RESISTIVITY BY METRE BRIDGE

EXPERIMENT # 12
AIM

Using a metre-bridge, determine the resistance of a given wire (about 100 cm of constantan wire). Measure its
length and radius and hence calculate the resistivity (specific resistance) of the material of the wire.

APPARATUS
Metre bridge, Galvanometer (Weston-type), Resistance box, One way key, Leclanche cell, Given wire of unknown
resistance (say about 100 cm of constantan wire), Connecting copper wires, sand paper, screw gauge, Jockey.

THEORY

Wheatstone bridge :
It consists of four resistances P, Q, R and S arranged as shown in Fig. 12.1, so as to form a closed quadrilateral
ABCD. One pair of opposite junctions is connected through a cell and the other pair of opposite junctions
is connected through a galvanometer. If the values of resistance are so adjusted that there is no deflection in
the galvanometer by pressing the key K, then there will be no potential difference between the points B and
D. Hence the Wheatstone bridge is said to be balanced and under the balanced condition of the bridge.

P R

Q S

B
P I1 Q

A I1 C
G
I2
S
R
I I2
D I

E K
+ – ( )
Fig. 12.1 Wheatstone bridge

If the three resistances are known, the fourth one can be easily calculated.
In Fig. 12.2, let an unknown resistance S be connected across the right-hand gap and a resistance box (R.B)
across the left-hand gap of the metre bridge. A Leclanche cell (E) and a galvanometer (G) are also connected
across AB and BD, respectively. Let the balance point be obtained at the position B on the wire. In the balanced
P R
condition from the Wheatstone bridge principle, we have  where P and Q are the resistances of the
Q S
portions AB and BC of the wire respectively.
If the wire of the metre bridge is of uniform area cross-section, then the resistance of AB  length AB and
resistance of BC  length BC.
If AB = l then BC = 100 – l because AC = 100 cm = 1 metre
Hence
 P R l
= = (100 – l )
Q S

(100–l)
or S=R
l
since R and l are known hence unknown resistance S of the given wire can be easily determined.
Let “” be the specific resistance of the given wire; ‘L’ be its length and ‘r’ be its radius then

L S r 2
S or 
 r2 L
substituting the values of S, L and r, specific resistance  of the material of the given wire can be calculated.

CONNECTIONS

Fig. 12.2 Meter-bridge circuit diagram.

Fig 12.3 : Assembly diagram of the metre bridge.

PROCEDURE

1. Draw a diagram of connections as shown in Fig. 12.2. Arrange the apparatus and assemble (Fig. 12.3) according
to the circuit diagram.
2. To check up whether the connections are correct or not, take out some resistance plug from the resistance box
and close the key K. Press the jockey at A. Galvanometer gives deflection. Now press the jockey at C. For
connections to be correct, the deflection in the galvanometer when the jockey is pressed at C should be opposite
to that when it is pressed at A. If it is not so, consult your teacher, remove the fault and then proceed further.
3. Adjust the value of ‘R’ from the resistance box in such a way that the balance point is obtained nearly at the
middle of the wire AC (between 30 and 60 cm mark on the scale). Take two readings for the balance point for
the same value of R, one while moving the jockey from left to right and the other in the reverse direction.
4. Note :- R, l and (100 – l) where ‘l’ in the length (AB) of the wire for the null point.
5. Repeat the experiment four times with different values of ‘R’
6. Cut the resistance wire S at the points at which it just comes out of the terminals and find its length (L) correctly
with a metre rod.
7. Find the radius (r) of the wire at four or five places with a screw gauge.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

S.No. Resistance (R) Position of the balance Length (AB) = l (cm) Length (BC) Unknown Resistance
from R.B. (ohm) point (B) cm = (100 – l )
(100 – l) (ohm)
S  R.
l

1.
2.
3.
4.

Diameter of the wire

(1) ...............mm (2) ..................mm (3) ..................mm (4) ..................mm
Mean observed diameter = .................mm
Corrected diameter = d = ..................mm
d
Radius r = = ...................mm
2
= ....................cm
Specific Resistance

r 2
 = S
L
= ...........ohm-cm
Actual value from table = .....................ohm-cm
Difference = ................... ohm-cm
difference
% error = × 100% = ......................%
actual value
RESULT
a. The value of the unknown resistance S = ......... ohm
b. The specific resistance of given wire = ................ ohm-cm

PRECAUTIONS

1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. As far as possible the balance point should be confined to the middle region of the wire.
3. In the resistance box, the plugs must be tight.
4. The jockey should not touch the wire when it is moved to and fro.
Mean S = ..............ohm
Length of the wire outside the terminals = L = ...............cm
Least count of screw gauge = .......................mm
Zero error = ....................mm
Zero correction = ...................... mm
5. After obtaining the balance position, the resistance box and the unknown resistance should be interchanged
and the no deflection position should be obtained again. This way the index error becomes ineffective.
6. Measure only that length of the experimental wire which is outside the binding terminals.
7. The key in the cell circuit should be closed first and only then the jockey should be pressed so that the
galvanometer does not show a deflection because of induced e.m.f. but when breaking the current, reverse
should be done.
8. Keep the key of the battery closed only when the reading is being taken and open it immediately after that to
minimise the error due to change of resistance by heating.
9. While finding out balance point, the jockey should not be pressed too hard otherwise the uniformity of the wire
will be affected.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. The metre bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section throughout its length.
2. The thick copper strips at the two ends of the wire offer some resistances. These resistances at the ends are
called end resistances; the errors are called end errors and the corresponding corrections are called end
corrections.
3. As current passes through the wire, it gets heated and its resistance changes.

EXERCISE
Q.1 What is the best characteristic you will select for wire of meter bridge to be made by you ?
(A) A wire of uniform thickness made of alloy which has low temperature coefficient and high resistivity.
(B) A wire of uniform thickness made of alloy which has low temperature coefficient and low resistivity.
(C) A wire of metal having low resistivity, low temperature coefficient
(D) Any wire of any metal can be used.

Q.2 The bridge wire is connected between two strips preferably made up of –
(A) iron (B) copper (C) nickel (D) brass.

Q.3 When is the meter bridge most sensitive ?

(A) When null point is obtained at mid-point
(B) When balanced Wheatstone bridge principle is obeyed in meter bridge experiment
(C) When resistance from resistance box is equal to the resistance of bridge wire
(D) When resistance from resistance box makes a simple ratio with unknown resistance.
Q.4 Wheatstone bridge principle can be used to measure –
(A) any resistance (B) low resistance
(C) high resistance (D) medium (ordinary) resistance.

Q.5 In slide wire bridge experiment,

(A) jockey should be slided on wire from either one end till deflection in galvanometer is zero
(B) touch the jockey first at ends and note that deflection in galvanometer changes sign, then slide jockey till
deflection zero
(C) touch jockey at ends and ensure that deflection galvanometer changes sign. Then touch jockey at different
points from one end till deflection in galvanometer is zero.
(D) all the above methods are equally good only important observation is to find null point.

Q.6 In Wheatstone bridge experiment as shown in figure – B

P Q
(A) Key K1 should be pressed first and then K2 G
A K1 C
(B) Key K2 should be pressed first and then K1 R X
(C) any key can be pressed in any order D
K2
(D) both keys should be pressed simultaneously. + –

Q.7 A student interchanges the positions of galvanometer and cell in the figure of above question, then in finding
the unknown resistance –
(A) it does not make any difference
(B) it cannot be used to measure unknown resistance
(C) in this condition wheatstone bridge is balanced if we interchange R and X
(D) This does not obey the Wheatstone bridge principle.

Q.8 What should be the relation between resistances P, Q, R, S under balanced condition of positions of cell &
galvanometer interchange in a meter bridge –
P Q

G
A B
R S

P R P2 R
(A) PQ = RS (B) = (C) R + S = P + Q (D) 2 =
Q S Q S

Q.9 The meter wire AB shown in figure is 100 cm long. where the free end of the galvanometer should be connected
on AB so that the galvanometer may show zero deflection ?
8 12

A B

(A) 16 cm from A (B) 24 cm from A

(C) 80 cm from A (D) 40 cm from A
Q.10 The potentiometer wire AB shown in figure is 50 cm long. When AD = 20 cm no deflection occurs in
galvanometer then resistance R will be –
C
(A) 8 
16 G R
(B) 12 
(C) 16  A B
(D) 24  D

Q.11 Shown in the figure below is a meter bridge set up with null deflections in the galvanometer –
55 R

20 cm

The value of the unknown resistor R is -

(A) 220  (B) 110  (C) 55  (D) 13.7 
Q.12 In a meter bridge circuit shown in figure the bridge is balanced when AJ = 20 cm. On interchanging P & Q the
balanced point shifted by -

P Q
G

A J B
20 cm
(A) zero (B) 20 cm (C) 40 cm (D) 60 cm

Q.13 In a metre bridge experiment null point is obtained at 20 cm from one end of the wire when resistance X is
balanced against another resistance Y. If X < Y, then where will be the new position of the null point from the
same end, if one decide to balance a resistance of 4X against Y -
(A) 50 cm (B) 80 cm (C) 40 cm (D) 70 cm

Q.14 Two resistance are connected in two gaps of a metre bridge. The balance point is 20 cm from the zero end. A
resistance of 15 ohms is connected in series with the smaller of the two. The null point shifts to 40 cm. The
value of the smaller resistance in ohm is -
(A) 3  (B) 6 (C) 9 (D) 12

Q.15 Two resistances are connected in two gaps of slide wire bridge. The balance point is at 40 cm from left end.
A resistance X is connected in series with smaller resistance R and balance point-shifts to 40 cm from right
end. What is the value of X if R is 4  ?
(A) 4  (B) 5  (C) 6 (D) 6 

Q.16 Two resistances are connected in two gaps of meter bridge and balance point is obtained at 70 cm. A resistance
X is connected in parallel with larger resistance and balance point shifts by 40 cm on left. If larger resistance
is 20 . What is the value of X ?
(A) 180  (B) 9  (C) 4.5  (D) 13.5 
Q.17 A resistance of 2  is connected across one gap of a metre-bridge (the length of the wire is 100 cm) and an
unknown resistance, greater than 2  is connected across the other gap. When these resistances are interchanged.
The balance point shifts by 20 cm. Neglecting any correction, the unknown resistance is –
(A) 3  (B) 4 (C) 5 (D) 6

Q.18 In meter bridge experiment as shown in figure the balance point is at C. Length AC = x. The value of AC, if
the radius of the wire AB is doubled will be –

G
A B
C
x
1m
x x
(A) (B) (C) 4x (D) x
2 4

Q.19 In meter bridge experiment the observation table and circuit diagram are shown in figure.
SN R(Ω)  (cm )
1 1000 60 cm
2 100 13 cm
3 10 1.5 cm
4 1 1.0 cm

Resistance box
Unknown
G resistance

E K
Which of the reading's is not taken correctly ?
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4

Q.20 In above question the value of unknown resistance is

(A) 664  (B) 100  (C) 348  (D) 864 

ANSWER KEY
Qus . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans . A B A D C B A B D D
Qus . 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans . A D A C B C A D D A
 POTENTIOMETER
EXPERIMENT # 13 (A)
AIM

To compare Electro-Motive-Force’s (E.M.Fs.) of two primary cells using a potentiometer.

APPARATUS

A potentiometer with sliding key (or Jockey), a Leclanche cell, a Daniel cell, an ammeter, a low resistance
Rheostat, a one-way-key, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a battery of 2 to 3 accumulators (or E.M.F. higher than
the E.M.F. of individual cell to be compared), a voltmeter, connecting wires: a two-way key and a piece
of sand paper.

E K Rh
+ –
( )

J
A
B
E1

– G
+
Fig. 13 (A).1 Principle of potentiometer

THEORY

Potentiometer is an instrument designed for an accurate comparison of potential differences and for measuring
small potential differences. In an ordinary form it consists of a long, uniform resistance wire of manganin or
constantan stretched over a wooden board usually in 4 turns (or 10 turns) each of 100 cm length. The wire is
fixed at its ends to two binding screws. A metre-scale is fitted parallel to the wire and a sliding key or jockey
is provided for contact.
The working of a potentiometer can be understood by considering a simpler diagram (Fig.13(A).1)
Let a wire AB be connected to a source of constant potential difference ‘E’ known as ‘Auxiliary battery’. This
source will maintain a current in the wire flowing from A to B and there will be a constant fall of potential from
the end A to B. This source thus establishes in the wire a potential difference per unit length known as the
‘Potential Gradient’.
E
If L be the length of the wire, this potential gradient ‘’ will be volts.
L
Let one of the cells, whose E.M.F. ‘E1’ is to be compared with the E.M.F. ‘E2 ’ of the other cell, be connected
with its + ve electrode at A and the other electrode through a galvanometer to a movable contact i.e., jockey
J (Fig. 13(A).2).
If the fall in potential between A and J due to the current flowing in the wire be equal to the E.M.F. ‘E1’ of the
cell, the galvanometer will show no deflection when the jockey is pressed at J indicating no current in the
galvanometer. This position on the wire AB is possible only when E is greater than E 1 .
 E K Rh
( )

A J B
E1 a

c R.B G
E2
b
Fig. 13 (A).2 Comparesion of EMFs two cells

If the point J be at a distance l 1 cm from A, the fall in potential between A and J will be  l1 and therefore.

at the null deflection.

If this cell be now replaced by the second cell of E.M.F. ‘E2 ’ and another balance be obtained at a distance
l2 cm from A, then

E1 l l
 = 1 = 1
E2 l 2 l2
E1 l1
or 
E 2 l2
Since the galvanometer shows no deflection at the null point so no current is drawn from the experimental cell
and it is thus the actual E.M.F. of the cell that is compared in this experiment.

PROCEDURE

1. Draw a diagram showing the scheme of connections as in Fig. 13(A).1

2. Remove the insulation from the end of the connecting copper wires and clean the ends with a sand paper.
3. Connect the positive pole of the auxiliary battery (a battery of constant e.m.f.) to the zero end (A) of the
potentiometer and the negative pole through a one-way key, an ammeter and a low resistance rheostat to the
other end of the potentiometer. Connect the positive pole of the cells E1 and E 2 to the terminal at the zero end
(A) and the negative poles to the terminals a and b of the two way key connect the common terminal c of the
two way key through a galvanometer (G) and a resistance box (R.B.) to the jockey.
4. To test the connections :
Introduce the plug in position in the one-way key (K) in auxiliary circuit and also in between the terminals a
and c of the two-key. Take out a 2,000 ohms plug from the resistance box (R.B.). Press the jockey at the zero
end and note the direction of deflection in the galvanometer. Press the jockey at the other end of the
potentiometer wire; if the direction of deflection is opposite to that in the first case, the connections are correct.
If the direction of deflection is in the same direction then increase the current in the auxiliary circuit with a
rheostat till the deflection obtained in the galvanometer is in the opposite direction when the jockey is pressed
at the other end.
5. Move the jockey along the wire from the zero end A towards the other end B so as to find a point J1 where
the galvanometer shows no deflection.
Put in the 2000 ohms plug in the resistance box and find the null point accurately. Note the length ‘l1 ’ of the
wire and also the current in the ammeter.
 6. Disconnect the cell E1 and put the cell E2 in circuit. Again remove 2000 ohms plug from the resistance box and
find the corresponding length (l 2) accurately for no deflection of galvanometer keeping the ammeter reading the
same.
7. Repeat the observations alternately for each cell again for the same value of current.
8. Increase the current by adjusting the rheostat and obtain in a similar way, four sets of observations.
(The rheostat used in the circuit should have a low resistance as compared to the resistance of the potentiometer
wire.)
l1
9. Find the mean of the two observations for each cell and calculate the ratio .
l2
E1
10. Measure the E.M.F. of the two cells separately with a voltmeter and compare the ratio with that obtained
E2
from observations with the potentiometer.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Length of wire with

Cell E1 Cell E2 E1 l
Ammeter  1
S.No. (Leclanche cell) (Daniel cell) E 2 l2
reading
Mean Mean
(i) (ii) (i) (ii)
(l 1) (l 2)
1. ….amperes …cm …cm ….cm ….cm ….cm …..cm
2.
3.
4.
5.

E1
Mean = ....................
E2

VERIFICATION

E.M.F. of Leclanche cell (E1) = .......................volts

(By voltmeter)
E.M.F. of Daniel cell (E2) = ....................volts
(By voltmeter)

E1
 = ...................
E2

RESULT

E.M.F. of Leclanche cell

E.M.F. of Daniel cell
= ..................
PRECAUTIONS

1. The e.m.f. of the auxiliary battery should be constant and always greater than the e.m.f. of either of the two
cells, whose e.m.f. are to be compared.
2. The positive pole of the auxiliary battery and the positive poles of the cells must be connected to the terminal
on the zero side of the potentiometer wire otherwise it would be impossible to obtain balance point.
3. The rheostat should be of a low resistance and whenever the deflection shown is to the same side when jockey
is pressed at all points of the wire, the current must be increased to obtain the balance point at a desired length.
4. The current should remain constant for each set of observations with the two cells.
5. The current should be passed only for the duration it is necessary, otherwise the balance point will keep on
changing.
6. The balance points should be obtained at large distances from the zero end.
7. The length should always be measured from the end of the wire where positive poles are connected.
8. The balance point should be found alternately with the two cells.
9. A high resistance should be used in series with the galvanometer. This does not affect the position of the
balance point in any way. Near the position of the exact balance point, however, this resistance should be
removed. ( Note that the same purpose can be served by putting a shunt across the galvanometer.)
10. A resistance box should never be used in the auxiliary circuit.
11. To avoid any change in the e.m.f. of a cell due to polarization, the reading should be taken after sufficient
intervals of time.

SOURCES OF ERROR
(i) The potentiometer wire may not be uniform.
(ii) The resistance of the wire may change due to rise of temperature.
(iii) Contact potentials may not be negligible.

EXPERIMENT # 13 (B)
AIM
To determine the internal resistance of a primary cell using a potentiometer.

APPARATUS
A potentiometer, a Leclanche cell, a battery of three cells, an ammeter, a low resistance rheostat, two one-way
keys, a sensitive galvanometer, two resistance boxes, a jockey, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
E1 K1 Rh
( )

A J B

E
R.B G
S K2
R.B ( )
Fig. 13 (B).1 : Internal resistance of a cell
THEORY

In the potentiometer circuit of Fig. 13(B).1 let ‘l 1’ be the length of the potentiometer wire upto the point X, when
balance is obtained with the cell (E) in open circuit i.e., when key K2 is not closed and ‘l2 ’ the length upto Y
when the balance is obtained with the cell shunted through a resistance S. Then if E is the e.m.f. of the cell
and ‘V’ the P.D. between its terminals when shunted, we have according to the principle of the potentiometer,
and E  l1 and V  l2
E l
 = 1 ....(1)
V l2
If ‘r’ be the internal resistance of the cell and I the current through it when shunted by S, then by Ohm’s Law
E = I (S + r)
and V = IS
E S r
 = ....(2)
V S
From (i) and (ii)
S r l1
= l
S 2
r l1
or 1+ = l
S 2
(l1  l 2 )S
hence, r ....(iii)
l2

PROCEDURE

1. Draw a diagram as shown the scheme of connections in Fig. 13(B).1.

2. Remove the insulation from the ends of the copper wires and clean the ends with a sand paper. Connect the
positive pole of the auxiliary battery to the zero end (A) of the potentiometer (Fig. 13(B).1) and the negative
pole through a one-way key (K1 ), an ammeter and a low resistance rheostat to the other end (B) of the
potentiometer wire.
3. Connect the positive pole of the cell (E) to the terminal at the zero end (A) and the negative pole to the jockey
through the galvanometer (G) and resistance box (R.B.).
4. Connect a resistance box S across the cell (E) through a one-way key (K2).
5. Insert the plug in key K1 and adjust a constant current in the potentiometer circuit with the help of rheostat.
6. (i) Move the jockey along the wire so as to find a point where the galvanometer shows no deflection. Insert
the 2000 ohms plug and find the null point accurately as at X. Note the length l1 of the wire and the current
in the ammeter. Put in the key K2 and take out 2 ohms plug from the resistance box S and make all other
plugs tight by giving them a slight twist. Find the balance point again as at Y and note corresponding
length l2. Repeat twice for the same value of the current in the auxiliary circuit and same shunt resistance
in a similar manner.
(ii) Remove the plugs from the keys K1 and K2. Wait for some time, insert the plug in the key K1 and find
l1 keeping the current same in a similar manner. Put in the key K2 , take out a resistance of 3 or 4 ohms
and find the length l2 .
(iii) Repeat similarly for S equal to 5 ohms.
7. Change the value of current in the external circuit by a slight amount and repeat observations as in Step 6.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Position of Null Point Internal

Ammeter Shunt Resistance
Without shunt With shunt
S.No. Reading Resistance (S) S( l – l )
Mean (l 1) Mean (l 2) r 1 2
(amperes) (i) (ii) (i) (ii) ohms l2
cm cm (ohms)
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.

RESULT
Internal resistance of Leclanche cell (r) = .............ohms

PRECAUTIONS

1. The e.m.f. of the auxiliary battery should be constant and always greater than the e.m.f. of either of the two
cells, whose e.m.fs. are to be compared.
2. The positive pole of the auxiliary battery and the positive poles of the cells must be connected to the terminal
on the zero side of the potentiometer wire otherwise it would be impossible to obtain balance point.
3. The rheostat should be of a low resistance and whenever the deflection shown is to the same side when jockey
is pressed at all points of the wire, the current must be increased to obtain the balance point at a desired length.
4. The current should remain constant for each set of observations with the two cells.
5. The current should be passed only for the duration it is necessary, otherwise the balance point will keep on
changing.
6. The balance points should be obtained at large distances from the zero end.
7. The internal resistance of a Leclanche cell is not constant but varies with the current drawn from the cell. Hence
to get constant readings the resistance from the resistance box S must be varied by a small amount (say 3 to
8 ohms).
[Note. To prevent a large current from being passed through the galvanometer either shunt it with a wire or put
a large resistance about 2000 ohms in series with it [Fig. 13(B).1]. But when the balance point is located, to find
it more precisely the shunt should be removed or all the plugs of the series resistance box should be inserted.]

EXERCISE

Q.1 A student is required to measure emf of a cell, he should use –

(A) Potentiometer (B) voltmeter (C) ammeter (D) either (A) or (B)

Q.2 A potentionmeter is an ideal device of measuring potential difference, because –

(A) it uses a sensitive galvanometer
(B) it does not disturb the potental difference it measures
(C) it is an elaborate arrangement
(D) it has a long wire hence heat developed is quickly radiated
Q.3 For the given circuit diagram student records the voltmeter reading and measures length AJ. He plots a graph
between voltmeter reading V plotted on y-axis and length of potentiometer wire AJ =  on x-axis then the shape
of the graph is –

y y
V V
(in volt )

(in volt )
(A) (B)

o x o x
 (in cm)  (in cm)

y y
V V
(in volt )

(in volt )
(C) (D)

o x o x
 (in cm)  (in cm)

Q.4 Which of the following statements is correct during measurement of emf of cell by potentiometer ?
(A) No current flows through potentiometer wire upto position of null point
(B) At null point in any potentiometer experiment no current flows through whole of potentiometer wire.
(C) No current is drawn from cell when null point is obtained.
(D) No current is drawn from battery when null point is obtained.

Q.5 A potentiometer wire is made of constantan or manganin because it has -

(A) high specific resistance, low temperature coefficient
(B) low specific resistance, high temperature coefficient
(C) low specific resistance, low temperature coefficient
(D) high specific resistance, high temperature coefficient

Q.6 Which of the following statements is not wrong ?

(A) To increase sensitivity of a potentiometer increase current through potentiometer wire.
(B) To increase sensitivity increase external resistance in battery circuit connected to potentiometer.
(C) To increase sensitivity increase battery voltage
(D) To increase sensitivity increase the emf of battery.

Q.7 For comparing the emfs of two cells with a potentiometer a standard cell is used to develop a potential gradient
along the wires which of the following possibilities would make the experiment unsuccessful -
(A) The emf of the standard cell is larger than the emf’s of the two cells
(B) The diameter of the wires is the same and uniform throughout
(C) The number of wires is ten
(D) The emf of the standard cell is smaller than the emfs of the two cells
Q.8 If the length of potentiometer wire is increased. Then the length of the previously obtained balance point will –
(A) Increase (B) Decrease (C) Remain unchanged (D) become two time

Q.9 The circuit shown here is used to compare the e.m.f. of two cells E1 and E2 (E1 > E 2). The null point is at C
when the galvanometer is connected to E1 . When the galvanometer is connected to E2 , the null point will be –
B
(A) To the left of C

(B) To the right of C C

A B
J
E1
(C) At C itself
G
E2
(D) Nowhere on AB

Q.10 A student compares the emf of two cells E1 and E2 by using the potentiometer. He connects them as shown
E1
in figure and finds null point at 40 cm. Then is –
E2
3
(A) E1
2
2 0 100 cm
(B)
3
5
(C)
2
2 G
(D) E2
5

Q.11 In a potentiometer experiment a student finds null point at 35 cm length with a cell of emf 1.25 V. If this cell
is replaced by another cell the balance point shifted by 25 cm to right on the potentiometer wire. What is the
emf of the other cell ?
(A) 2.14 V (B) 3.15 V (C) 0.89 V (D) 1.75 V

Q.12 In a potentiometer experiment two cells of emf E1 and E2 are used in series and in conjection and the balancing
length is found to be 58 cm of the wire. If the polarity of E 2 is reversed, then the balancing length becomes
E1
29 cm. The ratio E of the emf of the two cell is –
2

(A) 1 : 1 (B) 2 : 1 (C) 3 : 1 (D) 4 : 1

Q.13 The resistivity of potentiometer wire is 10–7  . Area of cross-section of wire is 10–6 m2. A current of 0.1 A flows
through it, what is the potential gradient of the potentiometer ?
(A) 0.1 V m–1 (B) 1.0 V m–1 (C) 0.01 V m–1 (D) 10 V m–1

Q.14 The total length of potentiometer wire is 10 m. The distance between the null points on the potentiometer wire
for two cells is 60 cm. If the difference between the emf’s of the cells be 0.4 V, the potential gradient along the
wire is –

3 1 2 1
(A) V/m (B) V/m (C) V/m (D) V/m
2 3 3 2
Q.15 A potentiometer wire of length 100 cm has a resistance of 10. In an experiment a student connects it in series
with a resistance and cell of emf 2V and negligible internal resistance. A source of emf 10 mV is balanced against
a length of 40 cm of the potentiometer wire. What must be the value of external resistance, used by the student -
(A) 370  (B) 420  (C) 500  (D) 790 

Q.16 In the figure potential gradient is 10 mV/cm. The values of E and R are adjusted to get null point B at 68.0 cm.
If R = 2.00  then what is the value of current through R and through galvanometer ?
E R
(A) 0 A, 0 A

(B) 0.340 A, 0 A 68.0 cm

A 0 B C
(C) 0 A, 0.340 A
G 100 cm
(D) 0.340 A, 0.340 A R'

Q.17 In an experiment, the emf of a standard cell balances across 150 cm length of a wire of potentiometer but when
a resistance of 2 is connected as shunt with the cell, the balance point is obtained at 100 cm. The internal
resistance of the cell is -
(A) 0.1 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 0.5

Q.18 In the given figure battery E is balanced on 55 cm length of potentiometer wire but when a resistance of 10
is connected in parallel with the battery then it balances on 50 cm length of the potentiometer wire then internal
resistance r of the battery is -
2V
(A) 1
1m
(B) 3
C B
(C) 10 A
(D) 5 E r

Q.19 While measuring internal resistance of a cell a student finds null point at 72.0 cm with cell in circuit. He
introduces resistance of 6 from shunt resistance box. The balance point shifts to 60.0 cm. What will be the
internal resistance of cell ?
(A) 1.5  (B) 1. 2  (C) 1. 3  (D) 1. 4 

Q.20 In an experiment to measure the internal resistance of a cell by potentiometer it is found that the balance point
is at length of 2 m when the cell is shunted by a 4 resistance and is at a length of 3 m when the cell is shunted
by 8 resistance the internal resistance of the cell is -
(A) 12 (B) 8 (C) 16 (D) 1

ANSWER KEY
Qus . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans . A B B C A B D A A C
Qus . 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans . A C C C D B B A B B
 HALF DEFLECTION METHOD
EXPERIMENT # 14
AIM

To find the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and find its figure of merit.

APPARATUS
A weston type moving coil galvanometer, a cell, two resistance boxes, two one-way keys, a voltmeter, connecting
wires and a sand paper.
E K1 R
+ – ( ) R.B.

S K2
RB ( )
Fig. 14.1 : Half deflection method

THEORY

The connections for finding the resistance of a galvanometer by the half deflection method are shown in
Fig. 14.1. When the key, K1 is closed, keeping the key K2 open, the current Ig through the galvanometer is given
by
E
Ig = where E = E.M.F. of the cell.
RG
R = Resistance from the resistance box R.B .
G = Galvanometer resistance.
If  is the deflection produced, then
E
= k ....(1)
RG
If now the key K2 is closed and the value of the shunt resistance S is adjusted so that the deflection is reduced
to half of the first value, then current flowing through the galvanometer Ig is given by

E  S  k
Ig =  
GS  G  S  = 2
R
(G  S)
ES k
or Ig = = ....(2)
R (G  S)  GS 2
Comparing (1) and (2), we get
(R + G) 2S = R(G + S) + GS
or (R – S) G = RS
RS
or G
R –S
 R
If the value of R is very large as compared to S, then is nearly equal to unity. Hence
R –S

FIGURE OF MERIT

Figure of merit of a galvanometer is that much current sent through the galvanometer in order to produce a
deflection of one division on the scale.
If k is the figure of merit of the galvanometer, and ‘’ be the number of divisions on the scale, then Current
(Ig) through the galvanometer is given by

Ig = k

PROCEDURE

1. Draw a diagram showing the scheme of connections as in Fig. 14.1 and make the connections accordingly.
2. Check the connections and show the same to the teacher before passing current.
3. Introduce a high resistance R from the resistance box (R.B.), close the key K1 and adjust the value of R till the
deflection is within scale and maximum. Note the deflection and the value of the resistance R.
4. Close the key K2 and adjust the value of the shunt resistance S so that the deflection is reduced exactly to
half the first value. Note this deflection and the value of the resistance S.
5. Repeat the experiment three times taking different deflections of the galvanometer.
6. To find the figure of merit :
(i) Find the e.m.f. of the cell by a voltmeter. See the positive of the cell is connected to the positive marked
terminal of the voltmeter.
(ii) Connect the cell E, the galvanometer G, the resistance box R.B. and the key K1 in series as shown in Fig.(14.2)
E K1 R
+ –
( ) R.B.

Fig.
Fig.18.2
14.2: Figure
Figure of
of Merit
Merit

take out 5,000 ohms plug from the resistance box and make all other plugs tight. put in the key K1 and adjust the value
of the resistance R from the resistance box so that a deflection , near about 30 divisions is indicated in the galvanometer.
Note the deflection in the galvanometer and also the value of the resistance R from the resistance box.
(iii) Adjust the value of R from the resistance box to get a deflection of about 20 divisions and again note the
deflection and the resistance.
(iv) Increase the number of cells to two. Find the e.m.f. and the value of the resistance R to get a deflection
of about 30 and again about 20 divisions as in the previous step.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
(i) RESISTANCE OF GALVANOMETER :

S.No. Resistance Deflection Shunt Half deflection Galvanometer Resistance

R Resistance
  RS
(ohms) S   G  ( ohms )
(ohms)  2 R –S

1.
2.
3.
4.

Mean value of G = .............ohms

(ii) FIGURE OF MERIT :

Galvanometer resistance (G) = ..............ohms.
No. of divisions on the galvanometer scale = .....................

S.No. Number e.m.f. (E) of cell Resistance Deflection () Figure of Merit
of cells (volts ) in the resistance
E
(volts) box (R) K
( R  G )
(ohms)

1. One
2. One
3. two
4. two

PRECAUTIONS

1. The value of ‘R’ should be large.

2. To decrease the deflection, the shunt resistance should be decreased and vice-versa.
3. In this method it is assumed that the deflection is proportional to the current. This is possible only in a weston
type moving coil galvanometer.
4. The connections must be tight and the ends of connecting wires should be cleaned.

EXERCISE

Q.1 You prefer half deflection method to find resistance of galvanometer, because by this method –
(A) resistance of galvanometer is nearly half of the resistance connected to it in series
(B) resistance of galvanometer is nearly equal to resistance in series with it
(C) resistance of galvanometer is nearly equal to resistance connected to it in parallel
(D) resistance of galvanometer is nearly equal to half of resistance connected in parallel to it.
Q.2 We use a high resistance box in series with battery in half deflection method -
(A) to bring the deflection of galvanometer within the scale
(B) to minimize power loss
(C) because high resistances are easily available
(D) none of these

Q.3 The current which can produce one division deflection in galvanometer is called -
(A) Unit current (B) Figure of deflection
(C) Unit deflection (D) Figure of merit

Q.4 Circuit diagram to find the figure of merit is -

K1 K1
( ) R.B. ( ) R.B.

(A) G (B) G

K2 K2
( ) R.B. ( )

K1 K1
( ) R.B. ( ) R.B.

(C) (D) K2
G R.B. ( )

Q.5 To find the galvanometer resistance we should adjust the value of the shunt resistance so that deflection of
the galvanometer becomes -
(A) almost same of the previous value (B) double of the previous value
(C) half of the previous (D) exactly same of the previous value

Q.6 In half deflection method a student performs experiment the deflection goes out of the range of galvanometer.
What should he do to bring the deflection within the range -
(A) The shunt resistance should be increased (B) The shunt resistance should be decrease
(C) Should check the connections (D) Should change the keys used by him

Q.7 A galvanometer of resistance 98  is connected in circuit as shown in figure. It has 40 divisions on both sides
of zero. The figure of merit of galvanometer is -
(A) 2 × 10–4 A/div 2
10 k 
I = 2 × 10–4 A

G
(B) 5 × 10–6 A/div

(C) 5 × 10–2 A/div
2V
(D) 2 × 105 A/div
Q.8 A student while measuring resistance of galvanometer uses a high resistance box (HRB) in series with
galvanometer and a low resistance box (LRB) in parallel to galvanometer. He introduces resistance R = 1000
from HRB for deflection . When he closes key K2 in the figure shown below and introduces resistance
S = 60 . Then resistance of galvanometer is about –
K1
HRB

G
K2
LRB
(A) 56  (B) 60  (C) 64  (D) 940 

Q.9 A student plots a graph between the resistance R and the reciprocal of deflection  for the given galvanometer.
The graph obtained is as shown in figure. From the graph he can calculate the resistance of galvanometer as –

1


R
(A) ratio of slope to intercept (B) ratio of intercept to slope
(C) product of slope and intercept (D) galvanometer resistance can not be calculated from it.

Q.10 A galvanometer is connected as shown in figure. It has resistance of 100 . What should be the resistance
connected to it in parallel so that its deflection is reduced to half ?
S
1k=R
G
100

2V

(A) 100  (B) 99  (C) 91  (D) 90 

ANSWER KEY
Qus . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. C A D C C B B C B C
 FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX MIRROR
EXPERIMENT # 15 (A)
AIM

To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.

APPARATUS

An optical bench with four uprights, a convex mirror, a convex lens, a knitting needle and a half meter scale.

THEORY

Suppose a convex lens L is interposed between a convex mirror M and an object needle O as shown in Fig.
15(A).1 When the relative position of M, L and O are adjusted in such a way that there is no parallax between
the object needle O and its image I, then in that position, the rays will fall normally on the convex mirror M.
The rays which fall on the mirror normally should meet at the centre of curvature C of the mirror when produced
(Fig.) The distance MC gives the radius of curvature R. Half of the radius of curvature gives the focal length
f of the mirror.

(a) L
O M C

(b) I
O L M

Fig. 15(A).1 Focal length of the convex mirror using a convex lens

Now without disturbing the positions of the object O and the lens L, the convex mirror is removed and another
needle is placed in the position of the image I of the object O, formed by the lens L by using parallax method
as shown in Fig.
R MI'
Measure MI. Now, f = =
2 2
PROCEDURE
1. Mount the convex mirror M, a convex lens L and the object needle O on an optical bench as shown in Fig.
(a). Look for the inverted image of O through the system of the lens L and the mirror M by adjusting the position
of O or L with respect to that of the mirror. When the inverted image is not obtained, a convex lens of larger
focal length should be used.
2. Remove the parallax between the object needle O and its inverted image and note the position of O, L and M
on the bench scale.
3. Remove the mirror M and do not disturb the lens L and O at all. Take another needle I and place it on the
other side of the lens [Fig. (b)].
Adjust the position of the needle so that there is no parallax between the needle I and the inverted image of
the object needle O formed by the lens. Note this position of the needle I on the optical bench.
4. Take five sets of observations for different positions of O and L.
5. Determine the index correction between the mirror M and the image needle I.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Index correction
Length of the knitting needle, y = .............cm
Observed distance with the needle between M and I, x = .............cm
 Index correction between M and I = (y–x) = .............cm.
Table Determination of Focal Length
No. of Pos ition of object Position of lens L Position of Pos ition of image Obs erved
Obs needle O M irror M needle I' dis tance, MI'
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean, MI = ................cm

Corrected distance, MI = ................cm
Corrected MI'
 f = = ....................cm
2
RESULT

Focal length of the given convex mirror = ....................cm

= ....................m
PRECAUTIONS
1. The line joining the pole of the mirror, the centre of the lens L and the tip of the needle, should be parallel
to the length of the optical bench.
2. The auxiliary lens L must have sufficiently large focal length.
3. The parallax should be removed tip to tip while removing the parallax, the eye should be kept at the least
distance of distinct vision i.e., 25 cm away from the needle.
4. In the second part of the experiment i.e., after removing the mirror M, the positions of L and O should not
be disturbed at all.
 CONCAVE MIRROR
EXPERIMENT # 15(B)
AIM
To find the value of v for different values of u in case of concave mirror and to find its focal length.

APPARATUS

An optical bench alongwith three uprights, one mirror holder, two needles, concave mirror, a knitting needle
and a meter scale.

THEORY

The relation between the object distance u, the image distance v and the focal length f of a concave mirror
is given as
1 1 1
= + ....(i)
f u v
uv
or f= ....(ii)
uv
In the case of concave mirror, for real image both u and v are negative as per new cartesian sign convention.
The focal length f is also negative.

PROCEDURE

TO FIND THE ROUGH FOCAL LENGTH :

1. First of all find the rough or the approximate focal length of the given concave mirror. It can be done by the
following method:

Obtain a clear and distinct image of some far off object like that of the sun or of a distant tree on a white paper
with the given concave mirror. Adjust the distance between the white paper and the mirror so that a sharp image
is focussed on the paper. Measure this distance between the white paper and mirror with a meter scale, this
distance is the approximate focal length f of the mirror.

TO SET MIRROR AND NEEDLE :

u
P Image of O
Concave Mirror
v
F C
O I'

Uprights

OPTICAL BENCH
 1. Hold the concave mirror in the clamp of one of the three uprights. Mount it in the clamp holder in such a way
that the principal axis of the mirror is horizontal and parallel to the length of the optical bench. For this, shift
the upright carrying the mirror near one end of the optical bench and look into the mirror keeping your eye
vertically above the bed of the optical bench. Now turn the mirror slowly in such a way that the image of your
eye is obtained at the centre of the mirror. This ensures the principal axis of mirror being parallel to the length
of the bed.

2. Mount the two needles on the uprights and adjust their heights in such a way that the tips of the two needles
and the pole (i.e., the centre of the mirror) lie in the same straight line parallel to the length of the optical bench.
After this adjustment, the tips of needles will be at the same height as the pole of the mirror. Make a distinction
between the object needle and the height as the pole of the mirror. Make a distinction between the object needle
and the image needle by putting some distinguishable mark on them. To do this, a paper flag may be fixed on
one of the needle-say on the object needle ‘O’.

3. Mark the position of a point which is at a distance equal to the approximate focal length, from the pole P of
the mirror as shown in Fig. 15(B).1 Label this point as F (i.e, the focus).
4. Shift the object needle towards the pole P of the mirror to a position that lies beyond the focus F but remain
between F and C (the centre of curvature of the mirror). The point C lies at a distance equal to 2f from
the pole P of the mirror. Since the object is situated between F and C, so a real and inverted image of the
object needle will be formed beyond C as shown in Fig. You can see this inverted image in the mirror by
closing your one eye and keeping the other eye along the optical bench at the height of the pole of the
mirror.

5. Now mount the second needle on the upright and shift this needle to the position I of the image of the object
needle. Remove the parallax between this second needle and the image I of the object needle. In the position
of no parallax, the second needle locates the position of the image of the object needle. For this very reason
the second needle is termed as the image needle I'.

6. Note and record the position of the mirror, the object needle and the image needle on the bench scale.

7. Repeat the above steps for five different position of object needle (i.e., for five different values of u) and record
your observations as detailed below :

OBSERVATIONS

1. Rough focal length of the concave mirror = ...............cm

2. Length of the knitting needle, x = ...............cm
3. Observed distance between the mirror and the object needle O when the knitting needle is introduced in between
them y = ...............cm
4. Observed distance between the mirror and the image needle I when the knitting needle is introduced in between them,
z = .............cm
5. Index error for u, e1= (y–x) = .............cm
Index correction for u, = (–e1 ) = .............cm
6. Index error for v, e2 = (z–x) = .............cm
Index correction for v, = (–e2 ) = .............cm
7. Table

Object distance Image distance v

Positions of
No. u (cm) (cm)
of Corrected Corrected 1 1
Obs. The mirror Object Image Obsd.
u = u' +
Obsd.
v = v' + f
u.v
(P) needle (O) needle (I') (P–O) = u' (P–I') = v' u v u v
(–e1) (–e2)
–1 –1
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm ) (cm ) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mean value of f = ...............cm.

8. Plotting Graphs and Calculation of f
(a) u and v graph : Choose suitable but the same scale to represent u along x-axis and v along y-axis. In this case,
according to Coordinate Sign Convention, both u and v will be negative. Plot the points for various sets of
values of u and v from the observation table. The graph will be a rectangular hyperbola as shown in Fig.
y
2f
u(cm) f
x' P O x
45° f
2f

Hyperbola R
Q
(–2f, –2f)
v(cm)

Y
Fig. 15(B).2 Graph of u vs. v for a concave mirror (rectangular hyperbola)

Finding f from this graph : Draw a line OQ bisecting the angle XOY and cutting the graph at point Q. The
coordinates of this point are (–2f, –2f) as shown in Fig. Note the distances of the foot of the perpendiculars
QP and QR respectively on x and y-axis. The distance QP = OR = –2f. Half of these distances gives the focal
length of the concave mirror. Thus,
QP
f= = .......cm
2
QR
Also f=– = .....cm
2
Take the mean of these two values of f.
 1 1 1 1
(b) and graph : Choose a suitable but the same scale to represent along X-axis and along Y-axis, taking
u v u v
1 1
O as origin (0, 0). Plot the graph between and . The graph would be a straight line as shown in fig.15(B).3.
u v
This straight line graph cuts the two axis at an angle of 45º (fig.15(B).3) making equal interapts (OA) and OB)
on them.
1
f=– = ................... cm
OA
1
f=– = .................. cm
OB
takes the mean of these two value of f.

 –1  1
 , 0  (cm) 1
 f  A
u O
x'

 –1
B  0, 
 f 

Y
1 1
Fig. 15(B).3 Graph of vs. for a concave mirror
u v

PRECAUTIONS

1. The principal axis of the mirror should be horizontal and parallel to the length of the scale.
2. The uprights supporting the needles and the mirror should be rigid
3. The tips of the needles and the pole of the mirror should be at the same horizontal level.
4. Parallax of the image and object needles should be removed tip to tip
5. The object and the image needles should be clearly distinguished from each other by putting a paper flag
on one of them and they should not be interchanged for different sets of observations.
6. Index corrections for both u and v, should be properly determined and must be applied.

RESULT

Mean value of focal length by computation = ...........cm

Focal length of the given concave mirror as determined from the graph in figure 15(B). 2 f = ...............cm
and from the graph in figure 15.(B). 3 f = .................... cm
 CONVEX LENS
EXPERIMENT # 15(C)

AIM

To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting of graphs between u and v and between 1/u and 1/v.

APPARATUS

A convex lens of short focal length (say 15 to 20 cm.), two needles, three uprights, one clamp, an optical bench,
a half meter rod and a knitting needle.

THEORY

Position of the image formed by a convex lens depends upon the position of the object with respect to the lens.
Fig. 15(C).1 shows the different positions of the images formed by a convex lens for different object positions.
The relation between u, v and f for a convex lens is
1 1 1
= –
f v u

PROCEDURE

1. Find the rough focal length of the given convex lens by focussing a sharp, clear and inverted image of a distant
object on a white paper and measuring this distance between the lens and the white paper with a meter scale.
2. If the optical bench is provided with levelling screw, then level it using a spirit level.
3. Mount the convex lens (held in its holder) on the central upright of the optical bench.
Also mount the two needles on the remaining two uprights. Arrange the tips of the needles at the same vertical
height as the centre of the lens.

A
A
B' F B' 2F B F 2F
2F B 2F F 2F F B'
A'
A' A'
(a) Object at infinity (b) Object beyond 2F (c) Object at 2F

A'
A A
F A F 2F
F 2F B' B
2F B F 2F F 2F 2F B' F B
A'
(d) Object between 2F and F (e) Object at F (f) Object between F and O

Fig.15(C).1 Ray diagrams for image formation for various position of the object.
(Not drawn according to proper measurement)
 Table Formation of image by Convex Lens for different object positions.

S. Figure Position of
Nature of the image Size of the image
No. 15(C).1 the object the image
1. (a) At infinity At F Real and inverted Highly diminished
2. (b) Beyond 2 F Between F and 2 F Real and inverted Diminished
3. (c) At 2 F At 2 F Real and inverted Same size as object
4. (d) Between F and 2 F Beyond 2 F Real and inverted Magnified

5. (e) At F At infinity Real and inverted Highly magnified

(blurred)
6. (f) Between F and the On the same side as Virtual and erect Enlarged
lens object
B'
L
Image of AB

A'
A
2F F F 2F C

Image
B Needle
Object needle CD
AB v D
u
Fig.15(C).2 Two pin method for determining the focal length f of a convex lens.
(Arrangement on the optical branch)
4. Mark one needle as AB object needle and the other one CD as image needle and distinguish between them
by rubbing tip of one of the needles with a piece of chalk or putting a paper flag on it.

5. Find the index corrections for u and v using a knitting needle.

6. Shift the position of the object needle AB to a distance greater than 2f from the lens. Look from the other side
of the lens along its principal axis near the end of the bench. If the setting is correct, an inverted, real image
AB is seen. Now adjust the position of the second needle CD such that parallax between the image of the
object needle and the image needle is removed. The position of the second needle is so adjusted that parallax
is removed tip to tip as shown in Fig.15(C).2

7. Note the positions of the lenses, the object needle and the image needle on the bench scale and thus find the
observed values of u and v. Apply index corrections to get the corrected values for u and v.

8. Repeat the above steps for 5 different positions of the object by placing it beyond 2F and between F and 2F.

Record your observations as detailed below :

OBSERVATIONS

(i) Approximate focal length of the lens f = ...........cm

(ii) For index correction
Actual length of the knitting needle x = ...........cm
(a) For u
1. Observed distance between the object needle and the lens
when knitting needle is inserted between them, y = ................cm
2. Index error for u, e1 = (y – x) = ................cm
3. Index correction for u, (–e1 ) = (x – y) = ................cm
(b) For v
4. observed distance between the image needle and the lens
when knitting needle is inserted between them, z = ................cm
2. Index error for v, e2 = (z – x) = ................cm
3. Index correction for v, (–e2) = (x – z) = ................cm
Table

Position of Object dis tance u (cm) Image distance v (cm)

No. Lens Object Image Obs erved Corrected u Obs erved Corrected 1 1
of at O needle needle (O–A ) = u' = u' + (–e 1 ) (C–O) = v' v  v  (  e 2 ) u v
Obs . at A at C
–1 –1
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm ) (cm )
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

6. Plotting Graphs and Calculations of f

(a) u-v Graph :-
(i) Choose a suitable but the same scale to represent u along x-axis and v along y-axis. Remember that u is
negative and v is positive for a convex lens, according to the coordinate sign convention used these days.
(ii) Plot the points for various sets of value of u and v from the observation table. The graph will be a
rectangular hyperbola as shown in fig.15(C).3

Y
v (cm)

C
(–2f, 2f) B
45º
X' X
A O
u (cm) Y'

Fig 15(C).3 Graph of u v/s v for a convex lens (rectangular hyperbola)

 Finding f from this graph : Draw a line OC bisecting the angle X OY and cutting the graph at point C. The
coordinates of this point are (–2f, 2f) as shown in fig. Note the distances if the foot of the perpendiculars OA
and OB respectively on X and Y axis. Half of these distances given the focal length of the convex lens. Thus
OA
f= = .................. cm
2
OB
also f= = .................. cm
2
take the mean of these two values of f.
1
(b) Calculation of f from graph between 1/u and 1/v : Choose a suitable but the same scale to represent along
u
1 1 1
x-axis and along y-axis, taking O as the origin (0, 0). Plot the graph between and . The graph would
v u v
be a straight line as shown in figure 15(C).4. This straight line graph cuts the two axis at an angle of 45º (figure
15(C).4) making equal intercepts (OA and OB) on them.
measure AO and OB. Then
1 1
f=  = ....................cm y
OA OB

v
1
(cm–1)

x' x
A 1 O
–1
u (cm ) y'

Fig. 15(C).4 Graph of 1/u vs. 1/v for a convex lens

RESULT

The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from the graph of
(i) (u, v) Fig.15(C).3 =.................cm
1 1
(ii)  ,  Fig. 15(C).4 =.................cm
u v

PRECAUTIONS

1. The tips of the needles should be as high as the optical centre of the lens.
2. The uprights carrying the lens and the needles should not be shaky.
3. Parallax should be removed tip to tip.
4. The eye should be placed at such a position that the distance between the image needle and the eye is more
than 25 cm.
5. The image and object needles should not be interchanged for different sets of observations.
6. A piece of chalk may be rubbed on the tip of the object needle or a paper flag put on it, so as to
distinguish it from the image needle.
 EXERCISE

1 1
Q.1 By plotting versus focal length of a convex mirror can be found -
v u
(A) No, as it forms a virtual image (B) Yes, only if scale is large
(C) Yes, only if scale is small (D) Yes, only if aperture is small

Q.2 The focal length of which of the following can not be obtained directly -
(A) convex mirror & convex lens (B) convex mirror & concave lens
(C) convex lens & concave mirror (D) concave lens & concave mirror

Q.3 Which of the following statement is false -

(A) the bench correction is always equal to the negative of bench error
(B) larger the distance between the two objects larger the magnitude of parallax
(C) parallax disappear if the positions of two objects coincide
(D) parallax can occur between any two objects

Q.4 The focal length of a convex mirror is obtained by using a convex lens. The following observations are recorded
during the experiment -
object position = 5 cm
lens = 35.4 cm
Image = 93.8 cm
Mirror = 63.3 cm
Bench error = –0.1 cm
then the focal length of mirror will be -
(A) 7.5 (B) 8.4 cm (C) 15.3 cm (D) none of these

1 1
Q.5 For spherical mirrors, graph plotted between – and – is -
V u
(A) straight line with slope 1 (B) straight line with slope –1
(C) parabola (D) none

Q.6 A student gets a graph u versus v for a mirror. Point plotted above the point P on the curve are for values
of v -

45º
u

(A) smaller than ƒ (B) smaller than 2ƒ

(C) larger than 2f (D) larger than ƒ
Q.7 In an experiment to determine the focal length f of a concave mirror by the u – v method, a student places the
object pin A on the principal axis at a distance x from pole P. The student looks at the pin and its inverted image
from a distance keeping his eye in line with PA. When the student shifts his eye towards left, the image appears
to right of the object pin. Then -
(A) x < f (B) f < x < 2f (C) x = 2f (D) x > 2f

Q.8 A student measures the focal length of a convex lens by putting an object pins at a distance ‘u’ from the lens
and measuring the distance ‘v’ of the image pin. The graph between ‘u’ and ‘v’ plotted by the student should
look like -

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Q.9 A student performed the experiment of determination of focal length of a concave mirror by u-v method using an
optical bench of length 1.5 meter. The focal length of the mirror used is 24 cm. The maximum error in the location of the
image can be 0.2 cm. The 5 sets of (u, v) values recorded by the student (in cm) are : (42, 56), (48, 48), (60, 40), (66, 33),
(78, 39). The data set(s) that cannot come from experiment and is(are) incorrectly recorded, is (are) -
(A) (42, 56) (B) (48, 48) (C) (66, 33) (D) (78, 39)

Q.10 In an optics experiment, with the position of the object fixed, a student varies the position of a convex lens
and for each position, the screen is adjusted to get a clear image of the object. A graph between the object
distance u and the image distance , from the lens, is plotted using the same scale for the two axes. A straight
line passing through the origin and making an angle of 45° with the x-axis meets the experimental curve at P.
The coordinates of P will be –

f f 
(A) (2f, 2f) (B)  ,  (C) (f, f) (D) (4f, 4f)
 2 2

ANSWER KEY
Qus . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans . A B B C B C B B C,D A
 MINIMUM DEVIATION
EXPERIMENT # 16
AIM
To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given glass prism by Plotting a graph between the angle of
incidence and angle of deviation and hence find the refractive index of the material of the prism.

APPARATUS

A drawing board, a sheet of paper, glass triangular prism, pins, a half meter scale, a graph paper and a protractor

THEORY
Refraction Through a prism (angle of minimum deviation)
A

A T
N1
P  N2
i r1 r2 e
E F G H

B C
Figure 16.1 Refraction of light through a prism

Minimum Deviation - In (Fig.16.1), ABC

represents the principal section of a glass prism. Let EF be a ray of light that is incident on the refracting face
AB of the prism. The straight path FG represents the refracted ray through the prism and GH represents the
emergent ray. FN1 and GN2 are drawn normal to the refracting faces AB and AC at points F and G respectively.
Incident ray EF Produced to PT, as as result of refraction through the prism ABC emerges along GH. The incident
ray shown as EF (extruded as dotted line FPT) deviates and follows the path PGH. The angle  is the angle
between the incident ray EFPT (produced) shown dotted and the emergent ray GH (produced backwards) to
meet EFT at the the point P. This angle  is known as the angle of deviation. The angle BAC of the prism (i.e.,
the angle between its two refracting faces) is called the angle of the prism and it is denoted by the letter ‘A’.
It can be proved from simple geometrical considerations that
A +  = i + e ....(i)
and A = r1 + r 2 ....(ii)
where i = angle of incidence
e = angle of emergence
r1 = angle of refraction at face AB
r2 = angle of refraction at face AC.
The relation (i) clearly shows that angle of deviation  varies with the angle of incidence i.
The variation of angle  with angle i is represented graphically in Fig 16.2
It is obvious from Fig 16.2. That the angle  decreases with the increase in the value of i initially, till a particular
value (io) of the angle of incidence is reached. For this value of angle of incidence, the corresponding value
of the angle of deviation is minimum and it is denoted by the letter m. This angle of deviation is called the
angle of minimum deviation. When a prism is so placed with respect to the incident ray that the angle of
deviation produced by it is minimum, then the prism is said to be in the position of minimum deviation. In this
position, the following relation holds between the angles.
i.e., i = e and r1 = r 2 ....(iii)
 In this position, the incident ray and the emergent ray are symmetrical with respect to the prism and the ray
passes through the prism is parallel to its base. Refractive index of material of prism is given as,
 A  m 
sin  
 2 
µ=
sin A / 2
Where m is the angle of minimum deviation and A is the angle of the prism

48

46
Angle of deviation ()/ degree

44

42

40

38
m
36

34 X
20 30 40 i0 50 60 70 80
Angle of incidence (i)/ degree

Fig. 16.2 Variation of angle of deviation with angle of incidence for refraction through a prism

PROCEDURE
1. Fix the sheet of the white paper on the drawing board with cello-tape or drawing pins.
2. Draw a straight line XY nearly at the centre of the sheet parallel to its length. Mark points marked as O at suitable
spacing on this line XY and draw normal to the line XY at points O as shown in Fig. 16.3 Draw straight line
PQ corresponding to the incident rays that are drawn at angles of incidence ranging from 30° to 60°, i.e., for
angles of 30°, 40º, 50° and 60° using a protractor.
3. Place the prism with one of its refracting surfaces on the line XY and trace its boundary ABC as shown in
Fig. 16.3.
I

N1 A K N2
Q F  S
i r2 e P3
r1
F G P4
P2
R P1 T
N3
X Y
B O C
Fig. 16.3
4. Fix two pins P and Q about 8 cm apart on the incident ray line and view its image with your one eye closed
from the face BC of the prism. Fix two pins R and S on the paper such that the tips of these pins and the tips
of the images of the incident ray pins P and Q all lie on the same straight line.

5. Remove the pins R and S and encircle their pin pricks on the paper. Remove the pins P and Q and also encircle
their pin pricks.
6. Join the points (i.e., pin pricks) S and R and produce it backwards to meet the incident ray PQ produced (shown
by dotted lines). Thus RS is the emergent ray corresponding to the incident ray PQ. Draw arrow heads to show
the direction of the rays.

7. Measure the angle of deviation  with a protractor.

8. Repeat the steps (3 to 7) for different values of angle of incidence (Fig.16.3) and measure the corresponding
angles of deviation . Take at least seven values of angle i ranging from 30° - 60°.
Measurement of refracting angle ‘A’ of the prism.

1. Draw a line XY on the drawing sheet as depicted in Fig. 16.4

G I H
P1 P1

N1 P2 A P'2 N2
P
K
P3 2A M P'3
P4 P'4
L N Y
X
B E O F C
Fig. 16.4 Measurement the refracting angle A of the prism
2. Mark points O in the middle of XY and E and F on either side of O equidistant from E such that OE = OF (say
1 cm each).

3. Draw three vertical lines EG, OI and FH through E, O and F respectively, such that these are parallel to each
other.
4. Place the prism with its refracting edge A on the line OI such that BC is along XY. The points E and F would
be symmetric with respect to edges B and C.
5. Draw the boundary ABC of the face of prism touching the board.
6. Fix pins P1 and P2 vertically, 4 cm apart, observe their reflection in the face AB and fix the pin P3 such that
the images of P1, P2 and P3 are in a straight line. Fix another pin P4 such that prick of P4 is also in the same
straight line. Join the pricks of P3 and P4 by line LK and produce it backward. KL is reflected ray of incident
ray GK.
7. Similarly locate NM by joining P3 P4 as the reflected ray of incident ray HM. Draw NM backward to meet the
line LK produced backward at point P. The point P should lie on the line OI if observations are correctly taken.

8. The angle LPN is equal to 2 A (it can be proved geometrically from the figure). Measure the angle LPN and
determine A, the angle of prism.
OBSERVATION

(i) Table for angles i and 

No of Obs. Angle of incident i Angle of deviation δ

1 30°
2 35°
3 40°
4 45°
…. ……
8 60°

(ii) Plotting the graph between i and  Plot a graph between angles i and  for various sets of values recorded
in the observation table. The graph will be a curve as shown in Fig. 16.2
(iii) For angle ‘A’ of the prism
LPN = ...........° = 2A
or Angle A = ...........°

CALCULATIONS

Determine the angle of minimum deviation m from the graph.

RESULT

(i) The angle of deviation  first decreases with the increase in the angle of incidence, attains a minimum value
and then increases with further increase in the angle of incidence as indicated in the (–i) graph Fig. 16.2

PRECAUTIONS

1. A sharp pencil should be used for drawing the boundary of the prism.
2. The separation between the pins should not be less than 8 cm.
3. The angle of incidence should lie between 30° to 60°.
4. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observation. So an ink mark should be placed on it to
distinguish it as the refracting angle A of the prism.
5. The pins should have sharp tips and fixed vertically and the pin pricks should be encircled immediately after
they are removed.
6. Proper arrows should be drawn to indicate the incident, the refracted and the emergent rays.
7. A smooth curve practically passing through all the plotted points should be drawn.

EXERCISE
Q.1 When prism is set in minimum deviation position then –
(1) A +  = i + e (2) i = e, r1 = r 2

A  
(3) r = A/2 (4) i =
2
(A) (1) and (2) are correct (B) (2), (3) and (4) are correct
(C) (3) and (4) are correct (D) all are correct
Q.2 In minimum deviation position of prism, the ray of light through prism –
(A) passes symmetrically, i.e. parallel to the base (B) passes unsymmetrically
(C) can pass in any way (D) emerges parallel to incident ray

Q.3 A graph is plotted between angle of deviation () and angle of incidence (i) for a prism. The nearly correct graph
is –

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Q.4 A ray of light passes through an equilateral glass prism in minimum deviation position it suffers a deviation
of 30º. What could be the angle of incidence (i) on the graph –
(A) 30º
(B) 45º
(C) 60º

(D) 90º

Q.5 A prism has refractive index 2 and angle of prism 60º. The angle of minimum deviation m is –
(A) 45º (B) 60º
(C) 90º (D) 30º

Q.6 Two beams of red and violet colours are made to pass separately through a prism (angle of the prism is 60º ).
In the position of minimum deviation, the angle of refraction will be –
(A) 30º for both the colours (B) greater for the violet colour
(C) greater for the red colour (D) equal but not 30º for both the colours

Q.7 A ray of light is incident on an equilateral glass prism placed on a horizontal table. For minimum deviation which
of the following is true –

(A) PQ is horizontal (B) QR is horizontal

(C) RS is horizontal (D) Either PQ or RS is horizontal

Q.8 Angle of minimum deviation depends upon –

(A) colour of light (B) refractive index
(C) wavelength (D) all of the above
Q.9 In an experiment for a small angled prism, angle of prism A, the angle of minimum deviations () varies with the
refractive index of the prism as shown in the graph -

(A) Point P corresponds to  = 1 (B) Slope of the line PQ = A/2

(C) Slope = 2A (D) None of the above statements is true

Q.10 A parallel beam of light is incident on a prism as shown in figure. Such that the rays get reflected from opposite
faces. The angle of deviation  between reflected rays from faces AB and AC is –

B C
(A) A (B) 2A

A
(C) (D) Non relation between A and 
2

ANSWER KEY
Qus . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans . D A A B D A B D A B
 REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A GLASS SLAB
EXPERIMENT # 17
AIM

To determine the refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

APPARATUS

A piece of paper, a marker, glass slab, travelling microscope, lycopodium powder.

THEORY
Refraction is a phenomenon of propagation of light from one transparent medium into the other medium such
that light deviates from its original path. The ratio of velocity of light in the first medium to that in the second
medium is called refractive index of second medium with respect to the first. Usually the first medium is air.
The bottom surface of a vessel containing a refracting liquid appears to be raised, such that apparent depth
is less than the real depth. Refractive index of refracting liquid is defined as the ratio of real depth to the apparent
depth.
real depth
Mathematically, Refractive index µ =
apparent depth
For accurate measurements of depths, a travelling microscope [Fig. 17(a)] is used.
If reading of real depth at the bottom of the slab is r 1, if reading at cross due to refraction is r 2 and at the top
of slab if reading is r 3, then
real depth = r3 – r 1, and
apparent depth = r3 – r2 .
r3 – r1
Therefore, refractive index of glass (material of slab) µ =
r3 – r2

r3

r2 R
Stem of travelling microscope

r1 R
R

Lycopodium
Powder
Glass slab
O

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 17 : Travelling microscope taking reading (a) at the cross mark

(b) at the cross mark with slab placed on it (c) at powder sprinkled on the top of the slab
PROCEDURE

For accurate measurement of depths, travelling microscope is used [for travelling microscope turn to page no. 41]
1. Note the number of divisions of vernier which coincide with number of full scale divisions.
2. Find the value of each main division and hence least count of the microscope scale as (1 M.S.D. – 1 V.S.D.).
3. Set the microscope in its stand such that it is capable of sliding vertically up and down as the screw attached
to rack and pinion is turned.
4. On a sheet of white paper, mark a cross and place it below the objective of the microscope.
5. Move the microscope very gently. Using the screw, focus the eye piece on cross mark and bring the cross in
focus such that the cross wires, coincides with the marked cross on the paper. Note the reading of the
microscope as r1 [Fig. 17 (a)].
6. Place the given glass slab on the cross mark. You would observe that the cross mark appears to be raised.
7. Move the microscope gradually and gently upward to bring the cross mark in focus and on cross of cross wires.
Record the reading as r 2 [Fig 17 (b)].
8. Sprinkle some fine lycopodium powder on the glass slab and move the microscope upward till the powder
particle come into focus. Record the reading on the scale as r 3 [Fig. 17 (C)].
9. Difference of readings r3 and r 1 i.e. r3 – r1 gives the real depth whereas r 3 – r2 gives the apparent depth.
10. Record your observations as follows and calculate the value of refractive index m.

OBSERVATIONS

Least count of travelling microscope.

10 Vernier Scale Division = 9 Main Scale Divisions
(Scales may differ from instrument to instrument).
Value of one main scale division = 1 mm i.e. 0.1 cm.
10 V.S.D. = 9 M.S.D. (V.S.D. Vernier Scale Division, M.S.D. Main Scale Divisions)
9
 1 V.S.D. = M.S.D.
10
9 1 1
L.C. = 1 M.S.D. – 1 V.S.D. = 1 M.S.D. – M.S.D. = M.S.D. or × 0.1 cm = 0.01 cm.
10 10 10

Reading of microscope focussed on

Cross mark without slab Cross mark with slab placed on it Powder sprinkled on top of slab
No.
of Main Vernier Reading Main scale Vernier Reading Main Vernier Reading
Obs. scale div. N + n × reading (N) div. N+n× scale div. N+n×
reading Coinciding L.C. = r1 Coinciding L.C. = r2 reading Coinciding L.C. = r3
(N) (N)
(cm) n (cm) (cm) n (cm) (cm) n (cm)
1.

2.

3.

Mean values r1 = ..........cm, r2 = ..............cm and r3 = ..........cm

CALCULATIONS

Real depth = dr = r 3 – r 1 = ..........cm.

(1) ........cm; (2) ........cm and (3) .........cm; Mean dr = ......cm
Apparent depth = da = r3 – r 2 = ........cm.
(1) .........cm (2) .........cm (3) ..........cm; Mean da = ..............cm

Real depth d
Refractive index µ = = r = .........
Apparent depth da

PRECAUTIONS

1. Least count of the scale of travelling microscope should be carefully calculated.

2. Microscope once focussed on the cross mark, the focussing should not be disturbed throughout the experiment.
Only rack and pinion screw should be turned to move the microscope upward.
3. Eye piece should be adjusted such that cross wires are distinctly seen.
4. Cross wires, cross should be set on the ink cross mark on the paper.
5. Only a thin layer of powder should be spread on the top of slab.
6. Express your result upto significant figures keeping in view the least count of instrument.

RESULT

The refractive index of the glass slab by using travelling microscope is determined as ...........(no units required
as it is simply a ratio).

EXERCISE

Q.1 An experiment is performed to find the refractive index of glass using a travelling microscope in this experiment
distances are measured by -
(A) a standard laboratory scale (B) a meter scale provided on the microscope
(C) a screw gauge provided on the microscope (D) a vernier scale provided on the microscope

Q.2 To find the refractive index of a glass slab, the travelling microscope is first focused on a fine scratch mark on
a piece of paper and then, the glass slab is placed on the paper, the scratch mark is now apparently -
(A) at the same place (B) raised to some height
(C) lowered to some depth (D) can’t say anything

Q.3 Travelling microscope consists of a microscope fixed on a stand in such a way that it -
(A) can travel in vertical direction (B) can travel in horizontal direction
(C) can travel in both the direction (D) can not travel in either direction

Q.4 The refractive index of a medium is always -

(A) greater than one (B) less than one
(C) equal to one (D) none of these
Q.5 Apparent depth method can be used for -
(A) solid medium only (B) liquid medium only
(C) both the medium (D) none of these

Q.6 The determination of refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope a cross mark is observed at
position 10.04 cm without using the glass slab. When the slab is placed over the cross mark, the observed
reading of microscope is 12.54 cm. lycopodium powder alone is observed at a position 15.00 cm. The refractive
index for the material of glass slab is -
(A) 1.33 (B) 1.5 (C) 1.75 (D) 2

Q.7 A mark on a table top is seen by a student through a microscope at a distance of 30 cm from the microscope.
Seeing along same vertical path he puts a slab in between microscope and table top at any position. He finds
that he is to move the microscope by 5 cm, away from the slab to see the focussed image of the same mark.
If refractive index of glass slab is 1.5. The thickness of glass slab introduced is –
(A) 15 cm (B) 5 cm (C) 30 cm (D) 20 cm

Q.8 A student in an experiment gets following observations.

Reading for the bottom of an empty beaker = 12.324 cm.
Reading for the bottom of the beaker when partially filled with the liquid = 12.802 cm.
Reading for the liquid surface = 13.895 cm.
The refractive index would be -
(A) 1.232 (B) 1.389 (C) 1.280 (D) 1.437

Q.9 We focus microscope on a mark at bottom of beaker. Then we pour water into the beaker. Microscope is raised
through 2.0 cm to focus the bottom mark again. The height of water column in beaker is –
(A) 8/3 cm (B) 8.0 cm (C) 3.0 cm (D) 6.0 cm

Q.10 In an experiment, microscope is focused on a scratch on the bottom of a beaker. Turpentine oil is poured into
the beaker to a depth of 4 cm, and it is found necessary to raise the microscope through a vertical distance
of 1.28 cm to bring the scratch again into focus. The refractive index of the turpentine oil would be -
(A) 1.28 (B) 1.82 (C) 1.47 (D) 3.12

ANSWER KEY
Qus . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans . D B C A C D A D B C
 CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF A P-N
JUNCTION
EXPERIMENT # 18
AIM

To study the static and dynamic curves of a p-n junction diode in forward bias and to determine its static and
dynamic resistances

REQUIREMENTS
A p-n junction diode, a three volt battery, a high resistance rheostat, 0-3 volt voltmeter, one milliammeter,
one way key and connecting wires.

THEORY

When a junction diode is forward biased, a forward current is produced which increases with increase in bias
voltage. This increase is not proportional.
The ratio of forward bias voltage (V) and forward current (I) is called the static resistance of semiconductor
VF
diode, i.e., R = .
IF

In case of a varying bias voltage and varying forward current, the ratio of change in forward biase voltage (V)
 VF 
and corresponding change in forward current (I) is called the dynamic resistance  r  I  .
 F 

To find the static and dynamic resistance of semiconductor diode, a graph has to be plotted between forward
bias voltage (V) and forward bias current (I). This graph is called the characteristic curve of semicondctor diode.

PROCEDURE

Diode

+
Battery Rh +
– Voltmeter V
– mA Milliammeter

()
K
Fig. 18.1
 (a) Make the connections as shown in figure 18.1
(b) Keep the moving contact of the rheostat to the minimum and insert the key K. Voltmeter and milliammeter
will show a zero reading.
(c) Move the contact towards the positive to apply the forward bias voltage V = 0.1 V. The current remain zero
(d) Increase the forward bias voltage to 0.3 V in steps. The current will still be zero. (This is due to the junction
potential barrier of 0.3 V).
(e) Increase V to 0.4 V. Record the current.
(f) Increase V in step of 0.2 and note the corresponding current.
(g) At V = 2.4 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents the forward breakdown stage.
(h) Draw a graph of I on y-axis and V on x-axis. The graph will be as shown in figure 18.2

RECORD OF READINGS

(i) Least count of voltmeter = ......................... V Zero error of mA = ........................ mA

(ii) Least count of milliammeter = ................. mA Zero error of voltmeter = ...................V

Sr. No. Forward bias voltage VF (V) Forward bias current IF (mA)

1 0 0
2 : 0
3 : 0
4 : :
: : :
: : :
: : :

GRAPH

y
Forward current IF (mA)

B
An
C
A

A
O x
Forward bias voltage VF (V)

Fig. 18.2
CALCULATIONS

(i) For static resistance (R)

VF
R=
IF

OA
From the graph R = = .........., ohm
OA
Diode used......(specify the code)
(ii) For dynamic resistance (r)

VF
r=
I F

AC
 From the graph r = ohms
BC

RESULT

(i) The static resistance of the given semiconductor diode = ........... ohm
(ii) The dynamic resistance of the given semiconductor diode = ......... ohm

PRECAUTIONS

(i) Make all connections neat, clean and tight

(ii) Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not in use
(iii) Avoid applying forward bias voltage beyond breakdown

POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERRORS

(i) The connection may not be tight

(ii) The junction diode may be faulty
 CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF A ZENER DIODE
EXPERIMENT # 19
AIM

To draw the characteristic curves of a zener diode and to determine its reverse breakdown voltage.

APPARATUS

A Zener diode (with reverse breakdown voltage of 6 V), a ten volt battery, a rheostat, two voltmeters
(range 0, 10 V), one milliammeter, one 20 resistance, one way key, connecting wires.

THEORY

Zener diode is a semiconductor diode in which the n-type sections are heavily doped, This heavy doping results
in a low value of reverse breakdown voltage.
The reverse breakdown voltage of Zener diode is called Zener voltage (Vz). The reverse current that results after
the breakdown, is called Zener current (Iz).
The circuit diagram is given in figure
Vi = Input voltage
V0 = Output voltage
Ri = Input resistance
Ii = Input current
IZ = Zener diode current
IL = Load current

IL = I i – I Z

V0 = Vi – RiIi
V0 = RLIL
Initially as Vi increases, Ii increases hence V0 increases linearly. At break-down, increase of Vi increases Ii by
large amount, so that V0 = Vi – RiIi becomes constant.
This constant value of V0 Which is the reverse breakdown voltage, is called Zener voltage.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Ri Ii IL
mA 
20 
Iz

+ +
Zener RL
10 V V2 V0
diode
N758 A
V1 Vi

( ) 
PROCEDURE

(a) Make the connections as shown in figure above making sense that zener diode is reverse biased
(b) Bring the moving contact to rheostat to the minimum and insert the key K. Voltmeter and ameter will read zero
(c) Move the contact a little towards positive end to apply some reverse bias voltage (Vi). Milliammeter reading
remains zero.
(d) As Vi is further increased, Ii starts increasing and V0 becomes less than Vi. Note the values of Vi, V0 and Ii
(e) Keep increasing Vi in small steps of 0.5 V. Note the corresponding values of Ii and V0
(f) At one stage as Vi is increased, Ii increases by large amount and V0 does not increase. This is reverse break
down situation
(g) As Vi is increased further, Ii will increase keeping V0 constant. Record your observation in tabular column
(h) Draw graph of output voltage V0 along y-axis and input voltage along x-axis. The graph will be as shown in
figure
(i) Draw graph of input current along y-axis and input voltage along x-axis. The graph will be as shown in figure

GRAPHS

Input voltage (Vi) volt

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Output voltage (V0) volt

Zener
voltage 10
6
20

Input current Ii (mA)

5
30
4
40
3
50
2
60
1
70
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Input voltage (Vi) volt

RECORD OF READINGS
Least count of voltmeter V1 =........... V
Least count of voltmeter V2 =............V
Least count of milli-ammeter =.........mA
 Serial No. Input voltage Vi Input current Ii Output voltage V0
(V) (mA) (V)

1 0 0 0

2 0.5 : :

3 1 : :

4 1.5 : :

5 : : :

6 : : :

RESULT

The reverse breakdown voltage of given Zener diode is 6 volts.

PRECAUTIONS

(i) Use voltmeter and milliammeter of suitable range.

(ii) Connect the zener diode p-n junction in reverse bias.
(iii) The key should be kept open when the circuit is not in use.
 CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF A
TRANSISTOR
EXPERIMENT # 20
AIM
To study the characteristics of a common emitter n-p-n or p-n-p transistor and to find out the values of current
and voltage gains.

REQUIREMENTS

An n-p-n transistor, a 3 V battery, a 30 V battery, two rehostats, one 0–3 V voltmeter, one 0–30 V voltmeter,
one 0–500A microammeter, one 0–50 mA milliammeter, two one way keys, connecting wires.

THEORY

A transistor can be considered as a thin wafer of one type of semiconductor between two layers of another
type. A npn transistor has one p-type wafer in between two n-type. Similarly p-n-p the transistor has one
n-type wafer between two p-type.
In a common emitter circuit, the emitter base makes the input section and the collector base the output section,
with emitter base junction, forward bias and the collector base junction, reverse biased.
The resistance offered by the emitter base junction is called input resistace Ri and has a low value. The
resistance offered by the collector base junction is called output resistance R0 and has high value. Due to the
high output resistance, a high resistance can be used as a load resistance.

RL R
The ratio or 0 measures the resistance gain of the common emitter transistor..
Ri Ri

The ratio of change in collector current to the corresponding change in base current, measures the current gain
in common emitter transistor and is represented by .

I c
 = I
b

The product of current gain and the reistance gain measures the voltage gain of the common emitter transistor.

FORMULA USED
Vb
Input resistance, Ri 
I b
Vc
Output resistance, R0 
I c
R0
Resistance gain, = R
i
I c
Current gain,   = I
b
Voltage gain = Current gain × Resistance gain
R0
i.e. AV =  R
i
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Ic – +
mA

npn
Ib + –
A Rh +
+
3V 30V
– Rh + –
+ Vc V2
V1 Vb Ie –
–

K1 Ib Ic K2
( ) ( )

Figure : (A)

PROCEDURE

(a) Make circuit diagram as shown in given figure (A)

(b) Drag the moveable contact of rheostat to the minimum so that voltmeters V1 and V2 read zero volt

FOR INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

(c) Apply the forward bias voltage at the emitter base junction note the base voltage (Vb) and the base current (Ib)
(d) Keep increasing Vb till Ib rises suddenly
(e) Make collector voltage 10 V and repeat the above steps
(f) Now make collector voltage 20 V, 30 V and repeat the above steps. Note the value of Vb and Ib in each case

FOR OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

(g) Make all reading zero. Keep the collector voltage zero.
(h) Make base current Ib = 100 A by adjusting the base voltage. You will be able to read some collector current
even though the collector voltage is zero
(i) Make the the collector voltage 10V, 20V, 30V, etc. and note corresponding collector currents. Record your
observations in the tabular form as given below
(j) Make the current Ib equal to 200 A, note the values of Ic corresponding to the different values of Vc

RECORD OF REOBSERVATIONS
Least count of voltmeter,
Least count of voltmeter,
Least count of milliammeter
Least count of microammeter
V1 = ..........V
V2 = ..........V
=.............mA
=...............A
 Table-1 For base voltage and base current

Sr. Base voltage, (V b) Base current, Ib (A)

No. (V) Vc = 0V Vc = 10V Vc = 20V Vc = 30V
1
2
3
4
5

Table-2 For collector voltage and collector current

Sr. Collector voltage, Vc Collector current, Ic (mA)

No. (V) Ib = 100 A Ib = 200 A Ib = 300 A Ib = 400 A
1
2
3
4
5

GRAPHS
I. (For Input Characteristics)
Draw a graph of base voltage (Vb) on the x-axis and base current (Ib) on the y-axis from table no. 1. The graph
will be as shown in figure. Y
V
30 V
= 0
400 V c = 2 0V
V =1 V
Base current (Ib). A

c
Vc =0
Vc
Ib

150
100
50 Vb
X
–5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Base voltage (Vb ) V
I b
The slope of the graph gives the value of and its reciprocal gives the value of input resistance Ri.
Vb

Vb
Ri = = ........... ohms
I b
II. For Output Characteristics
Draw the graph between collector voltage Vc and collector current Ic for 10 mA base current Ib taking Vc along
x-axis and Ic along y-axis from table no.2. The graph will be as shown in figure.

I c
From the graph the slope gives the value of and its reciprocal gives the output resistance.
Vc

Vc
R0 = = ................. ohm
I c
III. For Calculation of Current Gain
Plot a graph of base current (Ib) on x-axis and collector current Ic on y-axis. The graph will be as shown in figure.

I c
The slope of the graph will give the value of I which is the value of current gain ().
b

A
20
Collector current
(Ic) mA

15 Ic

10 B
C
5
Ib

X
100 200 300 400
Base Current (Ib) A
 AC = ................................. mA
= ................................. A
BC = ................................. A
= ................................. A

AC
 = = ...................
BC

For calculation of voltage gain (Av )

Voltage gain = Current gain × Resistance gain

Ro
Av =  × R
i

RESULT
For the given common emitter transistor, Current gain  = ....................
Voltage gain Av = ....................

PRECAUTONS
(i) Use voltmeter and milliammeter of suitable range
(ii) The key should be kept open when the circuit is not in use

POSIBLE SOURCES OF ERRORS

(i) Voltmeter and ammeter may have a zero error
(ii) All the connections may not be tight
 IDENTIFICATION OF DEVICES
EXPERIMENT # 21
AIM

To identify a diode, a L.E.D., a transistor, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such items

APPARATUS

A multimeter and a collection of a junction diode, L.E.D., a transistor, a resistor, a capacitor and integrated circuit.

THEORY

For identification of different items, we have to consider both, their physical apperarance and working
1. An IC (integrated circuit) is in the form of a chip (with flat back) and has multiples terminals, say 8 or more.
Therefore, it can easily be identified.
2. A transistor is a three terminal device and can be sorted out just by appearance
3. A resistor, a capacitor, a diode and an LED are two teminal devics. For identifying these, we use the following
facts :
(i). A diode is a two terminal device that conducts only when it is forward biased
(ii). An LED is a light emitting diode. It is also a two teminal device which conducts and emits light only when
it is forward biased.
(iii). A Resistor is a two teminal device. It conducts both with d.c. and a.c. voltage. Further, a resistor conducts
equally even when teminals of d.c. battery are reversed
(iv). A capacitor is a two terminal device which does not conduct with d.c. voltage applies either way. But,
conducts with a.c. voltage

0.05 
BC AC 128
Capacitor 548
Resistor

L.E.D.

Diode Transistor
I.C.

PROCEDURE

1. Looks at the given mixture of various components of electrical circuit and pick up the one having more than
three terminals. The number of terminals may be 8, 10, 14, or 16. This component will have a flat face. This
component will be the integrated circuit i.e., IC.
2. Now find out the component having three legs or terminals. It will be a transistor
3. The component having two legs may either be a junction or capacitor or resistor or a light emitting diode.
These items can be distinguished from each other by using a multimeter as an ohmmeter.
 4. Touch the probes to the two ends of each item and observe the deflection on the resistance scale. After
this, interchange the two probes and again observe the deflection
5. (i) If the same constant deflection is observed in the two cases (before and after interchanging the probes),
the item under observation is a resistor
(ii) If unequal deflections are observation, it is a junction diode
(iii) If unequal deflections are observed in the two cases along with emission of light in the case when
deflection is large, the item under observation is an LED
(iv) On touching the probes, if a large deflection is observed, which then gradually decreases to zero the
item under observation is a capacitor
In case the capacity of the capacitor is of the order of picofarad, then the deflection will become zero within
no time

RESULT

When the item is observed physically

S. No. Number of legs (or pins) of the item Inference

1 More than three The item is an IC
2 Three The item is a transistor
3 Two junction diode, L.E.D.,
resistor or capacitor

With multimeter as an ohmmeter :

S. No. Possible deflection before and after interchanging the Inference

probes
probes
1 Same cosntant deflection The item is a resistor
2 Small deflection in one case and large deflection in the The item is a junction diode
other
3 Small deflection in one case and large deflection in the The item is an L.E.D.
other along with emission of light
4 Large deflection, which gradually falls to zero The item is a capacitor of small
capacity

PRECAUTIONS
Observe all those precautions which were related to multimeter and explained at the end of multimeter.
 MULTIMETER
EXPERIMENT # 22
AIM
Use of multimeter to :
(a) Identify base of transistor.
(b) Distinguish between N-P-N and P-N-P type transistor.
(c) Identify terminals of an IC.
(d) See the unidirectional flow of current in case of a diode and LED.
(e) Check whether the given electronic component (e.g., diode, transistor or IC) is in working order.

APPARATUS

A multimeter, P-N-P transistor, N-P-N transistor, an IC, junction diode, L.E.D., etc
THEORY
Multimeter : It is an electrical instrument which can be used to measure all the three basic electrical quantities
i.e., electrical resistance, current (a.c. and d.c.) and voltage (direct and alternating). Since it can measure Ampere
(A) (unit of current), Volt (V) (Unit of e.m.f.) and Ohm (unit of resistance), that is why it is also called as AVO
meter. In this way, this single instrument will replace the Voltmeter and Ammeter.

CONSTRUCTION

The most commonly used form of multimeter is shown in figure, which is basically a pointer type moving coil
galvanometer. The pointer of the multimeter can move over its dial, which is marked in resistance, current and
voltage scales of different ranges. The zeros of all the the scales are on the extreme left, except that of resistance
scale, whose zero is on the extreme right. A dry cell of 1.5 V is provided inside it. When the multimeter is used
as an ohmmeter, the dry cell comes in closed circuit.

Selector switch
Zero ohm switch

Jack socket

Figure : Multimeter
 1. Circuit jacks : In the multimeter shown in fig. there are two circuit jacks, one each at the extreme corners of
the bottom of the multimeter. The jack at right corner is marked positive ( + ), while the other at left corner is
marked negative ( – ). In certain multimeters, the positive circuit jack is not provided but circuit jacks are
provided in front of all the markings in regions A, B, C and D. When the range switch is turned in any region,
then all the circuit jacks in that region act as the positive circuit jacks.
Two testing leads (generally one black and the other red in colour) are provided with a multimeter. Each lead
carries two probes (one smaller than the other) as its two ends. The smaller probe of red lead is inserted in
jack marked positive, while the smaller probe of black lead is inserted in jack marked negative.
It may be pointed out that the battery cell remains connected to the meter only, when the range switch is in
region A. Further, actually the positive of the battery cell is connected to the negative circuit jack and the
negative of the battery cell is connected to the positive circuit jack.
2. Zero ohm switch : This switch is provided at the left side of the multimeter. However, in some multimeters, the
zero ohm switch is also provided on its front panel. This switch is set, while measuring a resistance. In order
to set this switch, the smaller probes are inserted in the two jacks and the bigger probes are short circuited.
This switch is worked, till the pointer comes to zero mark, which lies at the right end of resistance scale. The
action of multimeter as different types of meters is explained below :
(i) Ammeter : The galvanometer gets converted into d.c. ammeter when range switch lies in the region B of
the multimeter panel. When range switch is in region B, it can be used as d.c. ammeter of range 0 to 0.25 mA,
0 to 25 mA and 0 to 500 mA by bringing the knob in front of the desired mark when the range switch is
in the region B, a very small resistance called shunt resistance whose value is different for different range,
gets connected in parallel to the galvanometer. In this position, the battery cell is cut off from the meter.
(ii) Voltmeter : Multimeter can be used to measure both direct and alternating voltage
(a) d.c. Voltmeter : The galvanometer gets converted into d.c. voltmeter when the range switch lies in the region
C of the multimeter panel. With different positions of range switch in this region, it can be used as d.c.
voltmeter of ranges 0-0.25 V, 0-2.5 V, 0-10 V, 0-50 V and 0 to 1000 volts. When the range switch is in region
C, a high resistance, whose value depends upon the range selected, gets connected in series to the
galvanometer. In this case the battery cell is not in circuit with the meter.
(b) a.c. Voltmeter : The galvanometer gets converted into a.c. voltmeter when the range switch is turned and
it lies in the region D of the multimeter panel. With the different positions of the range switch in this region,
multimeter can be used as a.c. voltmeter of range 0 to 10 V, 50V, 250V and 1000V. A solid state crystal diode
rectifier is incorporated in the circuit so as to use it for a.c. measurement.
(iii) ohm-meter : When the knob in the lower part of the multimeter i.e., the range switch is turned so as to
be in the region A of the multimeter panel, the galvanometer gets converted into a resistance meter. When
range switch is in front of a small black mark against × K mark, it works as resistance meter of range
0 to 50 K and when the knob is in front of ×  mark, it works as a resistance metre of range 0 to
50 × 106 ohm. When the range switch is in region A, a battery cell of 0.5 V and suitable resistor whose
value is different for × K  and ×  marks, gets connected in series to the galvanometer..

PROCEDURE

(1) Take a multimter and plug in the smaller probes of the testing leads into jack sockets marked as positive
( + ) and negative ( – ).
(2) Turn the selector switch in the region A, so that it points towards the small black mark against ×  or
×K . Adjust the zero ohm switch till the pointer of the multimeter comes to zero mark of the resistance
scale (on extreme right), when the two probes are short ciruited.
(a) To identify the base of transistor :

Transistor

(3) In most of the cases the central lead of a transistor is base lead but in some cases it may not be so. In
order to identify the base lead, touch the two probes to the extreme two legs of the transistor. Note the
resistance of transistor between these two legs. Now, interchange the probes touching the two extreme legs
of the transistor again and note the resistance of transistor between these legs.
If in both cases the resistance of transistor is high, then the central leg is base of transistor and the two
extreme legs are emitter and collector, because emitter collector junction offers high resistance in both
directions.
But if the resistance is high in one direction and low in the other direction, then one of the extreme legs
is base of transistor.
(4) To find, which of the extreme legs is base, touch one probe to the left leg and the other to the central leg.
Note the resistance between these two legs. Now interchange the two probes and again note the resistance.
In case the resistance is low in one direction and high in other direction, then the left leg is base otherwise
the right leg is base of the transistor.
(b) To find whether the given transistor is N-P-N or P-N-P :
(5) First find the base of transistor as explained above
(6) Now touch the probe of black wire to the base and the probe of the red wire to any one of the remaining
two legs and note the resistance from the multimeter
(7) In case the resistance of the transistor is low, it is an N-P-N transistor, otherwise P-N-P
(c) Flow of current in a junction diode :
(8) Touch the two probes of the multimeter with the two legs of the diode and note the value of resistance.
Now interchange the two probes and note the resistance. If in one case resistance is low and in other case
resistance is high, then it shows the unidirectional flow of current through a junction diode.
Flow of current in a L.E.D.
(9) Touch the two probes of the multimeter with the two legs of the L.E.D. and note the value of resistance.
Now interchange the two probes and note the resistance. If in one case resistance is low and in other case
resistance is high, also the L.E.D. will glow by emitting light when its resistance is low, then it shows the
unidirectional flow of current through a L.E.D.
(d) Check whether the given diode or transistor is in working order :
(10) Set the multimeter as resistance meter as explained in steps 1 and 2. Now touch the probes with the two
legs of the junction diode and note the value of resistance. Now interchange the probes and again note the
resistance. If in one case resistance is low and in the second case resistance is high, then the junction diode
is in working order. If in both cases the resistance is low, then the junction diode is spoilt.
 FOR A TRANSISTOR
(11) Confirm the base, emitter and collector of the given transistor. Find the resistance of E-B junction and
B-C junction using the multimeter, keeping in mind either the given transistor is P-N-P or N-P-N. Again find
the resistance of E-B junction and B-C junction by interchanging the probes. If in both directions the
resistances of both the junctions come to be low, then the given transistor is spoiled if in one direction
resistance is low while in other direction the resistance is high, show that the transistor is in working order.

PRECAUTIONS

The following precautions should be observed while using a multimeter.

(1) The electrical quantity to be measured should be confirmed each time before starting the measurement
otherwise the multimeter may get damaged if one starts measuring voltage and the selector switch is in the
region of current or resistance etc.
(2) The instrument should not be exposed to high temperature and moisture for long time, otherwise it will get
damaged.
(3) When order of the magnitude of voltage or current is not known, measurement is always started on the
highest range and then adequate lower range is selected in gradual steps.
(4) while handling high voltages, probes should be held from their insulating covers.
(5) Due to to high sensitivity of the instruments, it should not be given big shocks/vibrations.
(6) Batteries out of life should be immediately replaced by new ones. Otherwise components inside will get
corroded by leakage of the electrolyte.

EXERCISE
Q.1 A semiconductor X is made by doping a germanium crystal with arsenic (Z = 33). A second semiconductor Y
is made by doping germanium with indium (Z = 49). The two are joined end to end and connected to a battery
as shown. Which of the following statement is correct –

X Y

(A) X is P-type, Y is N-type and the junction is forward biased

(B) X is N-type, Y is P-type and the junction is forward biased
(C) X is P-type, Y is N-type and the junction is reverse biased
(D) X is N-type, Y is P-type and the junction is reverse biased

Q.2 In a P-N junction diode not connected to any circuit –

(A) the potential in the same everywhere
(B) the P-type side is at a higher potential then the N-type side
(C) there is an electric field at the junction directed from the N-type side to the P-type side
(D) there is an electric field at the junction directed from the P-type to the N-type side
Q.3 The circuit arrangement to plot characteristic curves of diode in forward bias mode is best represented by –
– +
V
+
A +
V A
+ – –
–
(A) (B)

+ –
A

+V–

(C) (D) None of these

Q.4 A semiconductor device is connected in a series circuit with a battery and a resistance. A current is found to
pass through the circuit. If the polarity of the battery is reversed, the current drops almost to zero. The device
may be –
(A) A P-type semiconductor (B) An N-type semiconductor
(C) A P-N junction (D) An intrinstic semiconductor

Q.5 The characteristic curve for a diode is shown in the figure for forward bias mode. The cut-off voltage for this
diode is approximately –
I(mA)

N
V(volt)
0.5 0.8
(A) 0.5 V (B) 0.8 V (C) 1 V (D) > 1 V

Q.6 The forward bias characteristics of two diodes D1 and D2 are shown, the knee voltage for D1 and D2 are
respectively [approx] –

I(mA)
D1 D2
1000
750
500
250

0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 V(volt)

(A) 0.4 V and 0.7 V (B) 0.6 V and 0.9 V (C) 0.6 V and 0.8 V (D) 0.4 V and 0.9 V
Q.7 The V-I characteristic for a p-n junction diode is plotted as shown in the figure. From the plot we can conclude that

(mA)
Forward bias

Vb
Vk V

Reverse bias (A)

[Vb  breakdown voltage, Vk  knee voltage]
(A) the forward bias resistance of diode is very high; almost infinity for small values of V and after a certain
value it becomes very low
(B) the reverse bias resistance of diode is very high in the beginning upto breakdown voltage is not achieved
(C) both forward and reverse bias resistances are same for all voltages
(D) both (A) and (B) are correct

Q.8 A student connected two PN junction in series by three different methods as shown in the figure. If the potential
difference in the junctions is the same, then the correct connections will be -

(A) in the circuit (1) and (2) (B) in the circuit (2) and (3)
(C) in the circuit (1) and (3) (D) only in the circuit (1)

Q.9 An p-n junction (D) shown in the figure can act as a rectifier. An alternating current source (V) is connected
in the circuit.

The current (I) in the resistor R can be shown by :

I I

(A) (B)
t t
I I

(C) (D)
t t
Q.10 In the below given arrangement determine the ammeter reading, if each diodes have a forward resistance of 50
and infinite backward resistance -
150
(A) zero
(B) 0.02 50
(C) 0.03
(D) 0.036 6V 100
A

Q.11 Zener diode is a p-n junction which has –

(A) p-end heavily doped, n-end lightly doped (B) n-end heavily doped, p-end lightly doped
(C) both p and n-ends heavily doped (D) both p and n-ends lightly doped

Q.12 Zener diode has both p and n-ends heavily doped so that –
(A) it has small thickness of depletion region
(B) it has large thickness of depletion region due to large recombination
(C) it has large reverse bias voltage
(D) it has weak reverse current when reverse biased

Q.13 Which of the following statements is correct for proper working of zener diode ?
(A) Reverse bias voltage should be less than or equal to zener break down voltage
(B) Reverse bias voltage applied must be greater than zener break down voltage
(C) Zener is to be reverse biased for zener action
(D) For given zener diode there can be different zener break down voltages

Q.14 A zener diode is to be used as a voltage regulator. Identify the correct set up -

+ +
RS RS
(A) RL (B) RL
– –

+ +
RS RS
(C)
RL (D) RL
– –
Q.15 In given figure when input voltage increases,
I Rs
IZ IL

Vin V0
RL

(A) the current through Rs, RL and zener increases

(B) the current through Rs increases, zener increases but through RL remains constant
(C) the current through Rs increases, through zener decreases, RL increases
(D) the current through Rs increases, through zener remains constant but RL increases
Q.16 Most important use of zener diode is to have –
(A) constant voltage across applied load
(B) any desired current at constant voltage
(C) a p-n junction working under constant regulated voltage conditions
(D) a p-n junction to operate at high voltages

Q.17 In a PNP transistor the base is in the N region, its width relative to the P region is -
(A) smaller (B) larger (C) same (D) not related

Q.18 A transistor is used in common emitter mode as an amplifier, then :

(1) the base emitter junction is forward biased
(2) the base emitter junction is reverse biased
(3) the input signal is connected in series with the voltage applied to bias the base emitter junction
(4) the input signal is connected is series with the voltage applied to bias the base collector junction
which is correct –
(A) 1, 2, 3 (B) 1, 2, 3, 4 (C) 1, 3, 4 (D) 2, 3, 4

Q.19 In given figure –

(A) emitter is forward biased +5V
(B) collector is forward biased C
B
(C) emitter is reverse biased +3V E
(D) emitter and collector both are reverse biased
+1V

Q.20 For CE configuration of a transistor, mark the correct statement(s) –

(A) Input characteristic is plotted between base current and base to emitter voltage keeping collector current
constant
(B) Input characteristic is plotted between base current and base to emitter voltage keeping collector to emitter
voltage constant
(C) Input characteristic is plotted between emitter current and base to emitter voltage keeping collector to emitter
voltage constant
(D) Any of the above may be correct

Q.21 The circuit diagram below shows n-p-n transistor in CE configuration. For this configuration, mark the correct
statement(s) –
– +
mA

A
+
V
+ –
V
Output
Input –
side
side

(A) The potential divider on input side is used to keep VCE constant while drawing input characteristics
(B) The potential divider on output side is used to keep VCE constant while drawing output characteristics
(C) The potential divider on input side is used to keep base current constant while drawing output characteristics
(D) Both (B) and (C) are correct
Q.22 Input characteristics are shown for CE configuration of n-p-n transistor for different output voltages. Here –

IB VCE1 VCE
2

VBE

(A) VCE > VCE (B) VCE = VCE

1 2 1 2
(C) VCE < VCE (D) None of these
1 2

Q.23 For CE configuration of a transistor –

(A) input resistance is very large while output resistance is very small
(B) input resistance is very small while output resistance is very high
(C) both input and output resistances are very small
(D) both input and output resistances are very large

Q.24 Output characteristic of n-p-n transistor in CE configuration is shown. From the characteristic curve determine
the current gain at VCE = 1 V –
IC (mA)
IB = 200A
4.7 IB = 150A
4.5
3.1 IB = 100A
3.0
IB = 50A
IB = 10A
1 1.2 VCE(V)
(A) 30 (B) 32 (C) 28 (D) 40

Q.25 In a n-p-n transistor circuit the collector current is 10 mA. If 90% of the electron emitted reach the collector
then -
(A) the emitter current will be 9 mA (B) the base current will be 9 mA
(C) the emitter current will be 11 mA (D) the base current will be –1 mA

Q.26 Mark the correct statement(s) –

(A) Diode, LED and transistor are two leg devices
(B) Diode, LED and resistor are two leg devices
(C) Transistor and IC are 3 leg devices
(D) IC and transistor are having same number of legs but not three

Q.27 continuity test is made with multimeter by keeping the selector switch ON at -
(A) voltage position (B) current position
(C) resistance position (D) None of these
Q.28 A two terminal device when connected in series with a battery and a galvanometer in series with it through a
two way key as shown in figure. The galvanometer shows maximum deflection which gradually decreases to
zero, when key k1 is close and k2 open. Now key k1 is open and k2 is closed. Now battery is disconnected
and galvanometer is directly connected to the same device, the deflection in galvanometer is maximum and
reversed and decreases to zero gradually. The device is –

Device Device

G G k2
1 3 1 3

k1 2 2

(A) p-n junction (B) resistance (C) LED (D) capacitor

Q.29 A student is given a transister. He is asked to find out the terminals of p-n-p transistor as emitter, base and
collector. He is told that the terminal marked with red dot is emitter. He touches red probe with known terminal
as emitter and marks other two lead wires as A and B. He measures resistance between emitter and lead A. Then
measured resistance between emitter and lead B and finds that resistance increases. This shows –
(A) A is base and B is collector (B) A is collector and B is base
(C) either can be collector or base (D) multimeter cannot be used to test the terminals

Q.30 A working transistor with its three legs marked P, Q and R is tested using a multimeter. No conduction is found
between P and Q. By connecting the common (negative) terminal of the multimeter to R and the other (positive)
terminal to P or Q, some resistance is seen on the multimeter, which of the following is true for the transistor ?

(A) it is an n-p-n transistor with R as base

(B) it is a p-n-p transistor with R as collector
(C) it is a p-n-p transistor with R as emitter
(D) it is an n-p-n transistor with R as collector

ANSWER KEY
Qus . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans . D C A C A A D B C B C A B A B
Qus . 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans . A A C A B C A B A C B C D A A