well in a
foreign environment.
These differences are usually quite considerable, even though they are often
‘under the surface’, hidden behind a façade of recognizable features.
Department stores, office buildings, cars, cinemas, television, consumer
products, fashion trends, hairstyles and pop music – these are the various
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products of modern society that have found a foothold nearly everywhere in the
world and which add to the appearance of sameness and uniformity from
Sydney to Singapore to Stuttgart. Superficial, materialistic changed may come
quickly. Changes in the deep structure of a culture occur more slowly.
The similarities that exist between cultures all over the world stem partly from
the fact that we all experience the same biological needs. Problems that
sometimes arise in contacts between cultures do so, not because each different
society or culture has devised its own solutions to meeting these basic needs,
but because people are often intolerant of “foreign ways”.
A certain amount of conformity to the norms of a given culture is necessary if

one is to survive and function fully and competently in that culture, as a
member or even as a visitor. What we learn from the culture that we are
brought up in does not necessarily help us when we are confronted with a
different culture, because the cues and signals that we receive are not the
same, or, if they are, can mean something quite different from what we expect.
In order to learn read the cues and signals of the new environment; we need
the quality of empathy in our contacts with other cultures. Empathy means
being able to see things from another person’s point of view and to experience
things from that person’s reality.
A frequent hindrance to successful cultural interaction is the fear of losing

one’s own cultural identity in the process of learning another. It is not until the
visitor or immigrant is able to learn to adapt to, rather than adopt, the host
culture’s behavioral forms that this fear recedes and gives way to mutual
respect. To feel empathy for another culture is not to reject your own, but to
begin to understand how the other functions.
 Cultural Interaction and Culture Shock

A lot of research has recently been conducted in the area of culture shock.
some of the different causes of what constitutes this state of stress and the
feeling of anxiety and frustration that generally go with it can be discussed
with your friend or in groups. There are also different ways that one might
react to it and deal with it. Can you discuss some of them?.The Flight or Fight
reaction is unfortunately the most common. The opposite, Going Native, is the
most rare, and the middle path, Empathy, is the most likely to lead to balanced
adjustment.
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Despite the challenges, stresses and difficulties associated with international

travel, every year more and more people eagerly seek opportunities to
experience it. It would seem that for many people the advantages far outweigh
the disadvantages.
Re-cap
 We tend to judge other cultures according to our own cultural
upbringing, our experiences and our concepts of what is right or wrong.
 It is easy to jump to conclusions and misinterpret what we see or
experience in another culture because we tend to base our judgments on
the norms of our own culture.
 By studying other cultures we can learn more about our own. By looking
more objectively at our own culture, we may understand others better.
 When emigrating, or living in another country for a period of time, people
usually go through certain recognizable stages, which may or may not
lead to adaptation. These include a period of ‘culture shock’.
 We can adapt to the new customs and traditions of a foreign culture
without necessarily adopting them.
 An inability to cope with the differences that the new environment
imposes on the individual can lead to a rejection of the new culture or to
a hostile attitude towards it.
 A balanced form of adjustment to another culture requires an open
attitude of curiosity and empathy, leading to a blend of the home culture
and the new one.
4) Cultural Diversity
 Our Basic Needs

What do we all have in common? The varieties of cultural forms that exist
around the world have developed from certain basic biological needs. The
anthropologists Hall and Trager drew up a map of culture based on ten of
these, which they called the ten primary message systems (‘The Silent
Language’ 1959). These primary systems include, the need to:
 interact,
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 play,
 subsist,
 reproduce,
 learn,
 defend oneself and
 exploit materials and the environment.
We can also look at basic needs from the individual/psychological perspective,

as the following diagram illustrates. According to Maslow, it is no good trying to
fulfill higher needs before the lower needs are satisfied. In other words, you
can’t motivate a starving person to try to improve his situation or to think in
the long term until he has been adequately fed. Similarly, one needs to feel safe
and secure from threats and danger before one can develop as a social being.
The strongest needs are at the bottom and the weaker at the top, though it is
the latter which are more distinctively human.
Self-Actualization: Growth, Accomplishment, Personal Development
Esteem: Self-Respect, Achievement, Status, Recognition
Social Needs: Belonging, Acceptance, Social Life, Friendship and Love
Safety Needs: Security, Protection from Danger
Physical Needs: Hunger, Thirst, Sleep

(Adapted from “Needs Hierarchy” by Abraham Maslow)
Research carried out in a number of different cultures indicates that the degree
of importance attached to the higher needs varies from culture to culture. The
ranking order may also differ. For example, employees in countries such as
Greece and Japan tend to place a higher value on security than on self-
actualization. Job security and lifetime employment are more important than
an interesting and challenging job. On the other hand, many Swedes tend to
put esteem and self-actualization before social needs.
If we try to combine these two views – the biological and psychological – to

describe our basic needs in simple, concrete terms, and taking in the cultural
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perspective, what kind of list might we come up with? The ten items below
reflect both individual and group needs.
 Food
 Clothing
 Shelter
 Family structure
 Social organization
 Government
 Defence
 Development of arts and crafts
 Advancement of knowledge and science
 Religion and spiritual beliefs
How would you rank these needs, as an individual?
 Cultural solutions
For each of these basic categories of needs, a variety of solutions has been
devised by different cultures around the world. Let’s take a closer look at some
of these cultural solutions.
If we take the first item on the list, Food, we don’t need much experience or
knowledge of the world to realize that cultural differences in this area are very
great indeed. These differences concern what we eat, how we eat, when and
where we eat. Even the question of why we eat may vary somewhat from
culture to culture, once the basic need to survive has been satisfied. For
example, if we take vinkubala as a type of food, we could break the topic down
into such elements as below:
What?
 Vinkubala
When?
 mealtimes
How?
 with the hands
Where?
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 dining room/restaurants etc
Why?
 Social reasons.
Interesting as it may be, a variety of cultural solutions to each basic need

exists around the world. Each system has evolved in response to the physical
and environmental forces that act on it, and is also a product of the historical
and social forces that have influenced it over the ages.
 Convention and Diversity

“Unconventionality is not difficult in the eyes of the world, when it is but the
convention of your own set”. Somerset Maugham.
In most societies throughout the world today, a number of subcultures exist.

These minorities usually have different sets of moral or religious values,
brought about mostly by differences in age and attitude to change, and by
variations in economic, social and ethnic backgrounds. There are elements of
diversity that exist in all cultures. Minorities frequently protest against the
norms of the society to which they belong and create their own lifestyles, which
in turn may have some influence on society at large.
Some obvious examples in our western cultures have been the various forms of
pop culture, such as teddy boys, punks, Rastafarians and skinheads, usually
with their own styles of dress, music and sometimes even their own language
forms and rituals. Another example of different subcultures is the obvious
contrast between rural farming communities and urban yuppies. Some or all of
these subcultures can exist in what is still considered a single culture. An
American feels like an American, whether he or she is a yuppie or a farmer.
They share a number of experiences and conventions with others of the same
culture.
 Tradition and Taboos

Though there is a tendency towards the emergence of subcultures throughout
the world, there are certain traditional attitudes, codes of behavior, ways of
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expressing oneself and interpreting the world that remain specific to individual
cultures. These differences may be superficial in nature, such as the form or
interpretation of a gesture, or they may be fundamental to the beliefs and
values of that society, such as the form of a marriage ceremony or the style of
dress for the men and women in that culture.
Whatever the individual differences, it is worth bearing in mind that there are
usually very good practical or ethical reasons for the way things are done, even
if the original reasons are forgotten, as the following examples illustrate.
As a child, Elsa was never allowed to leave her hat or coat on the bed. When she
grew up and had children of her own, she continued the tradition and forbade
them to leave their hats and coats on the bed. But when her children grew older
and questioned her about the reason for this, she had to turn to her elderly
immigrant mother for the answer. It was only then that she learned that it was
customary in her day in order to prevent the spread of lice when this was still a
big problem in her country.
Traditions, like conventions, serve the purpose of unifying a people. They

provide a common understanding and sense of identity, even if the rationale
behind the tradition no longer applies, or is forgotten. International travelers
are often confused by forms of behavior which may have difficulty in explaining
rationally. The experienced traveler generally disregards the fact that he or she
does not understand the reasons for a specific behavior, but observes, and
perhaps imitates, often coming to that understanding at a later date.
A taboo is another form of tradition. Something which a particular culture

regards as unacceptable for religious, moral, ethical or even practical reasons
becomes a taboo. All cultures have their taboos. These may be explicit,
following for example the dictates of the Koran, or – more often – implicit, part
of the unwritten codes of behavior of that society. There are frequently practical
reasons behind customs and taboos, which have their roots in the past history
of a culture. Many books which give advice to business people visiting
countries in other parts of the world contain a section on the “Do’s” and
“Don’ts” - - the customs and taboos of that particular society. They are a
valuable source of information when preparing a visit, and may help to avoid
embarrassing or baffling situations.
 TO DISCUSS
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Can you think of any reasons why the following customs or taboos have arisen
in different cultures around the world?
 The sacred cow (India)

 The unwillingness to be photographed (many African cultures)
 The taboo of giving or receiving something with the left hand (many Arab
and Asian countries)
 The avoidance of touching someone on the head, or pointing your feet at
someone (Thailand)
 The taboo of eating meat from the pig (Jewish and Islamic cultures)
 The removal of shoes before entering a home or traditional-style
restaurant (Japan)
 The removal of paper round a bouquet of flowers before presenting them
to the hostess (Sweden)
Perhaps you could add some other customs or taboos that you know of. Can
you think of any taboos that are common in your culture?
A Swedish artist once wrote in the preface to a book on his stay in an African
country:
“At last I don’t understand… but it took a long time!”
It is tempting for all cultural beings to make hasty judgments, to jump to quick
and easy conclusions without waiting for more information or exploring
alternative explanations for what we see and experience. Progress towards
peaceful coexistence would be much promoted by developing cultural
understanding and skills in dealing effectively with other cultures. There is
greatness in all cultures!
Topic re-cap: managing cultural differences

 The study of culture leads us to a greater understanding of who we are
and why we are what we are today.
 We can acquire a greater understanding of our own culture by applying
the same techniques that are used to observe and learn about other
cultures.
 Generalizations and stereotypes are useful when:
- We are aware we are using them
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- We use them to describe, not evaluate, a culture

- We use them as first best guesses to try to describe the norm of a culture,
based on information available at the time.
- We consciously seek more information to up-date and modify them
 Stereotypes should not be used as models for dealing with individual
within a culture.
 If we are alert to our surroundings, we can study culture wherever we
are, both at home or abroad.
 The various forms of cultural expression all derive from the same basic
human needs.
 Our needs are both individual/psychological and group/social.
 Similarities between different cultures may be superficial, the result of
technological influences and mass entertainment world-wide.
 Some cultural differences are obvious; others are more subtle and deep-
rooted.
 All cultures and subcultures have their own conventions and taboos.
There is usually a rational reason behind them, even if this may not
always be apparent.
3 Cross Cultural Communication
Although culture itself is as old as the human race, discussing it in the context
of cross-cultural communication and interaction is relatively new. Independent
of anthropology, sociology and archeology, cross-cultural communication and
interaction has only existed for about half a century. As such, new information
and theories are consistently being added to the subject. In this topic, we will
consider the following
- What is communication?
- An imperfect system?
- Body language?
- Styles of Communication
- Direct and Indirect
- Cues in the Environment
- Communication Gaps
- Strategies for improving cross –cultural communication
 What is Communication?
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Our advanced ability to communicate is one of the things that make human
beings special among animals. We create meaning and can communicate this
meaning over time and distance. Though we share some types of communicate
with other animals, body language for instance, we have one thing that sets us
apart: verbal language.
All forms of communication are based on symbols. As long as two or more

people agree on a symbol and its meaning, it can be used to communicate. The
symbol can be a sound, like “ouch!” It can be a gesture.
A symbol can be a word, like “stupid” or “happy”, or it can be the way we use
our voices in saying words:
LOUDLY or softly
Speaking quickly or s l o w l y
Precisely or sloppily, etc.
These symbols only communicate the meanings we have agreed to give them.
“Ouch!” is an American/English expression for pain, but means nothing at all
in many other cultures.
Words, like “stupid” or “bright” or “happy”, have the obvious limitations we

recognize in spoken language – they mean nothing to someone who does not
know the language. Thus language is a means of communication, but also of
ex-communication – excluding people who do not understand it! Even volume
(how loud we speak) and speed (how rapidly we speak) carry meaning in
different parts of the world, and vary according to the norms of each culture.
What is seen as quiet in one country can be seen as loud in another country
and can be given a different interpretation. Swedes, for instance are generally
characterized as quiet and reserved by Southern Europeans, but are often seen
by Finns as loud and talkative. It all depends on your point of view.
Thus words and the ways in which we use words and gestures are all symbols
used in the communication of meaning. They are symbols that we use and
understand, at least subconsciously, because we have learned them within
their cultural contexts.
 An Imperfect System
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One danger with a system of symbols, though, is the misconception that, as

long as the “Sender” (the person speaking or gesturing) uses a symbol that his
or her experience has shown to have a specific meaning, the “Receiver” (the
person listening or watching) will understand that symbol to have the same
meaning.
This cannot happen, though, if the sender and receiver do not agree on the
meaning of the symbols used. Even people from the same basic language and
cultural backgrounds may disagree about the meanings of the symbols. These
different meanings grow naturally through experience in different
environments. For instance, some confusion is created between Americans and
the British when describing how something – perhaps a party or project – went.
In American slang, to say that something “bombed” is to say that it was a
miserable failure. In Britain, to say “it went like a bomb” describes how
successful the thing was.
At times the concepts behind meanings can be different, even when there is
general agreement about what the symbols mean. We learn symbols by
experience.
This means that there is a strong chance that, because of my unique

experience, I have associations with the concept “home”, for example, that you
do not have. Perhaps it is just a place where I keep my clothes and get food
occasionally but do not spend much time there. And you, coming from another
culture, have your own associations. Maybe it is a place that makes you feel
safe and where you enjoy the company of your relatives.
Therefore, when you use the symbol home you mean home “I”, and when I
hear or see the symbol home I understand home 2.
There is the same potential for misinterpretation in the way people use their
voices. How often do we react to not what people say but how they say it? The
question that arises when dealing with people of other cultural backgrounds is
– Does that tone of voice mean the same thing to the speaker as it does to the
listener? British and Americans need to remember this when listening to
people from India speaking English. The natural India rhythm is easily
interpreted as aggressive by members of these cultures.
Although there is some overlap, the system of symbols is not perfect. What
helps us, though, is that while we are in the process of communicating through
symbols, we are also making predictions about what the other person is going
to say or do. This makes the otherwise less-than-perfect system of
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communication seem to flow, and it works – so long as the senders and

receivers of the messages have more or less the same experiences on which to
base their predictions. Knowing what to expect in communication is a very
large part of successful communication.
When we have different experiences- as when we come from different cultures –

we should expect different interpretations to arise. Our communication will be
less certain because we are less able to predict each other’s meanings. If our
expectations are very different, they may make real communication impossible.
The less we know about each other’s culture, about each other’s perspective of
the world, the harder it is to make the predictions that make communication
work. This is as true of spoken language as it is of body language and other
forms of communication.
TO DO
Certain words, or similar forms of them, exist in a number of different

languages. These words may not have the same meaning in any two languages
or even dialects of the same language.
What do the following words mean in British and in American English? What
do you understand by them yourself?
 Flat, garden, farm

 Body Language
People in Congo D R, although very socially oriented and genuinely concerned
for the welfare of others, are often characterized as being abrupt by visitors
who do not know much about their culture. The words “please” and “thank
you” are not native to their languages and therefore are not naturally used,
even when speaking other languages such as English. The Congolese
communicate their appreciation of others through their actions, rather than
through words.
It is the spoken language which most people consider important to learn when
preparing to go abroad or when working or living with people from other
cultures. But there are many other ways of communicating information and
cultural values. Body language has received more attention in western society
over the last few years as an important aspect of communication, though it has
long been acknowledged as a key mode of communication in other countries
such as Japan. Studies on communication show that generally about 10% of
what we express is communicated through the words we use; about 40%
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through the way we use our voices, and about 50% or more through body
language. This seems to apply to all cultures, regardless of whether people of a
particular culture use large expansive gestures or more subtle expressions in
their body language.
In Japan, spiritual harmony and “centeredness” is greatly valued. These inner

qualities are reflected outwardly by an individual’s posture and grace. To
Japanese, a person who sits back in a chair with legs crossed and arms folded
is not communicating centeredness or harmony. To an American this posture
would most likely be interpreted as an expression of informality and relaxed
self-confidence. In the Japanese interpretation, the same person would be seen
as expressing stress, awkwardness, lack of self-respect, poor upbringing, or
even disrespect towards others. In this case body language speaks louder than
words.
Body language is just as important in other cultures, though it may not be

brought to the same level of consciousness as in Japan. Cultural
interpretations are based on the values of society. Body language, such as
gesture of the hand, is a matter of cultural interpretation which may differ
radically from one culture to another. These interpretations are often
historically based, though the reason behind the interpretation may be long
forgotten.
In western countries someone who avoids looking another person in the eye
while speaking to them is interpreted as trying to hide something, or as being
very shy. But this same body language indicates submissiveness and respect in
many Asian and African countries. The list of gestures, postures and body
expressions that have different interpretations in different cultures is
enormous. Being aware of the body language of a culture will make
communicating with them much more meaningful.
It may be difficult to understand why a gesture made innocently by a visitor

could be taken as an offense by a native. It perhaps helps us to understand
how this can happen if we think of something that is considered offensive in
our own culture ( a gesture or word) and how we feel if a visitor uses it, even
innocently. As a Zambian, I can think of a number of profanities in my
language that make me uncomfortable but that are used quiet freely by
members of other cultures to whom they mean very little. Irritation is likely to
increase if the offensive gestures or word continues to be used even after the
inappropriateness has been pointed out. If this gesture or word is a matter of
habit for the visitor or something that in his or her own culture is meant to be
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complimentary, it may be difficult to understand why it causes such offense. If

you come from the west and are used to looking someone in the eye when
talking to them, it would not be easy to change your habits, even if you knew it
was considered impolite in the Asian culture you are visiting.
Body language comes so naturally and automatically that people fail to take
this form of communication into account when learning a foreign language or
preparing to travel abroad. Just like spoken forms of language, learning body
language requires both time and practice.
 Styles of Communication – Direct and Indirect

There are as many styles of communication as there are cultures to use them.
Some cultures communicate very verbally and very directly. Others depend on
common experience and use environmental symbols – color, lightning, etc. – to
communicate, and therefore do not depend so much on words themselves. Still
others may use descriptive words to remind the listeners pictorially of a scene
familiar to both parties in order to convey an idea. Cultures combine these and
a thousand other elements in order to communicate, each doing so in its own
unique way.
Indirect communicators avoid using straightforward verbal communication

( see the example given about English politeness in Chapter 3). Instead they
rely more heavily on other techniques of communication such as body
language, silence, stories, and so on. These communication techniques allow
the receiver (the listener or observer) to respond to the message if they wish, or
not – if the message is embarrassing or disagreeable or if they wish to keep a
psychological distance. Direct communicators present their ideas in a way that
leaves less room for interpretation. They tend not to veil their meanings in
stories, or to depend heavily on body language to express themselves.
We are, of course, making generalizations about these cultures. There are

plenty of individuals in any culture who defy these categorizations. It is,
however, useful for us to look for patterns in the cultures that we meet in order
to understand them better. Human beings make generalizations about what
they experience in order to know how to react. But it is extremely important
that when we meet people from another culture we see them as individuals and
not try to force them into categories of our own creation.
Misunderstandings between people who come from different communication

backgrounds are many. Sometimes people who come from indirect cultures
look for hidden meanings, not taking the words at face value, while people from
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direct cultures miss meanings that are set in an indirect style. Here are two
examples:
A British program coordinator in a small consulting agency was working on a

project schedule for the upcoming year. She asked an American colleague if he
could work on a particular project. The colleague’s response was that he would
prefer not to, as it would conflict to some extent with other plans, but if no one
else could be found he would be willing to make the adjustments.
The coordinator proceeded to search around for someone else to do the work.
When unable to find anyone else who could fit the work into their schedule, the
coordinator began to make major re-arrangements in her own schedule in order
to do the work herself, believing that she had received a veiled but definite “no”
from the American. It was only when another American in the company pointed
out that in American culture “if” means “if” and not “no” that the British
coordinator asked again and got the project worked into the American
colleague’s schedule with only relatively minor changes.
Pictorial phrasing is used by many indirect communicators such as in the

following example:
When a European engineer was planning a project in China in cooperation with

a communal development program, he found that much of the bureaucratic
paperwork had to be attended to before his departure. He therefore sent a
number of letters to the local Chinese authorities requesting confirmation of
project approval. In return he received a series of letters that described in flowing
terms the goodness of the spring and high hopes of good harvests in the autumn.
As the project that the engineer was involved in had nothing directly to do with
agriculture, he believed that the authorities had confused him with another
project leader.
Finally, by asking another engineer who had worked in China for a time, he
discovered that the replies were indeed confirmations of his project, and
enthusiastic ones at that.
These differences may appear to make successful communication an

overwhelming task. The key is to understand what the differences are and how
to respond to them.
TO DISCUSS
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Describe different ways of expressing “yes” or “no”. discuss experiences you

may have had where you or someone you know misunderstood someone from
another culture giving a “yes” or a “no” answer.
 Cues in the Environment

People communicate also by means of the environment they create. One of the
many environmental elements that communicate different meanings to
different cultures is the use of color. Take the color green, for example. To a
North American, the color green symbolizes freshness and good health and is
used in the interiors of many hospitals. However, in parts of South East Asia
green symbolizes disease.
TO DISCUSS
What do the following colors “mean” to you? Do you know of any other
associations or interpretations in other cultures?
Black White Purple Yellow Dark Red
Cultural norms determine what is considered beautiful and what is not, what
is useful and how things are organized and arranged. If you do not know where
to look, or if you make assumptions based on your own environment, you can
miss useful information about a culture you are visiting. Here is an example:
This lecturer had gone to study and work in Sweden. She shared an apartment
with an elderly woman who had retired from the Navy and proceeded to settle
in. The apartment seemed to have everything, including a garbage bin
conveniently placed in the kitchen.
Shortly after she had settled in, she got involved with the preparation of meals
and the cleaning up. The Swede host noticed that the newcomer would empty
the garbage bin each time she finished washing dishes and cleaning up the
kitchen. Rather annoyed, the host asked the newcomer why she was doing that
instead of allowing the bin to fill up before emptying it, the routine done only
once a week. Confused by the host’s annoyance, she patiently explained to the
Swedish host that people in her tropical country did not keep garbage in the
buildings where they lived, as the tropical heat would make the smell
unbearable, but instead took it across the garden to a garbage pit. On the other
hand, the host explained that the reverse was true to them because the cold
temperatures prevented such fermentation and so such behavior was not
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necessary! Before she fully understood this, the newcomer was left with the
impression that Swedes were unhygienic people.
Much information that is valuable to the visitor can be gathered by careful

observation of the environment. Usually, differences in environment and
lifestyle make sense if one considers the conditions under which people live in
that place. People generally use what is available to them locally. By examining
what people use, why they use it, we can learn a lot about the attitudes and
values of a people.
 Communication Gaps
Sometimes when people with different communication styles meet,
communication gaps occur – two people using their own symbols and neither
of them understanding the other’s. This can happen even when using a
common language, and the people involved may not even be aware of the lack
of real understanding. Often it is the case that even though they are both using
a common language – English, French, German or whatever – each person is
applying his or her own cultural symbols. Each person, not having experience
of the other’s culture, has no way of understanding the symbols, or perhaps
even of recognizing that they are there. It can be a confusion of symbols (words,
use of voice, body language, etc.), of styles, of expectation, or of values. Take
the following situations:
1. A young student visiting Tahiti on vacation is invited into the home of a

villager and is offered food. While eating, the student asks questions about
the island and some of the articles lying about in the hut. Wishing to show
his interest and appreciation of the local crafts, he asks questions and
comments on the beauty of the artifacts he sees. The student sometimes
receives very long explanations to his questions and sometimes no
explanation at all. Upon departing, he receives a large number of presents
– the articles about which he was inquiring. One of the sons of the family,
about the same age, compliments the student on his rucksack. The student
thanks him for the compliment and makes his way back to town. When
the student sees one of the boys of the family in the town some days later,
the child quickly looks at the ground and turns down a side street just as
the student does to greet him.
TO DISCUSS
In this scene people are trying to communicate with each other but are
being misunderstood. What are the misunderstandings? What styles of
133
communication are being uses? How do you think these clashes could have
been avoided?
Because we are becoming more aware of the differences in the ways in

which people communicate and interpret each other, it is becoming more
natural for people to check their understanding of a given situation. This
may lead not only to fewer misunderstandings between people of different
cultures but also to more worthwhile exchanges and thus a more positive
growth for each culture. Cross-cultural communication, when successful,
may be all the more rewarding because of the effort it takes to achieve it.
Topic re-cap: cross cultural communication
 Communication is the creation of meaning using systems of

symbols.
 Symbols are learned by each individual in his or her own way.
There may be many interpretations of any one symbol, even
among people of more or less the same culture or language
background.
 The ability to predict what people are trying to communicate helps
bridge the gaps that exist as a result of interpreting symbols
differently.
 This ability to predict is handicapped in communication between
people with different frames of reference and experience of the
world.
 Body language is an important form of communication the world
over. It is said to comprise about 50% of what is actually
communicated.
 Some styles of communication are direct and very verbal. Others
are indirect and may rely on a variety of non verbal and even
environmental signals to communicate a message.
 Concentrating on gathering clues from an environment can
provide the visitor with insight into the culture which created it.
The process of objective description, and generating possible
interpretation and evaluations can help the visitor to understand and
134
deal with situations that might otherwise cause irritation, frustration or

anger.
Some Strategies for Improving Intercultural

Communication.
Effective intercultural communication often takes considerable time, energy,
and commitment. Although some people would like “10 easy steps” to effective
intercultural communication, no foolproof plan is available. However, the
strategies presented here should provide you with some ways to improve
intercultural communication and, we hope, avoid potential problems. Having
some strategies in advance will prepare you for new situations with people from
other cultures and co-cultures and will increase your confidence in your ability
to communicate effectively with a variety of people.
1) Conduct a personal self-assessment. How do your own attitudes

toward different cultures and co-cultures influence your
communication with them? One of the first steps toward
improving your intercommunication style, beliefs, and
prejudices.
2) Practice supportive communication behaviors. Supportive
behaviors such as empathy encourage success in intercultural
exchanges; defensive behaviors tend to hamper effectiveness.
3) Develop sensitivity toward diversity. One healthy communication
perspective holds that you can learn something from all people.
Diverse populations provide ample opportunity for learning. Take
the time to learn about other cultures and co-cultures before a
communication situation, but don’t forget that you will also learn
about others simply by taking a risk and talking to someone who
is different from you. Challenge yourself. You may be surprised
by what you learn.
4) Avoid stereotypes. Cultural generalizations go only so far; avoid
making assumptions about another’s culture, and get to know
individuals for themselves.
5) Avoid ethnocentrism. You may know your own culture the best,
but that familiarity does not make your culture superior to all
others. You will learn more about the strengths and weaknesses
of your own culture by learning more about others.
135
6) Develop code sensitivity. Developing code sensitivity means

learning to use the verbal and nonverbal language appropriate to
the cultural or co-cultural norms of the individual with whom you
are communicating. When communicating with someone, be
sensitive to the verbal and nonverbal language of that person’s
culture or co-culture. The more you know about another’s
culture, the better you will be about adapting.
7) Seek shared codes. A key ingredient in establishing shared codes
is tolerating ambiguity, or being open minded about differences,
while you determine which communication style to adopt during
intercultural communication.
8) Use and encourage descriptive feedback. Feedback encourages
adaptation, and effective feedback is crucial in intercultural
communication. During intercultural exchanges, both
participants should be willing to accept feedback and exhibit
supportive behaviors. Feedback should be immediate, honest,
specific, and clear.
9) Open communication channels. Intercultural communication can
be frustrating. One important strategy to follow during such
interactions is to keep the lines of communication open.
10) Manage conflicting beliefs and practices. Think ahead about
how you are going to handle minor and major differences from
everyday behavior to seriously different practices like
punishments (beheading, stoning), realities (starvation, extreme
poverty), and beliefs (male superiority, female subjugation).
11) Practice culturally aware communication. You should try to
understand that just as there are differences between cultures in
using interpreting non-verbal communication, there are also
differences between cultures about using and interpreting the
spoken or written word. Differences may be noticeable in the
choice of words, expressions as well as accents etc. When you are
aware of these differences, you will ensure that your written and
oral communication are carefully explained without leaving
anything to the section of your reader or listener.
12) Avoid ambiguity: ensure that what you communicate has
only one possible interpretation – as you intended it.
13) Acknowledge cultural diversity: Be aware that perhaps every
group of people will consist individuals from backgrounds
different from years. Therefore, select communication methods
which will help you to present and clarify your ideas properly in
136
every context of communication (e.g. interpersonal group, public

and organization). For example, group meetings (method of
communication) can be used to involve all group members in
consensus building, problem solving and classifying issues.
14) Be open minded: be aware of cultural relativism to ensure
you receive information as presented from the speaker’s point of
view rather than your own (get speaker, meanings).
15) Avoid discrimination: based on ethnic or any other
characteristic in the membership. Avoid derogatory labeling,
stereotyping and imposed labeling.
16) Be aware of ethnocentrism: This is the belief that your own
group or culture is superior to other groups or cultures. As such,
you bring an ethnocentric perspective to the interaction whereby
you see and judge the other or the rest of the world only from
your own culture’s perspective. You are using your culture as a
measure which others are expected to meet. (e.g. thinking that
everyone should speak your language). Ethnocentrism is the
largest problem that occurs during intercultural interactions. If
unchecked, this tendency can create defensiveness on the part of
the other. They are likely to react in a negative way to being
treated like deficient or inferior beings.
Instead learn to judge the other’s culture by its own context-
cultural relativism.
17) Avoid stereotyping. This is a generalization about some
group of people that over simplifies their cultures. (Rogers and
Steinfatt 1999, in Pearson et al. 2003, p.216). Understand that
there are always exceptions to any type of classification. The way
to know others is to make a deliberate effort to learn their
culture.
UNIT SUMMARY
This unit on cross-cultural communication and interactions was intended to

help you explore, appreciate and discuss topical issues in cross-cultural
communication, and to help you demonstrate gender sensitivity
137
communication in your interactions. The unit explored the definitions and

meanings of culture; how to manage cultural differences by appreciating the
different aspects of culture in terms of how they relate to ourselves as well as to
the other; how to manage cross –cultural communication and gender
communication. It is our hope that the knowledge you have gained in this unit
have helped you build the attributes that will help to sustain your behavior as
well adjusted students as well as good global citizens who should endeavor to
be understood just as they should strive to understand others.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
A Cultural Checklist
Below is a list of topics, with questions that may be used when studying
culture, whether foreign or your own. The list is not exhaustive and you may
well find that you would like to add to it.
Select some of these topics, the ones you feel most important for visitors to
your country to know about or understand. Discuss them in your group and
then write a Cultural Profile for your own culture.
Social Interaction
Greetings, small talk and farewells. How do people meet and greet each
other? Is there an order in which people are greeted? What are the common
subjects of conversation for ‘small talk’? How are introductions made? How do
people take their leave, and what is said?
Gestures and body language.What gestures are common? What kinds of

physical contact are common and acceptable between people of the same sex,
and of the opposite sex? What gestures are considered rude or vulgar?
Friends and comradeship.How are friendships usually formed? What kinds of

clubs, societies and other group organizations exist and are popular? How do
you know when you have made a friend, and how long does it take?
Expressing politeness.How do people express politeness? What are the most

common language expression and gestures used? In what situations are people
polite to each other?
138
Arranging meetings.How are appointments made, both in business and

leisure time? Where do people meet? How important is it to be punctual? Is it
important to have a go-between, or follow a certain hierarchy, when making
such arrangements?
Invitations and dates. How, and for what occasions, are invitations given and
accepted? What procedures are followed? How do the opposite sexes meet,
both young people and adults? What is an acceptable code of
conduct? Who pays?
Respect. To whom is respect shown? How is it shown?
Customs and Traditions

Folklore.What myths, legends, beliefs, traditions, superstitions, etc. are
commonly known?
Festivals.What days of the year are public holidays? How are these celebrated?
Holidays.What are the normal work hours? How much holiday do people get?
What are the normal school hours? How long are school holidays? What do
people normally do on their holidays?
Weekends and leisure.Is there any particular day for religious worship or for
rest from work? What do people do? What restrictions, if any, are there on
these days?
Eating.What kind of food is common? What specialties are there? Are there
any foods which are taboo? Where do people usually eat? When are the normal
meal times? What rules of etiquette exist at mealtime? What facilities are there
for eating out? How common is it to eat out?
Drinking.What do people normally drink? Do people usually drink with a meal

or separately? What attitudes and policies are there towards alcoholic drinks?
What facilities are there for drinking outside the home? Who uses them?
Tobacco and smoking.How common is smoking? At what age is it legal? Who

smokes what? Where is smoking permitted/restricted? What are the prevailing
attitudes towards smoking, and other forms of drug-taking?
Leisure Pursuits
139
Games and sports. What are the most popular games played by adults and
young people, both indoors and outdoors? What are the most common national
sports for men and for women?
Radio and television. How important are radio and television in daily life?
What kinds of programs are offered and which ones are most popular? How
widespread is the use of video machines? What is the purpose of these media
in the culture?
Reading matter. How much do people read? What do they read? What kinds of
newspapers and magazines are available? Where can books, magazines, and
newspapers be bought, borrowed or consulted? Are there any limitations on the
kind of material available or on which ones may be brought into the country?
Hobbies. What are the most common hobbies and pastimes among people of
different age groups?
Entertainment. What kinds of entertainment are popular? What goes to them?

What do they cost?
Attitudes
The Sexes. What roles do males and females have in the culture? What are the
limitations for them and expectations of them?
Age. What is the role of older people and of young people and children in the
culture?
Law and Government. How do people react to laws? How active are people in
the political process? What forms of government and administration are there?
Time. What attitudes are there to time? Do people seem to have plenty of time
or do they try to use it carefully?
Individuals and Groups.What is more important: the rights of the individual

or the welfare of the culture as a whole? What kinds of groups are typical and
common? How is responsibility taken for individuals?
Work.What are the attitudes towards work? Do people generally work because
it makes them feel good or because it is necessity? What sort of work is
common and popular? Is it done in groups or alone? What are the rewards?
Cause and effects.how much control do people feel they have over what
happens to them? Who or what does have control?
140
Competition. In what areas is competition encouraged? How important is

competition in schools, at the work place, in business, in the media and in the
entertainment world? What are the rewards of success?
Private and Public Life

Family.How big is the typical family? How important is the family unit and
how far does it extend? What do the family members usually do together?how
are decisions made in the family? How are the different household chores
shared – who does what? At what age do children usually leave home? How are
the elderly provided for? Is independence important? How is it defined in the
culture?
Education.What kinds od educational facilities are available, for pre-school,

school age, post-school and for adults? Between what ages is school
compulsory? How important is education? What kinds of qualifications can you
get?
Hygiene. What facilities are there for personal hygiene in the home and in
public? What does a typical bathroom contain? How frequently do people bath,
shower, wash, change clothes?
Pets.What animals are commonly kept as pets in the home? How are they
treated and what is their role in the household?
Town and country.What are some of the main differences between town life
and country life (e.g. daily routines, manners, clothes, lifestyle, interests,
language, public amenities, etc.)?
Material Development and the Environment

Science and Technology.What kinds of tools and machines are common in
the home, in the office, in shops, in travel, etc? How has science and
technology affected daily life?
Health care.What are the general attitudes towards health and health care?
What illnesses are common? What happens if you become ill, or have an
accident? Where and how can you obtain medicines?
Personal possessions.What kinds of things do people value and like to own?

What kinds of objects commonly adorn the home? How do people share these
things and with whom?
141
Adaptation to changes in climate.What changes are usually made in

clothing, heating, ventilation, food and drink to adapt to seasonal changes and
temperature variations? How important are the seasons and climate in the
culture?
Nature and the countryside.What general attitudes exist towards the natural
environment, wildlife and protection and preservation of the countryside? How
is the countryside utilized? What animals are common? Are they seen as a
threat?
Traffic.What kinds of vehicles are common on the roads? How do drivers

behave towards other drivers, towards pedestrians? What are the basic rules
for driving in cities, on the open roads? What parking facilities are there? What
forms of public transport are there? How do they operate? What is the
proportion of public transport to private transport? What kinds of vehicles are
young people interested in? How is a driving license acquired?
Communication.What sort of communication are available? How are they

used? How common is the private telephone? What phrases and formalities are
commonly used on the telephone?
References
Dwyer, J.(2009). The Business Communication Handbook 8
142

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ETHICS AND SUSTAINABLE BEHAVIOUR

ETHICS AND SUSTAINABLE BEHAVIOUR

Centre for Distance Education

unit 1 Nature of Ethics

unit 2 Values and Professional Ethics

unit 3 Ethical Decision Making

unit 4 Ethical Theories and Ethical Traditions.

unit 5 RARE (Responsible,accountable,relevant,ethical)

unit 6 non violent communication

unit 7 interpersonal communication

unit 8 theories of interpersonal communication

unit 9 cross -culture communication and interaction

ABOUT ETHICS AND SUSTAINABLE BEHAVIOUR IN SOCIETY

But is it really your problem to worry about this? Is it your concern?

UNIT 1: NATURE OF ETHICS

Major branches of ethics are:

How do we make sense of all of these varied elements?

Morality has two principal meanings:

Others views of Ethics or Ethical Perspectives

There are several views of ethics and some of these are:

The Utilitarian View:

The individualism View:

The Moral-rights View:

The Justice View:

This view is further subdivided into three types:

Organizations operate in a social and natural environment. By virtue of existing in such

 Firstly, is because whatever the organization does reflects its stakeholders

UNIT 2: Values and Professional Ethics

But what are values?

Ethics and Law

Or carry of identification cards in Zambia by the colonial administration..

The word law has been variously defined by different authorities.

Differences between Law and Ethics

Law is enacted by legislatures and can be changed by subsequent enactments or legal

What are they?

 Discrimination – denying promotion or appointment to a job candidate because of the

Dealing with Ethical Dilemmas

Step 1: Recognize the ethical dilemma

Step 2: Get the facts

Step 3: Identify your options

Step 4: Test each option: Is it legal? Is it right? Is it beneficial?

Step 5: Decide which option to follow

Step 7: Take action

Rationalizations for Unethical Behavior

Why do otherwise reasonable people try to justify their unethical acts?

UNIT 3: Ethical Decision Making

Foundations for Ethical Decision Making

be applied everywhere and always without regard to circumstances, thought of consequences, or

What are the risks and what are the benefits?

There are two types of Ethical relativists:

Critique of the Ethical Relativism

Ethical absolutism stresses the overriding importance of fixed moral rules.

Contemporary Approaches to Ethical Decision Making

Some of the approaches in ethical decision making are:

An idealistic view of human nature as essentially positive, together with an optimistic

Religious ethics presupposes a belief in the existence of God. While secularist

Importance of Values– personal, group, societal and professional

Values are a key element in the ethical decision-making process.

No wonder Levy (1976b) called ethics “values in action”.

Professional values: values proclaimed by a professional group, such as human resource

UNIT 4: Ethical Theories and Ethical Traditions.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

(i) Explain the ethical theory of utilitarianism

2.0 Ethical theories and ethical traditions background.