 Contents

11. Bidirectional DC converters 11.1. Example

11.2. 4-quadrant converter
11.3. Three phase inverter
In this lecture we will continue with
the bidirectional converter, which
can be found in the electric vehicle
powertrain.

We will also extend the 2-quadrant

bidirectional converter to 4-
quadrant converter and three-
phase inverter by adding more half
bridges.

The lecture content is shown on the

slide.

The learning objectives are shown

here. In addition to the
bidirectional converter, we will also
study how to make a 4-quadrant
DC-DC converter and a three-phase
DC/AC converter (inverter) using
half bridges.
 Before moving on, let us review the
DC/DC converter classes which we
have studied before. The previously
studied buck converter and boost
converter are both class A
converters since they are only able
to handle a unidirectional
converter.

By combining a buck converter and

a boost converter, a half bridge or
bidirectional converter can be
combined.

As we can see here, when the

current is going forward (left to
right), switch S1 and the bottom
diode work together as a buck
converter. When the current is
going backward (right to left),
switch S2 and the top diode work
as a boost converter.

Since only the current polarity can

be changed, but not the voltage,
this topology works as a class C
converter.

If we assume all components are

ideal, the semiconductor switch and
the anti-parallel diode can be
simplified as an ideal switch. If we
turn on/off the switches S1 and S2
in a complementary way, i.e., when
S1 is on, S2 is off, or the other way
around. The output voltage
between node 1 and 2 will be a
switched waveform vP W M , as
shown on the right. The average
output voltage will be

¯
Vo = V P W M = DVs .

where D is the duty cycle of the top switch S1 , and Vs is the input voltage.

Since the output voltage has a switched waveform, a filter using capacitor, inductor or both can be
added to the output to smooth out the ripple.

This example explains how the bidirectional power conversion is carried out.
 Here we use an inductor to smooth
out the output ripples, so that it
can be connected to a battery Vb .
The nonideal resistance in the
inductor R is considered here. The
average output from the middle
node of the switches is
Vo = v̄ P W M , at steady state, the
average output current or the
inductor current is

Vo − Vb
IL = .
R

When Vo > Vb , the inductor current flows from the source Vs to the battery Vb . The top switch S1 ,
the bottom diode, and the inductor form a buck circuit. The power flows from the source to the
battery.

Vo = DVs .

When Vo = Vb , the inductor current becomes zero at steady state. There is no power exchange
between the source and the battery.

When Vo < Vb , the inductor current flows from the battery Vb to the source Vs . The top diode, the
bottom switch and the inductor form a boost circuit. The power flows from the battery to the source.

1 1
Vs = Vo = Vo .
1 − D2 D

where D2 is the duty cycle of the bottom switch. Since the top and bottom switches are switched in
a complementary way, D + D2 = 1 .

11.1. Example

Let’s use the example here to

practice the calculation of
bidirectional dc/dc converter. In
order to determine the direction of
the current, we need to know the
average voltage of node 1. For the
peak to peak current ripple, we can
analyse it based on the slope of the
current through the inductor, as is
done for buck or boost converters.

Please first work it out yourself and

click the block below for the right
answer.
  Click here for solution

As we can see on the slide, since

the current flows from the load
(200 V) to the source (500 V), the
power flow is from the low voltage
side to the high side. The converter
works in the boost mode. We can
also verify the voltage transfer ratio:

Vs 500 1
= =
Vo 100 1 − D2

1
= = 5.
D

You may refer the Python code

below for the calculation procedure.
 The value of the current IL is 50.000 A.
The direction of the current IL is from V2 to V1.
The value of the current ripple is 0.400 A.

In order to operate the converter in

buck mode in this example, Vo at
node 1 should be higher than
200V . So we know the minimal
duty cycle for buck mode operation
is D = 200/500 = 0.4 . As shown
on the slide here, if the duty cycle is
D = 0.5 , then Vo = 250V , the
current through the inductor is
(250 − 200)/2 A = 25 A , and
the direction is from left to right, so
the converter operates in buck
mode.

There is an animation available here to show the operation of the bidirectional DC-DC converter in
different modes.

11.2. 4-quadrant converter

The top two figures on this slide

summarise the two operation
modes of the bidirectional dc/dc
converter.

The two switches are opened and

closed alternatively. When the
current flows from left to right S1
carries the current when it is closed
and the bottom diode conducts
when the switch is open. If the
current to the machine in the other
direction, from right to left, then
switch S2 and the top diode are conducting. Note that if you would close both S1 and S2
simultaneously, a short circuit is created which is not good. If the duty cycle of S1 is D, the average
output voltage is Vo = DVs . Since D is always positive, only positive voltage can be generated
from the output. Therefore it is categorised as a Class C converter.

When the bidirectional DC/DC converter is connected to a DC machine, it becomes possible to

control the speed of the machine by adjusting the output voltage using the duty cycle, by changing
the output voltage Vo with respect to the induced voltage E, the current direction can be changed,
so is the power flow direction. Therefore, it is possible to operate the DC machine in both motoring
and generating mode. However, since the voltage polarity can not be changed, this converter is not
able to turn the DC motor in backward, since a negative voltage is required for that.

In order to operate the DC machine in both directions in both motoring and generating modes, a 4
quadrant converter is needed.

A 4-quadrant converter can be constructed from the studied bidirectional dc/dc converter. The
topology of the bidirectional dc/dc converter is also called as a half bridge, or a phase leg, or
sometimes phase arm. It serves as a basic building block for more complicated power electronics
converters.

Since the two switches are turned on and off alternatively, we are able to use a switching function
s(t) to represent how the switching status changes with time. When s = 1 , the top switch is on, the
current either flows through the top switch channel, or conducts through the top diode, depending
on the current direction. The output voltage is the same as the input voltage. When s = 0 , the
 bottom switch is on, the current
either flows through the bottom
switch channel, or conducts
through the bottom diode,
depending on the current direction.
The output voltage becomes 0. The
average voltage in one switching
cycle becomes

Vo = s̄ (t)Vd = DVd .

Since the top and bottom switches

are switched complementary, for
example when S1 is open then S2 is closed and vice versa, we can replace the phase arm with a
toggle switch. Therefore we are able to simplify the half bridge to the schematic as shown on the
bottom.

If two half bridges a and b are

connected in parallel, the average
output voltages from the two are

Va = s¯
a (t)Vd = Da Vd

¯b (t)Vd = Db Vd ,
Vb = s

where Da and Db are the duty

cycles of the top switches of the
two half bridges respectively.

The new topology formed by the

two half bridges is called a full
bridge. If the load is connected
betweent the mid points of the two half bridges, the output of the full bridge is

Vo = Va − Vb = (Da − Db )Vd .

By adjusting Da and Db , Vo can be either positive or negative, so it the output current io . Therefore,
a class E converter, or a 4-quadrant converter is realised.

When the 4-quadrant converter is connected to the DC machine, it enables forward and backward
rotations in both motoring and generating modes, as shown on the top right of the slide.

We will study this topology further in detail in the DC Machines part of the course.

If we modulate the switching

function s(t) so that the duty cycle
changes in a sinusoidal pattern
from cycle to cycle, we would be
able to generate ac voltages at the
output.

For the full bridge topology as we

studies is the previous slide, we
know vo can be either positive or
negative, so we can use it to
generate single phase ac voltage,
i.e., the topology can also be used
as a single phase DC/AC converter, or in another name, a single phase inverter.

The next step is to add a third phase arm making it is possible to generate three phase ac voltage, as
shown on the bottom of the slide.
11.3. Three phase inverter Print to PDF

To generate symmetric three phase

ac voltages, we can control the duty
cycles of the three phase legs to
follow a sinusoidal pattern with 120
degree phase shift and a common
DC offset.

1 m
da = + cos(ωt)
2 2
1 m 2π
db = + cos(ωt + )
2 2 3
1 m 2π
dc = + cos(ωt − ).
2 2 3

where m is the modulation index, a value between 0 and 1 that determines the voltage amplitude.
The average value of the phase voltages, that is ignoring the effects of the switching harmonics, are
obtained by multiplying the duty cycles with the value of the source voltage.

 Note

The phase sequence we use here is a-c-b. For phase sequence a-b-c, we have to swap the
phase offsets of phase b and c.

Therefore we have

v̄ a (t) = da (t)Vs ,  v̄ b (t) = db (t)Vs ,  v̄ c (t) = dc (t)Vs .

The line to line voltages can be solved from the symbolic calculation code below.
%reset -f
from sympy import *
from IPython.display import display, Markdown, Math, Latex
m, t, V_s = symbols('m, t, V_s')
omega = symbols('omega', nonzero=True)

d_a = 0.5 + m/2*cos(omega*t)

d_b = 0.5 + m/2*cos(omega*t+pi*2/3)
d_c = 0.5 + m/2*cos(omega*t-pi*2/3)

v_a = d_a*V_s
v_b = d_b*V_s
v_c = d_c*V_s

v_ab = v_a-v_b
v_bc = v_b-v_c
v_ca = v_c-v_a

v_abs = latex(v_ab.simplify())
display(Math(f'V_{{ab}} = {v_abs}.'))

v_bcs = latex(v_bc.simplify())
display(Math(f'V_{{bc}} = {v_bcs}.'))

v_cas = latex(v_ca.simplify())
display(Math(f'V_{{ca}} = {v_cas}.'))

import numpy as np;

v_ab_fun = v_ab.subs({V_s:850, omega:2*pi*50.0})

v_bc_fun = v_bc.subs({V_s:850, omega:2*pi*50.0})
v_ca_fun = v_ca.subs({V_s:850, omega:2*pi*50.0})

t_num = np.linspace(0, 1/50, 100)

v_ab_lam = lambdify([t, m], v_ab_fun, "numpy")
v_bc_lam = lambdify([t, m], v_bc_fun, "numpy")
v_ca_lam = lambdify([t, m], v_ca_fun, "numpy")

import matplotlib
matplotlib.rcParams['text.usetex'] = True
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
plt.rcParams['figure.figsize'] = [6 , 4]
plt.rcParams['figure.dpi'] = 200 # 200 e.g. is really fine, but slower

plt.plot(t_num, v_ab_lam(t_num, 0.5), label='$v_{ab},~ m=0.5$')

plt.plot(t_num, v_bc_lam(t_num, 0.5), label='$v_{bc},~ m=0.5$')
plt.plot(t_num, v_ca_lam(t_num, 0.5), label='$v_{ca},~ m=0.5$')

plt.xlim([0, 0.02])
plt.legend()
plt.xlabel('Time (s)')
plt.ylabel('Line-line voltage (V)')
plt.show()

– π
√3 Vs m sin (ωt + )
3
Vab = .
2

–
√3 Vs m sin (ωt)
Vbc = − .
2

– π
√3 Vs m cos (ωt + )
6
Vca = − .
2
 From the derivation and the plot
above, we can see that, all the three
phase voltages have a common dc
offset of Vs /2, but it is eliminated
in the three phase line-line
voltages. In the end we have
symmetric three phase line-line
voltage, which have an amplitude
√(3) times the ac component of
the phase voltage.

By controlling the modulation index

m and the angular frequency of the
modulation waveform ω, we have full control of the voltage amplitude and frequency using the
three phase inverter. This way the inverter can be used to drive AC machines to adjust their speed in
an efficient way. In the AC Machines part of the course, we will study the three phase inverter and its
modulation further.

By EE2E11