PAGE 1

21 April 2023 17:34

ALPHA DECAY
the attractive forces between nucleons are of short range, the total binding
energy in a nucleus is approximately proportional to its mass number A, the number
of nucleons it contains. The repulsive electric forces between protons, however, are of
unlimited range, and the total disruptive energy in a nucleus is approximately
proportional to Z2 [Eq. (11.12)]. Nuclei which contain 210 or more nucleons are so
large that the short-range nuclear forces that hold them together are barely able to
counterbalance the mutual repulsion of their protons. Alpha decay occurs in such nuclei
as a means of increasing their stability by reducing their size.
To escape from
a nucleus, a particle must have kinetic energy, and only the alpha-particle mass is
sufficiently smaller than that of its constituent nucleons for such energy to be available
The basic notions of theory of alpha decay are:
1 An alpha particle may exist as an entity within a heavy nucleus.
2 Such a particle is in constant motion and is held in the nucleus by a potential
barrier.
3 There is a small—but definite—likelihood that the particle may tunnel through the
barrier (despite its height) each time a collision with it occurs.
The decay probability per unit time,
𝜆 = 𝜈𝑡
Here   is the number of mes per second an alpha par cle within a nucleus strikes
the potential barrier around it and T is the probability that the particle will be
transmitted through the barrier.
If we suppose that at any moment only one alpha particle exists as such in a nucleus
and that it moves back and forth along a nuclear diameter
Collision frequency, 𝜈 = ⎯⎯⎯
where v is the alpha-particle velocity when it eventually leaves the nucleus and R0 is
the nuclear radius. Typical values of v and R0 might be 2 x 10^7 m/s and 10^-14 m
respectively, so that
𝜈 = 10 𝑠
The alpha particle knocks at its confining wall 10^21 times per second and yet may have
to wait an average of as much as 10^10 y to escape from some nuclei
When a radioactive nucleus emits an alpha particle its atomic no decreases by 2 and mass
number decreases by 4.
AX ------------> A-4Y
Z-2 + He2 + Q
4
Z
Where Q is energy released during alpha emission which can be calculated using einsteins
radioactivity Page 1
Where Q is energy released during alpha emission which can be calculated using einsteins
mass energy equivalence relation,
E=mc^2
Or, Q= [mx -(my + malpha)] c^2
Q= Ty + Talpha= (1/2)myvy^2 + (1/2)malphaValpha^2
Applying law of conservation of linear momentum,
0= Py + Palpha
Py = - Palpha
myvy = - malphavalpha
In magnitude,
myvy = malphavalpha
Vy = malphavalpha/my
So, Q= (1/2) my ( malphavalpha/my )2 + (1/2) malphavalpha2
= (1/2) m m
y alpha valpha / my + (1/2) malphavalpha
2 2 2 2

= (1/2) malphavalpha2 [ (malpha / my) + 1]

= (1/2) malphavalpha2 [ (malpha + my)/ my]
so, myQ/(malpha + my) = (1/2) malphavalpha2 = Talpha
Talpha= [ (A-4)/A]Q
Now, Q= Ty + Talpha
so, Ty = Q - Talpha
= Q - [ (A-4)/A]Q
= (4/A)Q
The kine c energy KE  of the emi ed alpha par cle is never quite equal to the
disintegration energy Q because, since momentum must be conserved, the nucleus
recoils with a small amount of kinetic energy when the alpha particle emerges.
The mass numbers of nearly all alpha emitters exceed 210, and so most of the
disintegration
energy appears as the kinetic energy of the alpha particle.

radioactivity Page 2
radioactivity Page 3
PAGE 2
28 April 2023 17:57

BETA DECAY
beta decay is a spontaneous decay process in which atomic no of nucleus is changed by one but
the mass no remains same. There are 3 types of beta decay-
1. electron emission/ negative beta decay: the mass no of the daughter nucleus is same as that of
parent nucleus but its atomic no. is increased by one . This is because in this emission due to
internal stability of nucleus , a neutron inside it is transformed into proton and process results in
the emission of an electron together with a particle
𝜈̅ (𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑜)𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠. 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑛
Showing electron emission can be written as
AX ----> AY 0
Z Z+1 + e-1 + 𝜈̅
0n -----> 1p +0e + 𝜈̅
1 1 -1
Example- B5 ----> C6 + 0e-1 + 𝜈̅
12 12

2. positron emission/ positive beta decay:

the mass no of the daughter nucleus is same as that of parent nucleus but its atomic no. is
decreased by one . This is because in this emission due to internal stability of nucleus , a proton
inside it is transformed into neutron and process results in the emission of an positron together
with a particle
𝜈 (𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑜)𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠. 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑛
Showing electron emission can be written as

AX AY 0
Z ---->
Z-1 + e+1 + 𝜈
1p -----> 1n +0e + 𝜈
1 0 +1
Example- Mg12 ----> Na11 + 0e+1
23 23 +𝜈
3. electron capture: this process arises when n/p ratio is low. In this process proton inside nucleus
is transformed into a neutron by capturing the orbital electron along with emission of neutrino .
The electrons are usually captured from k shell as it is most close to the nucleus and the process is
called k capture but electrons can also be captured from any other higher shell like L and M . In this
process daughter has the same mass no. as that of parent but its atomic no. decreased by one as
compared to parent. The general eqn,

AX 0 A
Z + e-1----> YZ-1 + 𝜈
1p + 0e -----> 1n + 𝜈
1 -1 0

radioactivity Page 4
The conservation principles of energy, linear momentum, and angular momentum
are all
apparently violated in beta decay.
1 The electron energies observed in the beta decay of a particular nuclide are found
to vary continuously from 0 to a maximum value KEmax characteristic of the nuclide.
Figure 12.10 shows the energy spectrum of the electrons emitted in the beta decay
of
210
83Bi; here KEmax = 1.17 MeV. The maximum energy
Emax = mc^2 + KEmax
carried off by the decay electron is equal to the energy equivalent of the mass
difference
between the parent and daughter nuclei. Only seldom, however, is an emitted
electron
found with an energy of KEmax.
2. When the directions of the emitted electrons and of the recoiling nuclei are
observed,
they are almost never exactly opposite as required for linear momentum to be
conserved.
3. The spins of the neutron, proton, and electron are all (1/2).
If beta decay involves just
a neutron becoming a proton and an electron, spin (and hence angular momentum)
is not conserved.
The nucleus of an atom may be unstable because of lower/higher value of neutron
and proton ratio than that required for stable nuclei.
In case of nuclei having higher value of neutron to proton ratio than that required for
stable nuclei, a neutron is converted into proton along with emission of beta
particle . The beta particle is an electron of nuclear origin. Beta decay can be
represented as
AX ----> AY 0 210Bi ----> 210Po + 0e (𝛽−) + 1.17 MeV
Z Z+1 + e-1(𝛽−) + Q 83 84 -1
0n -----> 1p +0e

radioactivity Page 5
 0n
-----> 1p1 +0e-1
1
According to this, the energy of emitted beta particle should be 1.17 Mev . However,
experimentally the energy of beta particles emitted is found to vary continuously
b/w 0 and max value 1.17 MeV called end point energy.
These problems were overcome by pauli in 1931. according to him when a neutron is
converted into proton, an uncharged particle of zero rest mass and spin half called
antineutrino is also produced with 𝛽 − (0e-1) particle.
This particle, later called the neutrino (“little neutral
one”) by Fermi, would carry off an energy equal to the difference between KEmax
and
the actual KE of the electron (the recoiling nucleus carries away negligible KE). The
neutrino’s linear momentum also exactly balances those of the electron and the
recoiling
daughter nucleus.
So eqn for negative beta decay process becomes,

AX
Z ----> YZ+1 + e-1 + 𝜈̅ + 𝑄
A 0
0n -----> 1p +0e + 𝜈̅
1 1 -1
The energy Q is called end point energy is shared by beta particle and antineutrino in
all proportions with each other.
Similarly eqn for positive beta decay is,

AX AY
+ 0e+1 + 𝜈 + 𝑄
Z ----> Z-1
1p -----> 1n +0e + 𝜈
1 0 +1
The existence of neutrino was experimentally observed in 1956 by reines and
cohean.
The neutrino hypothesis has turned out to be completely successful. The neutrino
mass was not expected to be more than a small fraction of the electron mass
because
KEmax is observed to be equal (within experimental error) to the value calculated
from the parent-daughter mass difference. The neutrino mass is now believed to be
the mass equivalent of at most a few electronvolts. The interaction of neutrinos with
matter is extremely feeble. Lacking charge and mass, and not electromagnetic in
nature as is the photon, the neutrino can pass unimpeded through vast amounts of
matter.
ENERGY RELEASED
1. electron emission: it takes place when a nucleus has excess neutrons and can be
represented as
AX ----> AY
Z+1 + e-1 + 𝜈̅ + 𝑄
0
Z
0n -----> 1p +0e + 𝜈̅
1 1 -1
Let, mp = mass of parent atom
md = ,, ,, daughter ,,
m = ,, ,, electron
radioactivity Page 6
 me = ,, ,, electron
According to law of conservation of energy
[ mp - Z me ]c2 = [ md - (Z+1) me]c2 + mec2 + Q
(mp -md)c2 = Q
So for negative beta decay to take place, Q>0, mp > md
Energy Q is shared by daughter atom (Y) ,0e-1 and 𝜈̅
2. positron emission: it takes place when a nucleus has excess protons and can be
represented as,
AX ----> AY
Z-1 + e+1 + 𝜈 + 𝑄
0
Z
1p -----> 1n +0e + 𝜈
1 0 +1
According to law of conservation of energy
[ mp - Z me ]c2 = [ md - (Z-1) me]c2 + mec2 + Q
(mp -md)c2 - 2 mec2 = Q
So for positive beta decay ,Q>0 so,(mp -md)c2 - 2 mec2 > 0
Or, (mp -md)c2 > 2 mec2
3. electron capture: in this process, proton inside the nucleus is transformed into
neutron by capturing electron from k shell along with emission of neutrino.

AX 0e AY
Z+ -1---->
Z-1 + 𝜈 +𝑄
1p + 0e -----> 1n + 𝜈
1 -1 0
According to law of conservation of energy
[ mp - Z me ]c2 + mec2 = [ md - (Z-1) me]c2 + Q
(mp -md)c2 = Q
So for negative beta decay to take place, Q>0, mp > md

radioactivity Page 7
PAGE 3
29 April 2023 08:42

GAMMA DECAY
In an atom electrons revolve around the nucleus in different shells called atomic energy
level. Each level is associated with definite amount of energy whenever there is transition
b/w these energy levels, x rays are emitted . It has been investigated that inside the
nucleus also there are similar energy state called nuclear energy levels .
The transition b/w these two nuclear energy levels results in emission of photons and
frequency of photon emitted in nuclear transition falls in gamma region.

During radioactive decay, the emission of alpha and beta particle usually leave the
daughter nucleus in excited state which immediately make transition to ground state by
emission gamma rays whose energy is equal to difference of energy of excited state and
ground state . This energy of gamma radiations is )usually high (few thousand electron
volts to several MeV).
AX ----> AX 0
Z Z+1 + e-1 + 𝜈̅
AX AX
= excited state
Z+1 ------> Z+1 + 𝛾
These radiations are em radiations of nuclear origin.
1. these radiations are most energetic radiations of em spectrum.
2. ,, ,, ,, have frequency in the range of 10^18 to 10^19 hz
3. ,, ,, ,, cant be deflected by electric and magnetic field.
4. ,, ,, ,, have highest penetrating power.
Electron-positron pair creation by gamma photons
in a collision a photon can give an electron all of its energy (the photoelectric
effect) or only part (the Compton effect). It is also possible for a photon to
materialize into an electron and a positron, which is a positively charged electron. In
this process, called pair production, electromagnetic energy is converted into matter.
Pair production is the mode of interaction by which gamma rays can interact with matter
and lose their energy . In this process the process of interaction can take place only when
the energy of incident photon is more than or equal to 1.02 MeV which is the sum of rest
mass energy of electron and positron(m0c2 + m0c2 = 0.511 MeV + 0.511 MeV). In pair
production , a ray photon of energy 1.02 MeV or more is absorbed in the field of nucleus
radioactivity Page 8
production , a ray photon of energy 1.02 MeV or more is absorbed in the field of nucleus
and a pair of electron and positron is produced. A part of energy of incident photon is
converted into rest mass energy of electron-positron pair and any energy left if any
appears in the form of K.E of positron and electron.
The corresponding maximum photon wavelength
is 1.2 pm. Electromagnetic waves with such wavelengths are called gamma rays
No conservation principles are violated when an electron-positron pair is created
near an atomic nucleus (Fig. 2.25). The sum of the charges of the electron (q   e)
and of the positron (q     e) is zero, as is the charge of the photon; the total energy,
including rest energy, of the electron and positron equals the photon energy; and linear
momentum is conserved with the help of the nucleus, which carries away enough
photon momentum for the process to occur. Because of its relatively enormous mass,
the nucleus absorbs only a negligible fraction of the photon energy. (Energy and linear
momentum could not both be conserved if pair production were to occur in empty
space, so it does not occur there.)
h𝜈 = m0c2 + m0c2 + Ek+ + Ek-

radioactivity Page 9