DNA REPLICATION AND

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
1 DNA Replication
Copying the genome during interphase.
Activity 1: What Am I?
Directions: Read each statement carefully. Select the
correct answer from the word bank and write your answer
on the blank space provided.
gene genetics DNA
Gregor Mendel allele RNA
1. The father of Genetics.
2. A double-stranded molecule that carries genetic
information.
3. Responsible for the expression of genes.
4. Functional unit of heredity.
5. The study of genes, genetic variation and heredity.
Gregor Mendel, the Father of Genetics, explained in the year 1865
that traits are passed on from parent to offspring through "hereditary
factors." In the early 20th century, scientists established that Mendel's
"hereditary factors" are called genes. The gene is the functional unit
of heredity. But the individual gene makes up a bigger whole. All
these genes are found in very long genetic material called the DNA or
Deoxyribonucleic Acid, a double-stranded molecule. There is also
another molecule that contains genetic material called Ribonucleic
Acid, or RNA. On the other hand, the "allele" is responsible for gene
expression. The science that deals with the study of genes, genetic
variation, and heredity is called Genetics.
All living things have DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) within their cells.
DNA does more than specify the structure and function of living things;
it also serves as the primary unit of heredity in organisms of all types.
In other words, whenever organisms reproduce, a portion of the DNA
is passed along to their offspring. This transmission of DNA helps
ensure a certain level of continuity from one generation to the next
while still allowing for slight changes that contribute to the diversity of
life. The two main types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) that carry the genetic information.
Genes specify the kinds of proteins that are made by the cells, but
DNA is not the direct template for protein synthesis, rather, the RNA
molecules.
DNA replication is a process that
occurs during cellular division
where two identical molecules of
DNA are created from a single
molecule of DNA.
The Central Dogma describes the flow of genetic
information in cells from DNA to RNA to protein. It
shows that DNA contains instructions for making
protein, copied by RNA; RNA then uses this
instruction to make proteins.
CENTRAL DOGMA: DNA TO RNA TO PROTEIN
Why Replicate DNA?
DNA is the genetic material that defines every cell. Before a
cell duplicates and is divided into new daughter cells through
either mitosis or meiosis, biomolecules and organelles must
be copied to be distributed among the cells. DNA, found
within the nucleus, must be replicated in order to ensure that
each new cell receives the correct number of chromosomes.
The process of DNA duplication is called DNA replication.
Replication follows several steps that involve multiple
proteins called replication enzymes and RNA. In eukaryotic
cells, such as animal cells and plant cells, DNA replication
occurs in the S phase of interphase during the cell cycle. The
process of DNA replication is vital for cell growth, repair, and
reproduction in organisms.
Cell Cycle

Interphase
DNA must be
replicated during
interphase to allow
the cell to eventually
divide in mitosis and
cytokinesis.

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DNA
Replication G2
Replicating DNA
takes place
during the S
phase of
interphase.
S
This process
G1
must be done
with absolute
accuracy to
maintain cell
integrity. 11
◉ DNA is a polymer Nucleotide
made of repeating
Sugar
subunits called
nucleotides.
◉ Deoxyribose (a
sugar) and
phosphate form the
spiraling double
helix “backbone” of
the molecule.
◉ Nitrogenous bases Phosphate
Nitrogenous
form the “rungs” of Base
the molecule.

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◉ The nitrogenous Nucleotide
bases always pair
Sugar
up in the same way:
◉ A bonds to T
◉ C bonds to G

Phosphate
Nitrogenous
Base

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◉ The process of DNA
replication is called
a semiconservative
model because
each strand will
serve as a template
for a new one.
◉ Each daughter DNA
molecule will have
one strand from the
parent molecule.

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◉ First, an enzyme called
helicase unzips the
double helix, exposing
the nitrogenous bases
of each strand.
◉ Short segments of DNA
called primers attach
along each strand.
◉ Next, DNA polymerase
adds free nucleotides to
the newly-forming
strands.
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◉ What would the
complementary
strand for this DNA
molecule be?

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◉ DNA molecules are so big that replication takes places at multiple
sites, called origins of replication.
◉ Eventually the replication sites meet, completing the molecule.

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2 Protein Synthesis
DNA to RNA to Protein.
◉ Proteins are polymers made of amino acids.
◉ The 20 different amino acids provides an infinite number of
combinations.
◉ A protein’s unique sequence determines its shape, which in turn
determines its function.

Keratin Hemoglobin

Long, fibrous shape. Globular shape

Protective function in Holds oxygen in red

skin and fingernails. blood cells
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 Category Function Example

Support Provide framework for the body. Collagen in ligaments.

Movement Contract and create movement. Skeletal muscle.

Glucose transporter in cell

Transport Transport of materials in and out of cells.
membranes.

Buffering Prevent changes in pH. Proteins in blood plasma.

Digestive enzymes in the

Metabolic regulation Speed up the rate of chemical reactions.
stomach.

Coordination Signal changes throughout the body. Hormones, such as insulin.

Defense Protect against viruses and bacteria. Antibodies in blood.

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◉ Protein structure is so complex, it is organized
into a hierarchy:
◉ Primary structure: The sequence of amino acids.

◉ Secondary structure: Folding of a polypeptide.

◉ Tertiary structure: The overall 3D shape of the each

polypeptide

◉ Quaternary structure: the 3D shape of the entire

protein, including all polypeptides.

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⬢ The nucleus of each cell controls its
activities by directing protein
synthesis, the production of proteins.

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⬢ DNA contains the original blueprints for all proteins made by the cell
and cannot be removed from the nucleus due to its size. 23
Ribonucleic acids or RNA are nucleic acids
involved in the translation and transcription of
genetic information from DNA. RNA contains uracil
instead of thymine. There are three kinds of RNA
involved in the synthesis of proteins.
A. TRANSCRIPTION
 The next event in building protein is transcription. It is the
process of converting the genetic information in DNA to
synthesize protein. RNA polymerase produces a
complementary RNA strand called a primary transcript.
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Transcription (making of mRNA from DNA) involves the following
steps:
1. DNA double helix unwinds to express the nucleotide bases.
2. RNA polymerase identifies the start sequence and unwinds
and matches RNA nucleotide bases to DNA, using one side
as a template.
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3. The mRNA strand is created. It now compliments the original
DNA strand (G-C and A-U). Hence if the sequence of bases on
the DNA strand were CCG TTA CAT, the sequence of bases on
the mRNA strand would be GGC AAU GUA.
4. Ligase helps the strand of DNA to close again.
5. The mRNA strand moves out of the nucleus to ribose, and
DNA rejoin. 26
⬢ Translation is the construction of a protein
at a ribosome from the mRNA template.
⬢ mRNA codons are matched up with
tRNA anticodons to ensure the
correct amino acid is added.

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⬢ After translation, the protein is packaged in
the Golgi for transport.

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Non
Ambiguous
The Genetic Code Redundant
Each codon
specifies for only
one amino acid. Each amino acid
has multiple
AUU always codons that
codes for signal for it.
isoleucine (ILE).
Isoleucine (ILE)
s coded by AUU,
Universal
AUC, and AUA.
The same
codon-amino
acid
combinations are
found in all
organisms.
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3 Mutations
Errors in DNA replication or transcription.
⬢ DNA sequences
can be mutated or
altered by mistakes
in DNA
replication,
transcription, or
exposure to
mutagens such as
UV light and
alcohol.

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⬢ Point mutations alter a single base pair. Examples include:

Normal Silent Nonsense Missense

Unaltered Mutation Creates a Single
DNA does not premature amino acid
sequence. alter amino stop codon. is changed.
acid.

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⬢ Frameshift mutations alter the entire reading frame of the gene,
altering many amino acids.
Normal Unaltered DNA sequence.

Insertion Base pair is added to the gene.

Deletion Base pair is removed from the gene

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⬢ Sickle cell anemia is the result of a mutation in the gene coding
for hemoglobin.
⬢ Which type of mutation is it?

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⬢ As an analogy, imagine that this sentence represents a
protein translated from a gene:

THE FAT CAT ATE THE RAT

⬢ Classify each mutation shown below:

THE FAT CAT ARE THE RAT
THE FAC ATA RET HER AT
THE FAT CAT ATE THE RAT
THE FAT CAT ART ETH ERA
THE FAT CAT.
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