ENGGMATH2 MODULE 1 Functions, Limits, Continuity NOTES

MODULE 1
Functions, Limits and Continuity
In this module you will have a review of selected topics from Pre-Calculus, most especially
concepts in functions that are vital to surviving a Calculus course. Then you will learn the
interpretation/meaning of a limit, how to evaluate limits, the definition and evaluation of
one-sided limits, evaluation of infinite limits, evaluation of limits at infinity, continuity and the
Intermediate Value Theorem.
Each module contains several units with its own topic learning outcomes and topic outline.
Each unit contains activities designed using the 5E constructivist model of learning,
developed by Rodger Bybee, specifically for students to understand and comprehend
science. The 5E model provides opportunities for you to engage, explore, explain, elaborate,
and evaluate topics covered in each unit.
By the end of this module, you should be able to:
TLO 1: Solve problems involving Functions, Limits and Continuity and analyze
results.
Functions
This unit begins with a diagnostic test in Pre-calculus, more specifically in the
discussion of Functions.
LEARNING OUTCOMES: By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
a. Determine whether a relation is a function.

b. Determine the domain of a function and the range of a function.
c. Determine whether a graph is that of a function by using a vertical line test.
d. Find the sum, difference, product, quotient and composition of two
functions
e. Compute functional values for a given value in the domain
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The fundamental objects that we deal with in calculus are functions. This chapter prepares
the way for calculus by discussing the basic ideas concerning functions, their graphs, and
ways of transforming and combining them. We stress that a function can be represented in
different ways: by an equation, in a table, by a graph, or in words. We look at the main types
of functions that occur in calculus and describe the process of using these functions as
mathematical models of real-world phenomena.
FUNCTION - it is a rule which establishes a correspondence between two quantities

(dependent and independent variables)
 When two quantities x and y are related so that for some range of values of x, the value
of y is determined by that of x, then we say that y is a function of x.
Notation: 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) Read as “y is a function of x” or “ y

is equal to f of x”
Dependent Independent
variable variable
Examples:
- The circumference of a circle is a function of the circle’s radius
- The height reached by a projectile is a function of time
- Keys in the calculator like sine, cosine and tangent are functions of the size of an
angle
- The amount of tax is a function of the size of one’s income
CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS
Classification according to value:
(1) ONE/SINGLE-VALUED FUNCTION (2) MANY-VALUED FUNCTION
- For every value of x given, there - For every value of x, there corresponds
corresponds one and only one value two or more values of y
of y Ex. 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 3
Ex. y = x+2, if x = 1 then y = 3 If x = 1, then y = ±2
Classification according to how the function is expressed:
(1) EXPLICIT FUNCTION (2) IMPLICIT FUNCTION
- A function is expressed in an equation - A function is expressed in terms of

of the dependent variable in terms of both the dependent and
the independent variable independent variables
- The dependent variable is solved - Notation: y = f(x,y) or F(x,y) = 0
readily in terms of the independent Ex. 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 0
variable y = x sin xy
- Notation: y = f(x)
Ex. y = 3 sin x ; y2 = x2 + 1
An equation will be a function if, for any 𝑥 in the domain of the equation (the domain is all
the 𝑥′𝑠 that can be plugged into the equation), the equation will yield exactly one value
of 𝑦 when we evaluate the equation at a specific 𝑥.
Illustrative Example: Determine if each of the following are functions
(a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1
(b) 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 + 1
Solutions:
(a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1
This first one is a function. Given an 𝑥, there is only one way to square it and then add
1 to the result. So, no matter what value of 𝑥 you put into the equation, there is only
one possible value of 𝑦 when we evaluate the equation at that value of 𝑥.
(b) 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 + 1
The only difference between this equation and the first is that we moved the
exponent off the 𝑥 and onto the 𝑦. This small change is all that is required, in this case,
to change the equation from a function to something that isn’t a function.
To see that this isn’t a function is fairly simple. Choose a value of 𝑥, say 𝑥 = 3 and
substitute this into the equation. So 𝑦 2 = 3 + 1 = 4. Now, there are two possible values
of 𝑦 that we could use here. We could use 𝑦 = 2 or = −2 . Since there are two possible
values of 𝑦 that we get from a single 𝑥 this equation isn’t a function.
VERTICAL LINE TEST

The vertical line test is a method that is used to determine whether a given relation
is a function or not. The approach is rather simple. Draw a vertical line cutting
through the graph of the relation, and then observe the points of intersection.
If a vertical line intersects the graph in all places at exactly one point, then the
relation is a function.
Illustrative Example:
 These are functions
 These are NOT functions
DOMAIN AND RANGE
One of the more important ideas about functions is that of the domain and range of a
function. In simplest terms the domain of a function is the set of all values that can be
plugged into a function and have the function exist and have a real number for a
value. So, for the domain we need to avoid division by zero, square roots of negative
numbers, logarithms of zero and logarithms of negative numbers, etc. The range of a
function is simply the set of all possible values that a function can take.
The set of all admissible values of x are called the DOMAIN of the function, and the set
of all resulting values of y is called the RANGE of the function.
Illustrative Example: (a) The graph of the function 𝑓 is shown in the figure on the next
page. What are its domain and range?
Answer: We see that 𝑓(𝑥) is defined when 0 ≤

𝑥 ≤ 7, so the domain of 𝑓 is the closed interval
[0,7]. Notice that 𝑓 takes on all values from -2
to 4, so the range of 𝑓 is
{𝑦| − 2 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 4} = [−2,4]
(b) Given the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1, determine the domain and range.
Answer:
The expression 2𝑥 − 1 is defined for all real numbers,
so the domain of 𝑓 is the set of all real numbers,
which we denote by ℝ. The graph shows that the
range is also ℝ .
OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS
Given the two functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) :
a) Sum: (𝒇 + 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙)
b) Difference: (𝒇 − 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒈(𝒙)
c) Product: (𝒇 ∙ 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙) ∙ 𝒈(𝒙)
d) Quotient: (𝒇⁄𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙)⁄𝒈(𝒙)
e) Composition: (𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒈(𝒙))
Illustrative Example: Given the two functions: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1

Find: (a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) (e) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)
(a) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) (f) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥)
(c)(𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔)(𝑥) (g) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)
(d) (𝑓/𝑔)(𝑥)
Solutions:
(a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3) + (𝑥 − 1) Reminders: Do not forget to
2
= 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 3 + 𝑥 − 1 always simplify your answers
2
= 𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 4
(b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3) − (𝑥 − 1)
= 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 − 𝑥 + 1
= 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2
(c) (𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔)(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1)

= 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 3
= 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3
𝑥 2 +2𝑥−3
(d) (𝑓/𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑥−1
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1)
= =𝑥+3
𝑥−1
(e) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)2 + 2(𝑥 − 1) − 3 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 2𝑥 − 2 − 3

= 𝑥2 − 4
(f) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3) − 1 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 4
(g) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1) − 1 = 𝑥 − 2
VALUE OF A FUNCTION
If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑎) denotes the value of the function when “a” is substituted
in place of “x”.
Illustrative Example: If (𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 + 5 , determine 𝑓(2)

Solution: 𝑓(2) = 3(2)4 − (2)2 + 5
𝑓(2) = 49
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥) 1
Illustrative Example: Compute , if 𝑓(𝑥) =
ℎ 𝑥
1 1
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑥−(𝑥+ℎ) 1 −1
Solution: = 𝑥+ℎ 𝑥
= ∙ =
ℎ ℎ 𝑥(𝑥+ℎ) ℎ 𝑥(𝑥+ℎ)
EXERCISE PROBLEMS:
1. Which of the four relations shown in the figure represent functions and why?
Your answer:
2. Given 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 11 find each of the following:
(a) 𝑓(2)
(b) 𝑓(−10)
(c) 𝑓(𝑡 − 3)
(d) 𝑓(4𝑥 − 1)
3. Given the two functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 + 6 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 8
Find: (a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) (e) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)

(b) (𝑔 − 𝑓)(𝑥) (f) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥)
(c)(𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔)(𝑥)
(d) (𝑓/𝑔)(𝑥)
4. Find the domain and range of each of the following functions

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 − 3
(b) 𝑔(𝑡) = √4 − 7𝑡
5. Find the domain of the function
 Evaluate your answers using the key answers provided at the end of this module. If you
had difficulty answering the exercises, you may go back to the discussions or contact
your facilitator.
Do the Assignment 1 at the end of Module 1 (Summative Evaluation #1) which will
contain questions on topics covered in this unit.
Limits
The unit we will be examining in this module is that of Limits. This is the first of three major topics
we will be covering in this course. While we will be spending the least amount of time on
limits in comparison to the other two topics, limits are very important in the study of Calculus.
We will be seeing limits in a variety of places once we move out of this unit. In particular we
will see that limits are part of the formal definition of the other two major topics.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(a) Evaluate the limit of a function, including one-sided and two-sided, using
numerical and algebraic techniques and the properties of limits.
Listen to the song “Take it to the Limit” by Eagles. Answer the following
questions (in your own words) in not less than 3 sentences for each
question.
 What does this song mean to you?
 What experiences can you relate to this song?
 What does the word “limit” mean to you?
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION
The limit of a function, f is a tool for investigating the behavior of f(x) as x gets closer to
a particular number “a”.
Let us investigate the behavior of a function 𝑓 defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2 for values

of 𝑥 near 2. The following table gives values of 𝑓(𝑥) for values of x close to 2, but not
equal to 2.
𝒙 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒙 𝒇(𝒙)
1.0 2.000000 3.0 8.000000
1.5 2.750000 2.5 5.750000
1.8 3.440000 2.2 4.640000
1.9 3.710000 2.1 4.310000
1.95 3.852500 1.05 4.152500
1.99 3.970100 2.01 4.030100
1.995 3.985025 2.005 4.015025
1.999 3.997001 2.001 4.003001
From the table and the graph of 𝑓 (a parabola) as shown in the figure, we see that
when 𝑥 is close to 2 (on either side of 2), 𝑓(𝑥) is close to 4. In fact, it appears that we
can make the values of 𝑓(𝑥) as close as we like to 4 by taking 𝑥 sufficiently close to 2.
We express this by saying “the limit of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2 as 𝑥 approaches 2
is equal to 4.” The notation for this is
lim (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2) = 4
𝑥→2
In general, we use the following notation:
Read as “the limit of f(x) as x approaches a

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳 is L” and means that the functional values
𝒙→𝒂
of f(x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by
choosing x sufficiently close to a (but not
equal to a)
Roughly speaking, this says that the values of 𝑓(𝑥) tend to get closer and closer to the
number L as 𝑥 gets closer and closer to the number 𝑎 (from either side of 𝑎) but 𝑥 ≠ 𝑎.
(A more precise definition will be given in the next sections.
How do we use this definition to help us estimate limits? We do exactly what we did in
the previous illustration. We take 𝑥’s on both sides of 𝑥 = 𝑎 that move in closer and
closer to 𝑎 and we plug these into our function. We then look to see if we can
determine what number the function values are moving in towards and use this as our
estimate.
Illustrative Example: Estimate the value of the following limit
Solution:
Notice that we did say estimate the value of the limit. Again, we are not going to
directly compute limits in this section. The point of this section is to give us a better
idea of how limits work and what they can tell us about the function.
So, with that in mind we are going to work this in pretty much the same way that we
did in the last section. We will choose values of 𝑥 that get closer and closer to 𝑥 = 2
and plug these values into the function. Doing this gives the following table of values.
Note that we made sure and picked
values of 𝑥 that were on both sides of 𝑥 =
2 and that we moved in very close to 𝑥 =
2 to make sure that any trends that we
might be seeing are in fact correct.
Also notice that we can’t actually plug in

𝑥 = 2 into the function as this would give us
a division by zero error. This is not a problem
since the limit doesn’t care what is
happening at the point in question.
From this table it appears that the function is going to 4 as 𝑥 approaches 2, so
RIGHT – HAND AND LEFT – HAND LIMITS
RHL : 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳 LHL : 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑴
𝒙→𝒂+ 𝒙→𝒂−
- each x involved is greater than a - x remaining less than a
- the independent variable x approaches - curve is to the left of a
a from the right
- curve is to the right of a
By comparing the definition of limit with the definitions of one-sided limits, we see that
the following is true.
Illustrative Examples: The graph of the function is shown in the figure. Use it to state
the values (if they exist) of the following:
utions:
Solutions: From the graph, we see that the

values of 𝑔(𝑥) approach 3 as 𝑥 approaches 2
from the left, but they approach 1 as 𝑥
approaches 2 from the right. Therefore
(c) Since the left and right limits are different, we conclude from the condition
above that lim 𝑔(𝑥) does not exist. The graph shows that
𝑥→2
INFINITE LIMITS
1
Illustrative Example: Find lim if it exists
𝑥→0 𝑥 2
1 As 𝑥 becomes close to 0, 𝑥 2 also

𝑥
𝑥2 becomes close to 0, and 1⁄𝑥 2
±1 becomes very large as shown on
1
the table. In fact, it appears from
±0.5 4 the graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥) =
±0.2 25 1⁄𝑥 2 as shown in the Figure that the
±0.1
values of 𝑓(𝑥) can be made
100
arbitrarily large by taking 𝑥 close
±0.05 400 enough to 0. Thus the values of 𝑓(𝑥)
±0.01 10,000
do not approach a number, so
1
±0.001
lim 2 does not exist.
1,000,000 𝑥→0 𝑥
To indicate the kind of behavior exhibited in this example, we use the notation
1
lim =∞
𝑥→0 𝑥 2
The symbol ∞ is not a number, so in this example, this is read as “the limit of the function, as
x approaches zero, is infinity,” or “𝑓(𝑥) becomes infinite as 𝑥 approaches zero,” or “𝑓(𝑥)
increases without bound as 𝑥 approaches zero.”
THEOREMS ON LIMITS
THEOREM 1: The limit of the sum of two (or more) functions is equal to the sum of
their limits
lim [𝑢(𝑥) ± 𝑣(𝑥)] = lim 𝑢(𝑥) ± lim 𝑣(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
THEOREM 2: The limit of the product of two (or more) functions is equal to the product of
their limits
lim [𝑢(𝑥)𝑣(𝑥)] = [lim 𝑢(𝑥)] [lim 𝑣(𝑥)]
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
THEOREM 3: The limit of the quotient of two functions is equal to the quotient of their limits,
provided the limit of the denominator is not zero
𝑢(𝑥) [lim 𝑢(𝑥)]
lim [ ] = 𝑥→𝑎 𝑖𝑓 [lim 𝑣(𝑥)] ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑣(𝑥) [lim 𝑣(𝑥)] 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
sin∝
THEOREM 4: If 𝛼 is measured in radians, lim [ ]= 1
∝→0 ∝
THEOREM 5: The limit of a constant is the constant itself

lim 𝑘 = 𝑘 where k is any constant
𝑥→𝑎
THEOREM 6: The limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the limit of the
function.
lim [𝑘𝑢(𝑥)] = 𝑘 lim 𝑢(𝑥) where k is any constant
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Illustrative Example. Use the Theorems on Limits and the graphs of the functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 in
the figure to evaluate the following limits, if they exist.
Solutions:
(a) From the graphs, we see that
Therefore, we have
(b) We see that 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 2. But 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔(𝑥)does not exist because the left and right
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
limits are different
So we cannot use Theorem 2 for the desired limit. But we can use Theorem 2 for
the one-sided limits
The left and right limits are not equal, so lim [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] does not exist
𝑥→1
(c) The graphs show that
Because the limit of the denominator is 0, we cannot use Theorem 3. The given
limit does not exist because the denominator approaches 0 while the numerator
approaches a nonzero number.
Illustrative Example. Evaluate the limits and justify each step
Solutions:
(a)
(b)
NOTE: If we let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4, then 𝑓(5) = 39. In other words, we would have gotten the
correct answer in (a) by just substituting 5 for 𝑥. Similarly, direct substitution provides the
correct answer in (b). The functions in the example are polynomial and rational function,
respectively, and similar use of the Theorems on Limits proves that direct sibstitution always
works for such functions. This is known as the direct substitution property.
DIRECT SUBSTITUTION PROPERTY
Functions with the Direct Substitution Property are called continuous at a and will be
studied in Unit 3. However, not all limits can be evaluated by direct substitution.
1. Explain in your own words what is meant by the equation lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 5. Is it possible for this
𝑥→2
statement to be true and yet 𝑓(2) = 3? Explain.
2. For the function 𝑓 whose graph is given, state the value
of each quantity, if it exists. If it does not exist, explain why.
3. The graphs of 𝑓and 𝑔 are given. Use them to evaluate each limit, if it exists. If the limit
does not exist, explain why.
your facilitator.
Continuity
We noticed in Unit 2 that the limit of a function as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 can often be found simply
by calculating the value of the function at 𝑎. Functions with this property are called
continuous at 𝒂. We will see that the mathematical definition of continuity corresponds
closely with the meaning of the word continuity in everyday language. (A continuous
process is one that takes place gradually, without interruption or abrupt change.)
LEARNING OUTCOMES: By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(a) Identify and apply the conditions for continuity.
(b) Find points of discontinuity.
(c) Solve application problems.
Which of the following functions are continuous? Why do you

think they are continuous?
“CONTINUOUS” is an adjective that describes a function meeting very specific standards. It

is easiest to determine whether or not a function is continuous by looking at its graph.
Notice that the definition implicitly requires that these
three conditions are satisfied:
(a) 𝒇(𝒂) exists – the function is defined, means that
there is no hole there
(b) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) exists – limit exists at x=a, which means

𝒙→𝒂
that the function has intended height
(c) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒂) -- the limit is equal to the

𝒙→𝒂
function value (the function’s value matches
its intended value)
If any one or more of the conditions is not satisfied, the

function f(x) is said to be discontinuous at x=a or to
have a discontinuity at x=a
1. LIMIT – where the function intends to go

2. CONTINUITY – guarantees that the function
actually made it there
TYPES OF DISCONTINUITY
(1) MISSING-POINT DISCONTINUITY – occurs when a function contains a hole

𝟎
 Occurs if 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟎, indeterminate
𝒙𝟐 +𝟏𝟏𝒙+𝟐𝟖
Illustrative Example: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙+𝟒
Since x=-4 represents a place where f(x) is undefined, and the 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑 ,
𝒙→−𝟒
you know that there is a hole in the function at P(-4,3), a POINT
DISCONTINUITY.
(2) FINITE JUMPS / JUMP DISCONTINUITY

- It may happen that, at x=a, the function has both a
left-hand and a right-hand limit, but the two are not
equal. At such a point, the function has a finite jump.
- Typically caused by a piecewise-defined function
whose pieces do not meet.
−𝒙 + 𝟑 , 𝒙 < 𝟎
Example. 𝒇(𝒙) = {
𝒙 + 𝟏, 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎
(3) INFINITE / ESSENTIAL DISCONTINUITY – occurs when the equation increases

numerically without bound as x approaches a.
- Occurs when 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = ±∞
𝒙→𝒂
𝟗𝒙𝟐 −𝟑𝒙−𝟐
Example. 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→−𝟒 𝟑𝒙𝟐 +𝟏𝟑𝒙+𝟒
THEOREM 7. If u(x) and v(x) are both continuous at x=a, it follows that u(x)●v(x) and u(x) +
𝑢(𝑥)
v(x) are continuous at x=a, and that if v(a) ≠ 0, is continuous at x = a.
𝑣(𝑥)
RATIONAL ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

THEOREM 8. A polynomial is continuous for all values of x
THEOREM 9. A rational algebraic function is continuous except for those
values of x for which the denominator vanishes.
THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM – a.k.a. Existence Theorem

- The function f(x) is said to be continuous over the closed interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 if f(x) is
continuous at every interior point 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏 and f(x) has right-hand continuity at x=a and
left-hand continuity at x=b.
- If a function f(x) is continuous on the closed interval [a,b], then for every real number d
between f(a) and f(b), there exists a c between a and b such that f(c) = d.
SQUEEZE THEOREM – sometimes called Sandwich Theorem or the Pinching Theorem,

is illustrated by the figure below.
 If 𝒇(𝒙) ≤ 𝒈(𝒙) ≤ 𝒉(𝒙) when x is near a (except possibly at

a) and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒉(𝒙) = 𝑳 then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝑳
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
- It says that if g(x) is squeezed between f(x) and h(x) near
a, and if f and h have the same limit L at a, then g is
forced to have the same limit L at a.
Exercises:
1. The figure below shows a graph of a function 𝑓. At which numbers is 𝑓 f discontinuous?
Why?
2. Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?
your facilitator.
Here are the answers to the Elaborate Exercises in
each of the Units for this module
UNIT 1:
1. Which of the four relations in the figure represent functions and why? A and D
The circle and S-shaped curve are NOT functions because they fail the vertical line
test: You can draw a vertical line somewhere on their graphs that touches the curve
more than once. These two curves also fail the algebraic test: A curve is a function if
for each input value (x) there is at most one output value (y). The circle and S-shaped
curve have some xs that correspond to more than one y so they are not functions.
Note that the reverse is not true: You can have a function where there are two or
more input values (xs) for a single output value (y).
2. (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
3. (a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = (5𝑥 + 6) + (3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 8)
= 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 6 + 8
= 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 14
(b) (𝑔 − 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) = (3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 8) − (5𝑥 + 6)
= 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 8 − 5𝑥 − 6 = 3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 2
(b) (𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) = (5𝑥 + 6)(3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 8)
= 15𝑥 3 − 20𝑥 2 + 40𝑥 + 18𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 + 48
= 15𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 16𝑥 + 48
𝑓(𝑥) 5𝑥+6
(c) (𝑓/𝑔)(𝑥) = =
𝑔(𝑥) 3𝑥 2 −4𝑥+8
(d) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 5(3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 8) + 6 = 15𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 46
(e) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 3(5𝑥 + 6)2 − 4(5𝑥 + 6) + 8
= 3(25𝑥 2 + 60𝑥 + 36) − 20𝑥 − 24 + 8
= 75𝑥 2 + 180𝑥 + 108 − 20𝑥 − 24 + 8
= 75𝑥 2 + 160𝑥 + 92
4. (a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 − 3
We know that this is a line and that it’s not a horizontal line (because the slope is
5 and not zero). This means that this function can take on any value and so the
range is all real numbers. Using “mathematical” notation this is, Range (−∞, ∞).
This is more generally a polynomial and we know that we can plug any value into
a polynomial and so the domain in this case is also all real numbers or, Domain:
−∞ < 𝑥 < ∞ or (−∞, ∞).
(b) 𝑔(𝑡) = √4 − 7𝑡
This is a square root and we know that square roots are always positive or zero.
We know then that the range will be, Range: [0, ∞)
For the domain we have a little bit of work to do, but not much. We need to
make sure that we don’t take square roots of any negative numbers, so we
need to require that,
The domain is then,
5. , Okay, with this problem we need to avoid division by zero, so we

need to determine where the denominator is zero which means
solving,
So, these are the only values of x that we need to avoid and so the domain is,
UNIT 2:
1. As 𝑥 approaches 2, 𝑓(𝑥) approaches 5. [Or, the values of 𝑓(𝑥) can be made as
close to 5 as we like by taking 𝑥 sufficiently close to 2 (but 𝑥 ≠ 2).] Yes, the graph
could have a hole at (2,5) and be defined such that 𝑓(2) = 3.
2. (a) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
𝑥→0
(b) lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 4
𝑥→3
(c) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥→3
(d) lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist because the limits in part (b) and part (c) are not equal.
𝑥→3
(e) 𝑓(3) = 3
3. (a) lim[𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 2 + 0 = 2

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
(b) lim 𝑔(𝑥) does not exist since its left and right hand limits are not equal, so the given
𝑥→1
limit does not exist.
UNIT 3:
1. It looks as if there is a discontinuity when 𝑎 = 1 because the graph has a break there.
The official reason that 𝑓 is discontinuous at 1 is that 𝑓(1)is not defined. The graph also
has a break when 𝑎 = 3, but the reason for the discontinuity is different. Here 𝑓(3) is
defined, but lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist (because the left and right limits are different). So
𝑥→3
𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous at 3.
What about 𝑎 = 5? Here, 𝑓(5)is defined and lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists (because the left and
𝑥→5
right limits are the same). But
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(5)
𝑥→5
So 𝑓 is discontinuous at 5.
2. (a) Notice that 𝑓(2) is not defined, so 𝑓 is discontinuous at 2.

1
(b) Here 𝑓(0) = 1 is defined but lim 2 does not exist. So 𝑓 is discontinuous at 0.
𝑥→0 𝑥
(c) Here 𝑓(2) = 1 is defined and
exists. But lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(2) so 𝑓 is NOT continuous at 2.

𝑥→2
Score: /34 Unit 1 Assignment 1
NAME: _________________________________ ID NO. _____________ DATE: _______________
1. The graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑔 are given.

(2 pts each)
(a) State the values of 𝑓(−4)and 𝑔(3).
(b) For what values of 𝑥 is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)?
(c) Estimate the solution of the equation of 𝑓(𝑥) = −1.
(d) State the domain and range of 𝑓.
(e) State the domain and range of 𝑔.
2. (2 points each) Use the given graphs of 𝑓and 𝑔 to evaluate each expression or explain
why it is undefined.
(a) 𝑓(𝑔(2))
(b) 𝑔(𝑓(0))
(c) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(0))
(d) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(6))
(e) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑔(−2))
(f) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑓(4))
3. (3 points each) In the functions given, f(x) = x3+2x2 ; g(x)=3x2-1

𝑓
Find 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓𝑔, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 and state their domains (after the operation)
(a) 𝑓 + 𝑔
Result: Domain:
(b) 𝑓 − 𝑔
Result: Domain:
(c) 𝑓𝑔
Result: Domain:
(d)
𝑓 Result: Domain:
𝑔
NAME: _________________________________ ID NO. _____________ DATE: _______________
1. (2 pts each) For the function whose graph is given, state

the value of each quantity, if it exists. If it does not exist,
explain why.
2. (10 points) Use a table of values to estimate the value of the limit of
𝒙 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒙 𝒇(𝒙)
3. (5 points each) Evaluate the limit and justify each step by indicating the appropriate
Limit Theorem(s).
(a)
(b)
NAME: _________________________________ ID NO. _____________ DATE: _______________
1. (5 points) If 𝑓 is continuous on (−∞, ∞), what can you say about this graph?
2. (10 points) From the graph of 𝑔 shown, state the intervals on which 𝑔 is continuous.
3. (5 points each) Use the definition of continuity and the properties of limits to show that
the function is continuous at the given number 𝑎 .
(a)
(b)
(c)

ENGGMATH2 MODULE 1 Functions, Limits, Continuity NOTES

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ENGGMATH2 MODULE 1 Functions, Limits, Continuity NOTES

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MODULE 1

Functions, Limits and Continuity

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

a. Determine whether a relation is a function.

FUNCTION - it is a rule which establishes a correspondence between two quantities

Notation: 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) Read as “y is a function of x” or “ y

Classification according to value:

(1) ONE/SINGLE-VALUED FUNCTION (2) MANY-VALUED FUNCTION

Classification according to how the function is expressed:

(1) EXPLICIT FUNCTION (2) IMPLICIT FUNCTION

- A function is expressed in an equation - A function is expressed in terms of

Illustrative Example: Determine if each of the following are functions

VERTICAL LINE TEST

 These are functions

 These are NOT functions

Answer: We see that 𝑓(𝑥) is defined when 0 ≤

Illustrative Example: Given the two functions: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1

(c) (𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔)(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1)

(e) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)2 + 2(𝑥 − 1) − 3 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 2𝑥 − 2 − 3

Illustrative Example: If (𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 + 5 , determine 𝑓(2)

Find: (a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) (e) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)

4. Find the domain and range of each of the following functions

5. Find the domain of the function

 What does this song mean to you?

 What experiences can you relate to this song?

 What does the word “limit” mean to you?

Let us investigate the behavior of a function 𝑓 defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2 for values

1.0 2.000000 3.0 8.000000

1.5 2.750000 2.5 5.750000

1.8 3.440000 2.2 4.640000

1.9 3.710000 2.1 4.310000

1.95 3.852500 1.05 4.152500

1.99 3.970100 2.01 4.030100

1.995 3.985025 2.005 4.015025

1.999 3.997001 2.001 4.003001

In general, we use the following notation:

Read as “the limit of f(x) as x approaches a

Illustrative Example: Estimate the value of the following limit

Also notice that we can’t actually plug in

From this table it appears that the function is going to 4 as 𝑥 approaches 2, so

Solutions: From the graph, we see that the

1 As 𝑥 becomes close to 0, 𝑥 2 also

THEOREM 5: The limit of a constant is the constant itself

(c) The graphs show that

Illustrative Example. Evaluate the limits and justify each step

DIRECT SUBSTITUTION PROPERTY

Which of the following functions are continuous? Why do you

“CONTINUOUS” is an adjective that describes a function meeting very specific standards. It

(b) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) exists – limit exists at x=a, which means

(c) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒂) -- the limit is equal to the

If any one or more of the conditions is not satisfied, the

1. LIMIT – where the function intends to go

(1) MISSING-POINT DISCONTINUITY – occurs when a function contains a hole

(2) FINITE JUMPS / JUMP DISCONTINUITY

(3) INFINITE / ESSENTIAL DISCONTINUITY – occurs when the equation increases

RATIONAL ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM – a.k.a. Existence Theorem

SQUEEZE THEOREM – sometimes called Sandwich Theorem or the Pinching Theorem,

 If 𝒇(𝒙) ≤ 𝒈(𝒙) ≤ 𝒉(𝒙) when x is near a (except possibly at

3. (a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = (5𝑥 + 6) + (3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 8)

(b) (𝑔 − 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) = (3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 8) − (5𝑥 + 6)

The domain is then,

5. , Okay, with this problem we need to avoid division by zero, so we

NAME: ___________________________ ID NO. _ DATE: _________

NAME: ___________________________ ID NO. _ DATE: _________

NAME: ___________________________ ID NO. _ DATE: _________