U1 Amino acids are linked together by condensation to form polypeptides.

Polypeptides: chains of amino acids that are made by linking together amino acids by condensation
reactions
● A ribosome condenses two amino acids into a dipeptide forming a peptide bond
● Condensation reaction involves the amine group (-NH2) of one amino acid and the carboxyl group (-
COOH) of another
○ Water is eliminated and a peptide bond is formed between the two amino acids

● Polypeptides can contain any number of amino acids

U2 There are 20 different amino acids in polypeptides synthesized on ribosomes.

 ● 20 different amino acids are used by ribosomes to make polypeptides.
● Amine groups + carboxyl groups are the same
● R group of the amino acids give a polypeptide its character
○ Because of the differences between their R groups, the twenty amino acids are chemically
very diverse
● Some proteins contain amino acids that are not in the basic repertoire of 20
○ Due to one of the twenty being modified after a polypeptide has been synthesized
○ Collagen → collagen polypeptides made by ribosomes usually contain
proline but in some proline is converted to hydroxyproline to make
the collagen more stable
○ Theses exceptions occur because amino acids are modified after a polypeptide has been
synthesized; initial process of linking together amino acids on ribosomes with peptide bonds
usually involves the same 20 amino acids

U3 Amino acids can be linked together in any sequence giving a huge range of possible polypeptides.
● The ribosome can make peptide bonds between any pair of amino acids, so any sequence of amino
acids is possible
● Eg. both amino acids in a dipeptide can be any of the twenty so there are 20 x 20 possible sequences

U4 The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is coded for by genes.

● A typical cell produces polypeptides with thousands of different sequences and must store the
information needed to do this
○ Amino acid sequence of each polypeptide is stored in a coded form in the base sequence of
the gene
● Genes storing amino acid sequence of a polypeptide in the base sequence
○ Use genetic code for this (genes: codes for making polypeptides)
■ Tells the ribosomes which amino acids to use
○ Gene (DNA → transcription → RNA (message) → translation →
polypeptide

U5 A protein may consist of a single polypeptide or more than one polypeptide linked together.
● Some proteins are single polypeptides, but others are composed of two or more polypeptides linked
together

No. of Example Function

polypeptides

1 lysosome Enzyme in secretions such as nasal mucus and tears

2 integrin Membrane protein used to make connections between structures

inside and outside a cell

3 collagen Structural protein in tendons, ligaments, skin and blood vessel walls
- provides high tensile strength

4 hemoglobin Transport protein in red blood cells - binds with oxygen in the lungs
and release it in tissues with reduced oxygen concentration
U6 The amino acid sequence determines the three-dimensional conformation of a protein.
➢ Fibrous Proteins
○ Secondary structure
○ Have a structural purpose
■ The amino acid sequence prevents folding up and ensures that the chain of amino
acids remains in an elongated form
○ Eg. collagen
➢ Globular structure
○ Tertiary structure
■ Intricate shape, parts that are helical or sheet-like
○ Have a functional purpose
○ Eg. hemoglobin, immunoglobulin

Primary structure
● Determined by the sequence of amino acids
Secondary structure
● Determined by the formation of hydrogen bonds between N-H and C=O between different amino
acids
● Amino acid sequences either (1) coil into alpha-helix or (2) fold into beta-pleated sheets
Tertiary structure
● 3D conformation of a polypeptide determined by interactions between R groups
○ Polypeptides gradually fold up as they are made and this is stabilized by bonds between the
R groups of the amino acids that have been brought together by the folding
Quaternary structure
● Determined by the arrangement of two or more polypeptides

Protein: complex compound formed by the folding of one or more polypeptides

A2 Denaturation of proteins by heat or by deviation of pH from the optimum.

Denaturation: a change to the conformation of the protein
● The 3D conformation of proteins is stabilized by the bonds or interactions between R groups of
amino acids.
● Most of these bonds and interactions are relatively weak and can be disrupted or broken
● Denaturation is permanent

Factors that cause denaturation

1. Heat
a. Causes vibrations within the molecule → break intermolecular bonds
or interactions
b. Hydrogen bonds break
c. Protein unfolds - 3D structure of the protein is altered and proteins that have been dissolved
in water become insoluble
 i. When eggs are heated, proteins that were dissolved in both the
white and yolk are denatured → so become insoluble, both yolk
and white solidify
d. Most human proteins are optimal at 37℃
2. Non-optimal pH
a. Extremes of pH (acidic & alkaline) cause denaturation
b. Charges on R groups change → break ionic bonds within the protein /
cause new ionic bonds to form
c. Different enzymes have different optimal pH

U7 Living organisms synthesize many different proteins with a wide range of functions.

Function Example Explanation

Enzyme Rubisco Catalyze reactions that fixes carbon dioxide to

the atmosphere → provides the source of carbon
from which all carbon compounds needed by living
organisms can be produced

Transport Hemoglobin Oxygen binds to hemoglobin and is transported via the blood

Structure Collagen Rope-like proteins made of three polypeptides wound together

Forms a mesh of fibers in skin and blood vessel walls that resists
tearing (major component of connective tissue)

Spider silk Fiber used to make the spider web

Sensitivity Rhodopsin Pigment in retina (eyes) that detects light

Immunity Immunoglobulin = antibodies

Have sites at the tips of their two arms that
bind to antigens on bacteria or other pathogens
→ basis of specific immunity to disease

Hormone Insulin Signal to many cells in the body to absorb glucose and help
reduce the glucose concentration of the blood

U8 Every individual has a unique proteome.

Proteome: entire set of proteins in a cell, tissue or an organism
Genome: entire set of genes in a cell, tissue or an organism
● Genome of an organism is fixed / proteome is variable bc different cells in an organism make
different proteins
○ Proteome therefore reveals what is actually happening in an organism, not what potentially
could happen

● The proteome of each individual is unique partly because of differences of activity but also because
of small differences in the amino acid sequence of proteins