CH3 Convection PDF

CHAPTER 3
CONVECTION
•• MEC
MEC551
551Thermal
ThermalEngineering
Engineering
1
Convection
Outlines for Chapter 3
3.1` Convection Principles – heat transfer coefficient

3.2 Convection boundary layer theory
3.3 Forced convection over exterior surface
3.4 Forced convection in turbulent flow (Reynold’s
analogy.
3.5 Principle of dynamic similarity applied to forced
convection
3.6 Free convection and laminar profile over vertical
plates
• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

2
Convection
Dimensionless Forced Convection
number
• Nusselt Number External flow Internal flow
• Prandtl Number • Flat plate • non-circular tube
• Reynolds Number • Cylinder • Circular tube
• Sphere • Internal flow
CONVECTION • Dynamic similarity equation
Free Convection

3
PHYSICAL MECHANISM OF CONVECTION
Conduction and convection both
require the presence of a material
medium but convection requires
fluid motion.
Convection involves fluid motion as
well as heat conduction.
Heat transfer through a solid is
always by conduction.
Heat transfer through a fluid is by
convection in the presence of bulk
fluid motion and by conduction in
the absence of it.
Therefore, conduction in a fluid can
be viewed as the limiting case of
convection, corresponding to the
case of quiescent fluid.

The fluid motion enhances heat transfer, since it brings warmer and
cooler chunks of fluid into contact, initiating higher rates of conduction
at a greater number of sites in a fluid.
The rate of heat transfer through a fluid is much higher by convection
than it is by conduction.
In fact, the higher the fluid velocity, the higher the rate of heat transfer.
Heat transfer through a

fluid sandwiched between
two parallel plates.

Convection heat transfer strongly depends on the fluid properties
dynamic viscosity, thermal conductivity, density, and specific heat, as
well as the fluid velocity. It also depends on the geometry and the
roughness of the solid surface, in addition to the type of fluid flow (such
as being streamlined or turbulent).
Newton’s
law of
cooling
Convection heat transfer coefficient, h: The rate of heat

transfer between a solid surface and a fluid per unit surface
area per unit temperature difference.

No-slip condition: A fluid in direct contact with a solid “sticks” to the
surface due to viscous effects, and there is no slip.
Boundary layer: The flow region adjacent to the wall in which the
viscous effects (and thus the velocity gradients) are significant.
The fluid property responsible for the no-slip condition and the
development of the boundary layer is viscosity.
A fluid flowing over a stationary

The development of a velocity
surface comes to a complete stop at
profile due to the no-slip
the surface because of the no-slip
condition as a fluid flows over a
condition.
blunt nose.
An implication of the no-slip condition is that heat transfer from
the solid
surface to the fluid layer adjacent to the surface is by pure
conduction, since the fluid layer is motionless, and can be
expressed as
The determination of the convection heat transfer

coefficient when the temperature distribution within the
fluid is known
The convection heat transfer coefficient, in general, varies along

the flow (or x-) direction. The average or mean convection heat
transfer coefficient for a surface in such cases is determined by
properly averaging the local convection heat transfer coefficients
over the entire surface area As or length L as

Convection
Convection Principles
Nusselt Number
Developed by Wilhelm Nusselt (1882-
1957) from Germany
In convection analysis, it is common
practice to non-dimensionalized the
governing equations and combine the
variables, which group together in
dimensionless numbers – to reduce the
number of variables.

9
Convection
– The Nusselt number is a non-dimensionalized

h, defined as:
hLc
Nu  Lc - Characteristic Length
k - Thermal conductivity of fluid
k

10
Convection
• Since:
– Heat transfer by conduction occurs when the
fluid is motionless and …
– Heat transfer by convection occurs when the
fluid involves some motion.
– In either case, the heat flux is the rate of heat
transfer per unit time per unit surface area.
qconv  h  T
T
qcond k
L
11
Convection
• Taking the ratio of these two equations:
qconv h  T h  L
 k T   Nu
qcond L k
• Thus Nu represents the enhancement of heat transfer

through a fluid layer as a result of convection relative
to conduction across the same fluid layer. The larger Nu,
the more effective the convection.
• Nu = 1 for a fluid layer, represents pure conduction.

12
Convection
• Dynamic viscosity () – The shear force per unit area
required to drag on layer of fluid with unit velocity passed another
layer a unit distance away from the fluid.


 du 
 dy 
• Kinematic viscosity () – The ratio of dynamic

viscosity to density.



13
Convection
Convection boundary layer : velocity boundary layer
• Velocity boundary development on a flat plate:
• The boundary layer thickness (d) is normally

defined as where:
u  0.99  u

14
Convection
The dashed line, divides the flow

over the plate into two regions: y
u∞
Inviscid
Boundary layer region Flow
In which the viscous effects and
velocity changes are significant. Boundary
Layer
Inviscid flow region
x
In which the friction effects are
negligible and the velocity remains Heated Surface
constant.

15
Convection
• Flow regions in velocity boundary of a flat plate:

16
Convection
• Comparison of a laminar and turbulent velocity
boundary layer profile:

17
Convection
Convection Boundary Layer : thermal boundary layer
• Likewise there is a thermal
boundary layer
y T∞
• No temperature jump
condition
x
– Because velocity of the fluid is
Heated Surface
zero at the point of contact with
the solid surface, the fluid and
solid surface must have the
same temperature at the point
of contact.

18
Convection
Convection Boundary Layer : thermal boundary layer
• Thermal boundary development on a flat plate:
Ts+0.99·(T-Ts)
• The thickness of the thermal boundary layer (dt) at any location along
the surface is defined as the distance from the surface at which:
dT=T-Ts=0.99·(T-Ts)
• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering 19

Convection
Convection Boundary Layer: Prandtl Number
• Prandtl Number
– Developed by Ludwig Prandtl (1875-1953) of
Germany.
– The relative thickness of the velocity and thermal

boundary layers is best described by a
dimensionless Prandtl number (below):
Molecular Diffusivity of Momentum

Pr 
Molecular Diffusivity of Heat
  Cp
 
 k

20
Convection
Convection Boundary Layer: Prandtl Number
• The Prandtl numbers of gases are about 1, which indicates

that both momentum and heat dissipate through the fluid
at about the same rate.
• Heat diffuses very quickly in liquid metals (Pr << 1) and

very slowly in oils (Pr >> 1) relative to momentum.
• Consequently the thermal boundary layer is much thicker

for liquid metals and much thinner for oils relative to the
velocity boundary layer,

21
Convection
Convection Boundary layer : Reynolds Number
• Reynolds Number
– Derived by Osbourne Reynolds (1842-1912) of
Britain
– The transition from laminar to turbulent flow
depends on the surface geometry, surface
roughness, free stream velocity, surface
temperature, and type of fluid (among other
things).
– However, the flow regime primarily depends upon

the ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces in a
fluid. This is a dimensionless quantity, known as
Reynolds number (Re).
22
Convection
• The Reynolds number is defined as:
Inertia Forces V  L  V  L
Re   
Viscous Forces  
V – upstream velocity
L – characteristic length
 = / – kinematic viscosity of fluid

23
Convection
Inertia Forces V  L  V  L
Re   
Viscous Forces  
• A large Re (inertia forces large)

– Means that the viscous forces cannot prevent random
and rapid fluctuations (turbulent).
• A small Re (viscous forces large)

– Keeps the fluid in-line (laminar).
• The Reynolds number where the flow becomes turbulent is
called the critical Reynolds number (Recrit)
24
Convection
• For flow over a flat plate, the generally

accepted value of Recrit is:
Flat Plate:
  u  xcrit
Recrit   5 105

where: xcrit= Distance between the leading edge of the plate to the
transition point from laminar to turbulent flow takes place.

25
Convection
Forced Convection in Laminar Flow : External Flow
• The convection equations for an external flow can
be derived from the conservation of mass,
conservation of energy, and the conservation of
momentum equations.

26
Convection
• Conservation of Mass
m x    u  dy  
1
Unit Area
dv
m y    v  dx  
1 v   dy
Unit Area dy
dx
u
u dy u   dx
x
v 27
Convection
Rate of mass Rate of mass

flow into = flow out of
control volume control volume
 u   v 
  u  dy    v  dx     u  dx   dy     v  dy   dx
 x   y 
u v
  u  dy    v  dx    u  dy     dx  dy    v  dx     dx  dy
x y
u v
 0 ~ 2-D Continuity Equation
x y
28
Convection
• Conservation of Momentum

From newton’s second law,   dy
Σm·a = Net Force
y
P
Mass X Pressure, P P dx
Acceleration
dy x
dx

 29
Convection
• In the x-direction:
 u u  P   2u  2u 
   u  v       2  2     gx
x y   x  x   

 Net    Body force
y
ax Net effect of viscous per unit
pressure volume
force and shear forces
• In the y-direction:
 v v  P   2v  2v 
   u  v       2  2     g y
    x   
    
x y y   Body force
y
ay Net Net effect of viscous per unit
pressure and shear forces volume
force
30
Convection
• Conservation of Energy
E in  E out  0 Eheat out, y Emass out, y
Eheat in, x dx Eheat out, x

dy
Emass in, x Emass out, x
Eheat in, y Emass31in, y

Convection
• General 2-D energy equation
 T T   T  T 
2 2   u   v 
2 2
  u v 
2
  C p  u v   k  2  2   2              
 x y   x y   x   y    y x 
by mass by heat Viscous dissipation function

• For 2-D inviscid flow: ( for high speed flow)
 T T    2T  2T 
  C p  u v   k  2  2 
 x y   x y 
32
Convection
Convection over a Flat Plate
T, u Boundary layer
y dy
dx
x
u(x,0)= 0
v(x,0)= 0
T(x,0)= Ts
• Consider laminar flow over a flat plat. When viscous

dissipation is negligible, the convection equations reduce for
steady, incompressible laminar flow (with constant
properties) over a flat plate.

33
Convection
• Consider elemental control volume for force balance in the
laminar boundary layer.
u v
Continuity:  0
x y
u u  2u
Momentum: u v  2
x y y
T T  2T
Energy: u v  2
x y y
34
Convection
• Boundary conditions:
– At x= 0: u(0,y)= u, T(0,y)= T
– At y= 0: u(x,0)= 0, v(x,0)= 0, T(x,0)= Ts
– At y= : u(x,)= u, T(x,)= T
• Define a dimensionless similarity variable:
u
y
 x

35
Convection
• Recall, that the stream function is defined as:

 
u ; v
y x
• Dependent variable:
  
f    
  x u  y
u
u
36
Convection
• Therefore:
     x df u df
u    u    u
y  y u d   x d
     x df u 
v    u   f
x  x u dx 2 u x
1 u   df 
    f 
2 x  d 
37
Convection
• So:
u u  d 2 f 
     2 
x 2 x  d 
u u  2
d f 
 u   2 
y   x  d 
 2u u2 d 3 f
  3
y 2
  x 
38
Convection
Convection over a Flat Plate – momentum equation
• Substituting these into the momentum equation and simplifying gives:
d3 f d2 f
2 3f 0
d d 2
• A 3rd order non-linear differential equation. Therefore the system of

partial differential equations is transformed into a single ordinary
differential equation by use of a similarity variable.
39
Convection
• Using the definitions for f and η, the boundary equations
in terms of the similarity variables can be found.
f 0   0
• However, the transformed equation
df with its similarity variable cannot be
0 solved analytically.
d  0
• Therefore, an alternative solution is
df
1 necessary.
d  
40
Convection
• The non-dimensional velocity profile can be obtained by
plotting u/u vs. η. The results agree experimentally.
df u
• A value of:   5.0 corresponds to: d  u  0.992

• Recall that the definition of a velocity boundary layer is

when: u
 0.99
u
41
Convection
• So substituting these values into the definition for η, gives the
boundary layer thickness for a flat plate.
  5.0; y  
u
y
 x
u
5
 x
5.0 5.0  x u x
For laminar
  where : Re 
flat plate:
u Re 
 x 42
Convection
Convection over a Flat Plate – energy equation
Energy Equation
• Knowing the velocity profile, we can now solve the energy
equation.
• Introduce dimensionless temperature:
T x, y   Ts
  x, y  
T  Ts
• Note: both Ts and T are constant.
43
Convection
• Substituting θ into the energy equation gives:
   2
u v  2
x y y
• Again using the similarity variable, η, so θ= θ(η)
u
y
 x
• So the energy equation becomes:
2
df d d 1 u   df  d d d   d  2
u      f    
2 

d d dx 2 x  d  d dy d  dy 
44
Convection
• Since:
u
y
 x
3

d 1  u  2 1  u
   y      y
dx 2   x  2 u   x
d u

dy  x
45
Convection
• and:
  
f    
  x u  y
u
u
df 

d u  y
46
Convection
• Substituting these in gives:
2
df d d 1 u   df  d d d   d 
2
 u       f    
2 

d d dx 2 x  d  d dy d  dy 
   d  y  u  1 u   u     d u
 u        
 y     
 u y  d  2u   x  2 x    x u  y u   d
y  x
d 2  u 
  
d 2    x 
47
Convection
1 d   u  u  u 1 u    u
         
2 d  u   x  x   x u x u  y    x
d 2  u 
 2  
d    x 
d   u  1 u     x d 2
        2
d  u   x  x   x xy  u d 2

48
Convection
d    x u  u    d 2
      2
d  u   x u   x u y  d 2
Prandtl number  d    d 2
   2 2
Pr    d  u y  d
 Pr

f
d 2 d
2 2  Pr  f  0
d d

49
Convection
• A closed form solution cannot be obtained for this boundary
layer problem, and it must be solved numerically.
• If this equation is solved for numerous values of Pr, then for Pr

> 0.6, the non-dimensional temperature gradient at the
surface is found to be (reference Table 6-3, p. 378 in text):
d
 0.332  Pr 3
1
d  0
50
Convection
• The temperature gradient at the surface is:
T   
 T  Ts    T  Ts  
y y 0
y y 0
  0 y y 0
u  u
• Since: y then: 
 x y  x
• Therefore substituting these values in gives:

T
 0.332  Pr T  Ts  
1
3
u
y y 0
 x
51
Convection
• Therefore the local convection coefficient and Nusselt number
become:
hx 
q s

k    k 0.332  Pr  T  T  
T
y y 0
1
3
s 
u
 x
Ts  T Ts  T Ts  T
u
hx  0.332  Pr  k
1
3
 x
52
Convection
Convection over a Flat Plate – laminar flow
• The local Nusselt number is the dimensionless temperature gradient at
the surface. This is defined as:
hx  x
Nu x 
k
• Thus for Pr > 0.6, the local Nusselt number for laminar flow is:
Nu x  0.332  Pr  Re
1 1
3 2
53
Convection

54
Convection
• The average heat transfer coefficient over the entire plate can be obtained
by integrating over its length:
0.332  Pr 3  k
L 1 L
1 u
h   hx  dx
L0
h
L 
0
 x
dx
0.332  Pr 3  k u
 
1
L
   2 x
L  0
0.664  Pr 3  k u  L
1
 
L 
0.664  k  Pr  Re
1 1
3 2

L
55
Convection
• So the average Nusselt number for laminar

flow over the entire plate is:
h L
Nu   0.664  Re L  Pr 3
0.5 1
56
Convection
• Solving numerically for temperature profile
for different Prandtl numbers, and using the
definition of the thermal boundary layer, it
is determined that for laminar flow over a
flat plate:
  13  13
t   Pr    Pr
1.026
57
Convection
• Example 3.1a Calculate the heat transfer and the
thermal boundary layer thickness ¼ of the way
along a flat plate that is 50 m long. Liquid (Tsat =
40 ºC) flows over it at 4 m/s. The plate is kept at a
surface temperature (Ts= 80 ºC).
Ts= 80ºC
40 ºC
4 m/s
y
x
50 m
58
Convection
40 ºC
y
80 ºC
x
50 m
• The first step is to calculate the mean film temperature of the fluid
flowing along the plate.
• This is just the average of the surface temperature and the fluid bulk
temperature.
Ts  T 80C  40C
T film    60C
2 2
59
Convection
40 ºC
y
80 ºC
x
50 m
• For liquid water at 60 ºC from Table

  983.3 kg
m3
  4.67 kg
m s
k  0.654 W
m C
Pr  2.99
60
Convection
• First calculate the Reynolds number to determine whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent.
  u  x 983.3  4    50 m
kg m 1
Re   m3
 10,527.8
s 4
 4.67 kg
ms
• Since Re < Recrit = 5x105 or 500,000 ~ Flow is laminar

• Therefore:
  
5 x

5  504m
 0.609 m
 
Re 10,527.8
t 
  Pr  13

0.609 m   2.99  13
 0.412 m
1.026 1.026
61
Convection
• Example 3.1b Now calculate the convective heat transfer.

• First we must check to see whether the entire plate is in a laminar
boundary layer or not.
  u  L 983.3  4  50 m
kg m
Re   m3
 42,111.3
s
 4.67 kg
ms
• Since Re < Recrit = 5x105 or 500,000 ~ Flow is laminar over the

entire plate
62
Convection
• Therefore we can use the following equation to find h:
u u  
h  0.332  Pr  k  0.332  Pr  k
1 1
3 3
 x x
 0.332  2.99  0.654 mC 

1 4 m
s   983 .3 kg
3 
4.67 mkgs  50 m
W 3 m
 0.619 W
m 2  C
63
Convection
• Using this h, we can now find the convection heat transfer:
q  h  (Ts  T )

 0.619 W
m 2 C
 80C  40C 
 24.8 mW2
64
Convection
Forced Convection : External Flow
Convection over a Flat Plate – turbulent and mixed flow
Completely Turbulent Flow

Turbulent
Mixed Laminar/Turbulent Flow

65
Convection

66
Convection
• Note: if it had been found that the boundary layer was not completely
laminar another equation for h could have been used instead.
• For turbulent flow (all over the plate):
0.6  Pr  60
Nu  0.037  Re  Pr 0.8 1
3
L
5 105  Re  107
• For a mixed combination of laminar and turbulent flow over the plate:

Nu  0.037  Re  871  Pr 0.8
L  1
3
0.6  Pr  60
5 105  Re L  107
67
Convection
• Example 3.2 Oil flows over a 40-m long heated plate at free
stream conditions of 5 m/s and 25ºC. If the plate is held at 45ºC.
Ts= 45ºC
u= 5 m/s
T= 25ºC
40 m
a) Determine the velocity and thermal boundary layer
thicknesses at the middle of the plate.
b) Calculate the distance where the laminar change to

turbulence flow
c) Calculate the total convection heat transfer for a 1-m width.

68
Convection
• First calculate the film temperature (Tf )
T  Ts 25C  45C
T film    35C
2 2
• From Tables for oil at 35ºC, the fluid properties are:
Pr  3,711
  3.5 10 4 m2
s
k  0.2864 W
mC
  1,255 mkg3
69
Convection
a) At the middle of the plate:
40 m
x  20 m
2
u  x 5 ms  20 m
Re mid    2.86  10 5
point  3.5 10 s 4 m2
Since the critical Reynolds number is 5x105, then:
Re mid  Re crit
point
The flow at the mid-point of the plate is laminar.
70
Convection
• The hydrodynamic (or velocity) boundary layer is:
5 x 5  20 m
 x 20    0.187 m or 18.7 cm
Re 2.86 105
• The thermal boundary layer is:


t   Pr 
1
3
1.026
 3,711  0.0118 m or 11.8 mm
0.187 m  13

1.026
71
Convection
b) At the end of the plate:
Re end 
u  L

5 ms  40 m
 5.714 105
 3.5 10 4 m2
s
Since Re > Recrit the flow is turbulent at the end
The critical distance (transition point from laminar to
turbulent is:
Re crit 
xcrit 
u
5 10  3.5 10
5 4 m2
  35 m
 s
5 ms

72
Convection
c) Using the mixed Nu equation for a flat plate:

Nu  0.037  Re  871  Pr
0.8 1
3
  0.037  5.7110  
L
5 0.8
 871  3,711 3
1
 9,600.7
Nu  k
h 
L
9,600.7  0.2864 W
  68.7
 mC W
m 2 C
40 m
73
Convection
• The total heat transfer per is:

Q  h  As  Ts  T 

 68.7 W
m C
2  40 m 1 m 45C  25C 
 54,960 W
74
Convection
Convection over a cylinder or sphere
• Flows across cylinders and spheres, in general, involve flow

separation which is difficult to handle analytically.
• Thus these must be studied empirically or experimentally
• Several correlations have been developed for the heat

transfer coefficient (h).
75
Convection
• Churchill and Bernstein developed this empirical
equation for flow over a cylinder :
4
0.62  Re  Pr   Re  
1 1 5 5
8
hD 2 3
  0.3   1    
 
Nucyl
1   0Pr.4  3
1
k   282,000  
2 4
• Whitaker developed this empirical equation for

flow over a sphere:
 
1
0.4    
4
hD
Nu sph   2  0.4  Re  0.06  Re  Pr   
1 2
2 3
k  s 
76
Convection
Additionally the following empirical correlations have been made by
Zukauskas and Jakob for the average Nusselt number for flow over circular
and non-circular cylinders (Table 7-1 in text):
77
Convection

78
Convection
Example 3.3 A long 10-cm diameter hexagonal steam pipe whose
external surface temperature is 110°C passes through some open area that is
not protected against the wind. Determine the rate of heat loss when the air is
at 1 atm pressure and 10°C and the wind is blowing across a 1-m length of pipe
at a velocity of 8 m/s.
V = 8 m/s
T = 10°C Ts=110°C
10 cm
1m

79
Convection
The heat transfer/ heat loss is:
???
Q  h  As  Ts  T 
k
h  Nu
D
80
Convection
The properties of air at the average film temperature of:
Ts  T 110C  10C
T film    60C
2 2
can be found from Table A-15 as:
k  0.02808 W
m C ; Pr  0.7202
  1.896 10 5 m 2
s
81
Convection
The Reynold’s number is:
Re 
V  D

8 ms  0.10 m
 4.219 104
 1.896 10 5 m 2
s
The Nusselt number can be determined from Table 7-1 in the

text book:
1
Nu  0.153  Re  Pr
0.638 3
 0.153  4.219 10 4 0.638

  0.7202 3
1
 122.5
82
Convection
Therefore:
k
h  Nu
D
0.02808 mWC
  122.5  34.4 W
m C
2
0.10 m
The surface area of the hexagon is:
D
As  6  L
2  sin 60
3  0.10 m   1 m 

sin 60
 0.346 m 2
83
Convection
Therefore,
Q  h  As  Ts  T 

 34.4 W
m C
2  0.346 m  110C  10C 
2
 1,191.7 W

Convection
Principle of dynamic similarity
Non-dimensionalized convection equations
The continuity , momentum, and energy equations for steady,
incompressible, laminar flow of a fluid with constant properties can be non-
dimensionalized by dividing all the dependent and independent variables, as
follows:
x y Note: the asterisks denote
x  ; y  ;
* *
non-dimensional variables.
L L
u v
u 
*
; v 
*
Free stream velocity
V V
P T  Ts
P 
*
; T 
*
 V2
T  Ts Surface temperature
Free stream temperature
85
Convection
Introducing these variables these equations become:
u * v*
Continuity:  * 0
x y
*
u *
u *
1  2 *
u dP *
Momentum: u * *  v* *   *2  *
x y Re L y dx
Energy: T *
T *
1  2
T
u *
v *
  *2
x *
y *
Re L  Pr y
86
Convection
• For a plate, the boundary conditions are:
 
u * 0, y *  1  
v* x* ,0  0  
T * 0, y *  1
u x ,0  0
* *
T x ,0  0
* *
u x ,    1
* *
T x ,    1
* *
u, T
y*
Ts
x*
87
Convection
• Where:
V  L 
Re L  Pr 
 
• For a given geometry, the solutions of problems
with the same Re and Nu are similar, thus Re and
Nu are called similarity parameters.
• Two physical phenomena are similar if they have

the same dimensionless forms of the governing
differential equations and boundary conditions.
88
Convection
• A major advantage in non-dimensionalizing

is the significant reduction in the number
of similarity parameters.
– Original equations have 6 parameters: (L, V, T,
Ts, α, and ν)
– The non-dimensionalized equations have only
2 parameters (ReL and Pr).

89
Convection
For a given geometry, problems that have the same
values of similarity parameters (ReL and Pr) have
identical solutions.
Fig 6-28 (text) 90

Convection
• Example: Determining the convection heat transfer coefficient (h)
for flow over a given surface will require numerical solutions or
experiments with several sets of:
– Velocities (V)
– Surface lengths (L)
– Wall temperatures (Ts)
– Free stream temperatures (T).
• The same information can be determined with far fewer

experiments or investigations by grouping the data into the
dimensionless:
– Reynolds number (Re)
– Prantdl number (Pr)

91
Convection
Fig 6-29 (text)

92
Convection
Another advantage is that data from a large group of experiments
can be conveniently reported in the terms of the similarity
parameters.

93
Convection
Forced convection-drag force
•The force a flowing fluid exerts on the
body in the flow direction called drag.
•Drag is composed of ;
- pressure drag
- friction drag (skin friction)
• Drag force FD depends on ;
- fluid density, ρ
- upstream velocity, V
- size, shape and orientation
of the body

94
Convection
Forced convection-Reynolds Analogy
• In forced convection analysis, we are primarily
interested in the determination of quantities of:
– The coefficient of friction (CF) (to calculate the shear stress
at the wall)
– Nusselt number (Nu) ( to calculate the heat transfer rates).
• Therefore, it is desirable to have a relation between

CF and Nu, so that we can calculate one when the
other is available.

95
Convection
• Since: *

u  f1 x , y , Re L
* *

• The shear stress at the surface becomes:
u  V u *  V
s   
y

L y *

L

f 2 x* , Re L 
y 0 y * 0
96
Convection
• Substituting this into its definition gives the local friction

coefficient:
 V
 u *
s L y * y * 0 2 u *
C f ,x     *
 V2
2
 V2
2
Re y y * 0

2
Re L

f 2 x* , Re L 

 f 3 x* , Re L 

97
Convection
• Similarly, solving the energy equation for the dimensionless
temperature (T*) for a given geometry gives:
*

T  g1 x , y , Re L , Pr
* *

• Using this definition, the convection heat transfer coefficient
(h) becomes:
k  Ty
y 0
h
Ts  T
98
Convection
• Since:
T  Ts y y
T  *
y  
*
Ts  T L x
for local
• Then:
T Ts  T  T *  Ts  Ts  T  T *
   *
y y  x 
*
x y
99
Convection
Therefore:
 k T  Ts  T *
h   *
x  Ts  T  y y * 0
k T *
  *
L y y * 0
100
Convection
• Substituting this into the local Nusselt number
equation gives:
h  x x  k T *  T *

Nu x     *
k k  x y y*0  y * y*0
  
h
• We previously determined that: T *  g x* , y* , Re , Pr

1 L  
T *
• Therefore: Nu x  y * 
 g 2 x* , Re L , Pr 
y *0
101
Convection
• The average friction and heat transfer coefficients are
determined by integrating the local CF,x and Nux over the
surface of the given body with respect to x* (from 0 to 0.1),
which removes the dependence on x* and thus gives:
CF  f 4 Re L  and Nu  g3 Re L , Pr 
• These relations allow experimenters to study a problem

with a minimum amount of experiments and report their
results in terms of just Re and Pr.
102
Convection
• The experimental data for heat transfer is often

represented (with reasonable accuracy) by a
simple power law relation of the form:
Nu  C  Re  Pr
m
L
n
– Where m and n are constant exponents (normally between 0 and 1), and the
value of C depends on geometry.

103
Convection
• Now if we simplify the momentum and energy
equations by assuming:
 Pr = 1 (which is approximately true for gases)
 P *
 0 (true when u = u = V = constant)
x*
For Pr = 1, the
thermal and velocity
boundary layers
coincide

104
Convection
• The equations then become:
 Momentum: u *
u *
1  2 *
u
u *
v *
  *2
x *
y *
Re L y
 Energy: T *
T *
1  2 *
T
u *
v *
  *2
x *
y *
Re L y
• Note: These two equations are exactly in the same form for
u* and T*.
105
Convection
• Since the boundary conditions are also identical:

– Recall:  
u * 0, y *  1  
T * 0, y *  1
u x ,0  0
* *
T x ,0  0
* *
u x ,    1
* *
T x ,    1
* *
u * T * Equation
• Then:  * *
y * y * 0
y y * 0
106
Convection
• As previously derived:
2 u * k T *
CF   * and h  *
Re y L y
• Rearranging these equations gives:
u * CF , x  Re T * h L
 and   Nu x
y * y *0
2 y * y *0
k
107
Convection
• Therefore substituting these values into Equation *

gives: *
u *
T
 *
y *
y * 0
y y * 0
C F , x  Re Reynold’s Analogy for Pr = 1

Nu x 
2
or
CF ,x
St x 
2
108
Convection
Forced convection-Stanton number
• Reynold’s Analogy can also be
expressed in terms of the Stanton
number (St).
• This was derived by Sir Thomas

Edward Stanton (1865-1931) from
England
h Nu
St  
  CP V Re Pr

109
Convection
Reynold’s Analogy is important because it allows us to

determine the heat transfer coefficient (h) for fluids where Pr
= 1, from knowledge of the friction coefficient (which is easier
to measure).
110
Convection
Forced convection-Chilton-colburn Analogy
• However, the Reynold’s number is of limited use because

of the restrictions:
 Pr = 1
P*
 0
x *
• Therefore it is desirable to have an analogy that is

applicable over a wide range of Pr.
• This is done by adding a Prandtl number correction.
111
Convection
• Recall as previously derived:
 12
CF , x  0.664  Re Nu x  0.332  Pr  Re x2
1 1
x and 3
• Taking their ratio and rearranging give the relation

known as the Chilton-Colburn analogy or the
modified Reynold's analogy:
CF , x Colburn j-factor
 13 1
 Nu x  Pr  Re  jH L
2
For 0.6 < Pr < 60
CF , xhx
jH    Pr 3
2
2   C p V 112
Convection
• The Chilton-Colburn Analogy is derived using:
– Laminar flow
P
– Over a flat plate (  0)
x
– However, experimental studies however show that it is also

approximately applicable to turbulent flow over a surface in the
presence of pressure gradients.
– For laminar flow it is not applicable unless it is a flat plate, therefore

it cannot be applied to laminar flow in a pipe.
– Also the analogy above can be used for local or average quantities.
113
Convection
Example 3.4
Laminar flow profile over a vertical Air Flow
T= 15ºC
plate. A 2 x 3 m plate is suspended in a V = 7 m/s
room and subject to air flow parallel to
its surfaces along its 3 m side. The total
drag force acting on the plate is 0.86 N.
Determine the average heat transfer
coefficient (h) for the plate: 3m
Ts=25C
2m
114
Convection
Example 3.4
Average heat transfer coefficient (h),
C F   V  C p = from table
h   2
2 Pr 3 = given
 Ffriction  D  12  CF    As V2

Convection
Example 3.4
The properties of air at 1 atm (Table A-15 in text book) at Tfilm=
20C:
kg kJ
  1.204 3 ; C p  1.007
m kg
Pr  0.7309
• L= 3 m ~ Characteristic length
• Since both sides of the plate are exposed to the air (and
considering the thickness negligibly small) the total surface
area is:
As  2  w  L
 2  2 m  3 m  12 m 2
116
Convection
Example 3.4
• For all flat plates:
Drag = Friction Force
 Ffriction  D   CF    As V
1
2 
2
• Therefore:
2 D 2  0.86 N 
CF    0.00243
2
 
  As V 1.204 mkg3  12 m 2  7  s
m 2
117
Convection
Example 3.4
• Then from the modified Reynold’s analogy
(Chilton-Colburn) the average heat transfer
coefficient (h) can be calculated:
C F   V  C p
h   2
2 Pr 3

0.00243 1.204

 kg
m3
 7  1007
m
s
J
kg C 
2
2 0.7309 3
 12.7 m 2WC
118
Convection
Internal flow
Internal flow relates to flow through fixed conduits
such as pipes or ducts.

119
Convection
Internal Flow – non circular tubes
• For flow through non-circular
tubes Re and Nu, are based on
the hydraulic diameter Dh.
4  Ac
Dh 
p
 Vm  Dh
Re 

• Where p is the perimeter, Vm is
the mean velocity, and Ac is
the cross-sectional area.

120
Convection
Internal Flow – mean velocity
• Because the velocity varies over the cross-section it

is necessary to work with a mean velocity (Vm)
when dealing with internal flows.
m    Ac  Vm
m
Vm 
  Ac
121
Convection
Internal Flow – circular tubes
• In a circular tube:
 D2
4  Ac 4  4
Dh   D
p D
 Vm D
Re 

Re < 2,300 laminar flow

2,300 < Re < 10,000 transitional flow
Re > 10,000 turbulent flow
122
Convection
Internal Flow – entrance region

123
Convection
Internal Flow – Internal flow equation
Temperature rise of oil in a bearing
(a) Find the temperature and velocity distributions
(b) Find the maximum temperature in the oil
(c) Find the maximum heat flux in the oil
Upper plate moving
V= 12 m/s
L= 2 mm u(y) Oil
k= 0.145 W/(m·K)
μ= 0.8 kg/(m·s)
Lower plate stationary

124
Convection
Assumptions:
– Steady operating conditions
– Oil is incompressible with constant properties
– Body forces such as gravity are negligible
– The plates are large, so no variation in the z-direction
Upper plate moving
V= 12 m/s
L= 2 mm u(y) Oil
k= 0.145 W/(m·K)
μ= 0.8 kg/(m·s)
Lower plate stationary

125
Convection
(a) Find the temperature and velocity distributions

• Solution:
– Flow only in the x-direction v = 0
• Continuity Equation:
0
u v
 0
x y
u
0
x
 u  u( y)
P
• The x-component of velocity does not change. Since x
 0 also, the
flow is maintained by the upper plate and not the pressure gradient.
126
Convection
• x-momentum equation:
0 0 0 0 0
 u v    u  u  P
2 2
  u  v     2  2    g x
 x y   x y  x
 u 2
0
y 2
• This is a 2nd order differential equation. So integrating

twice gives:
u  C1 y  C2
127
Convection
• The boundary conditions are:
u(0)= 0
u(L)= V= 12 m/s
• Using these boundary conditions to solve for the constants

C1 and C2 gives:
0  C1 0  C2 V  C1 L   0
C2  0 V
C1 
L
128
Convection
Therefore the equation becomes:
y
u  V
L
Frictional heating due to viscous dissipation in this case is

significant because of the high viscosity of oil and large plate
velocity. The plates are isothermal and there is no change in
flow direction, so the temperature changes with y only T=
T(y).
129
Convection
So the energy equation for this system is:
0 0 0
 T T    2T  2T 
  C p  u v   k  2  2   
 x y   x y 
0 0 02
  u   v    u v 
2 2

   2            
  x   y    y x  
2
 T  u 
2
0k    
y 2
 y 
130
Convection
• Since:
y
u  V
L
u V

y L
• Therefore the equation becomes:
T
2
V 
2
k 2    
y L

131
Convection
• Now integrating the equation twice:
 y 
2
T   V   C3  y  C4
2k  L 
• Applying boundary conditions:
T(0) = T0 y  0 : T0  C4
 L
2
T(L) = T0 y  L : T0   
  V   C3  L  T0
2k  L 

C3  V2
2kL
132
Convection
Substituting these constants in to the equation gives:
 y 2
2 y 2
T    2 V   V  T0
2k  L  2kL

 V y y 2 2
 T0    2 
2k  L L 
133
Convection
(b) Find the maximum temperature in the oil

The temperature gradient is found by differentiating T(y) with
respect to y.
T  V 2  y
 1  2    0
y 2kL  L
Now to find the maximum temperature, maximize T by setting the

above equation equal to 0.
y
1 2
L
L 0.002 m
y   0.001 m
2 2
134
Convection
This means that the maximum temperature will occur at the
mid-plane (y= 1 mm), which is not surprising since both
planes are maintained at the same temperature.
The maximum temperature at y= 1 mm is:
 V  2  2  
 L L 2 
2
Tmax  T0    2 
2k  L L 
 V 2
 T0 
8k
 20C 
0.8  12  N s
m2
m 2
s  1W 
  N m   119C
8  0.145 mWC 1 s 
135
Convection
(c) Find the maximum heat flux in the oil

The heat flux at the plates is determined from the definition of a heat
flux.
dT  V 2  y
q0  k  k  1  2  
dy y 0
2kL  L

 V 2

0.8  12 
N s
m2
m 2
s 1W 
 N m
2L 2  0.002 m  1 s 
W
 28,800 2
m
136
Convection
As a check, we can also calculate the heat flux at y= L (should

be equal but opposite sign).
dT  V  2
L
q L  k  k  1  2  
dy yL
2kL  L

 V 2

0.8  12 
N s
m2
m 2
s 1W 
 N m
2L 2  0.002 m  1 s 
W
 28,800 2
m
137
Convection
• Discussion of example
T=20ºC Upper plate moving
V= 12 m/s
L= 2 mm T=119ºC
T=20ºC Lower plate stationary
• A temperature rise of 99ºC confirms that viscous

dissipation is very significant

138
Convection
Discussion of example
kW
q   28.8
m2
V= 12 m/s
L= 2 mm
kW
q   28.8
m2
Heat flux is equivalent to the mechanical energy rate of dissipation.
Therefore, mechanical energy is being converted into thermal
energy to overcome friction in oil. This accounts for the
temperature flux.
139
Convection
Free convection
Warm air
Hot air rises due to the buoyancy
effect.
This causes fluid motion

Heat (possibly in a circulating pattern)
Transfer
that causes natural or free
convection
Cold
can Cold air

140
Convection
Free convection-volume expansion coefficient
In heat transfer, the primary variable is the temperature,

so it is desirable to express the net buoyancy force in terms
of a temperature difference.
This requires knowledge of a property that represents the
variation of the density of a fluid with temperature at constant
pressure.
This is called the volume expansion coefficient (β) which is

defined as:
1    1   
       
  T  P   T  P
141
Convection
In natural convection studies, the condition of the fluid
sufficiently far from the hot or cold surface is indicated by the
subscript “” to indicate that the presence of the surface is not
felt.
In such cases, β can be expressed approximately by replacing

the differential equations by differences, such as:
1  1     
    
 T  T  T 
        T  T 
142
Convection
• For an ideal gas:

P

R T
• Thus for an ideal gas the discharge coefficient

becomes:
1    1  RTP  1
     P  
  T  P RT  T  T
143
Convection
Free convection-Grashof number
• The velocity and temperature for natural
convection over a vertical plate are shown in
the figure.
– As in forced convection, the boundary

layer thickness increases in the flow
direction
– Unlike forced convection, the fluid

velocity (u) is 0 at the outer edge of the
boundary layer as well as the surface of
the plate.
– This is expected since the fluid beyond
the boundary layer is motionless.

144
Convection
• Recall that the x-momentum equations is:
 u u   2u P
  u  v    2   g
 x y  y x
• Now the momentum equation outside the boundary layer

can be obtained from this relation as a special case by
setting u = 0, giving:
P
    g
x
145
Convection
• Since:
P  Px   P x 
P P
     g
x x
• Then the momentum equation becomes:
 u v   2u
  u  v    2      g
 x y  y
 u v   2u
  u  v    2   g  T  T 
 x y  y
u v  2u
u  v   2  g  T  T 
x y y
146
Convection
• If we now non-dimensionalized this x-

momentum equation, we get:
* u
*
v * u 

*
 
g   Ts  T  Lc T
3
 *
1 u 2 *
u  2   *2
x y  Re L Re L y
* * 2
 
Grashof Number
147
Convection
• The Grashof number is derived by

Franz Grashof (1826-1893) from
Germany.
g   Ts  T   L3c
GrL 
2
148
Convection
Gr is a measure of the relative

magnitudes of the buoyancy force
and the opposing viscous force
acting on the fluid

149
Convection
Free convection-Raleigh number
• Lord Raleigh (1842-1919) from

England derived the Raleigh
Number
Ra  Gr  Pr
g   Ts  T   L 3
Ra L  c
 Pr
 2
150
Convection
Free convection- example 3.6
A 6-m long section of 8-cm diameter horizontal hot
water pipe passes through a large room. The pipe
surface temperature is 70 ºC. Determine the heat
loss from the pipe by natural convection.
Ts= 70 ºC T= 20 ºC
D= 8 cm
L= 6 m

151
Convection
Heat Loss;
1

Q  h  As  Ts  T  Tf
????
It is a natural convection in pipe (cylinder)
Table – T film
k
h   Nu
D g   Ts  T   D 3
Ra D   Pr
Table – natural conv. and cylinder  2

Convection
• Assume:
– Steady operating conditions
– Air is an ideal gas
– The local atmospheric pressure is 1 atm
Ts  T 70C  20C 
T film    45C
2 2
• From Table A-15, the properties of air are:
k  0.02699 W
mC ;   1.749 10 5 m2
sec ; Pr  0.7241
153
Convection
• The volumetric expansion coefficient (β) is:

1 1 1
  
T f 45C  273 318 K
• The characteristic length is the outer diameter of

the pipe:
Lc  D  0.08 m
154
Convection
• Therefore the Raleigh Number is:
g   Ts  T   D 3
Ra D   Pr
 2

9.81  
m
s2
 343 K  293 K  0.08 m   0.7241
1
318 K
3
1.749 10  5 m 2 2
s
 1.869  10 6
155
Convection
• Table 9-1 in the text book gives average Nusselt

numbers for natural convection over surfaces.
• For a horizontal cylinder:

156
Convection
Thus Nu is:  
2
 
 0.387  Ra D6 
1
Nu D  0.60  8 
   0.559  16  
9 27
 1     
   Pr   
2
 
 

 0.60 
 
0.387  1.869 106 6 
1
  17.4
8
   0.559  16  
9 27
 1     
   0.7241   
157
Convection
• Then:
k
h   Nu 
0.02699 mWC 
 17.4  5.869 m2WC
D 0.08 m
• The surface area of the cylinder is:
As    D  L
   0.08 m  6 m  1.508 m 2
158
Convection
• Therefore the heat transfer is:
Q  h  As  Ts  T 
 5.869 W
mC
 1.508 m  70C  20C 
2
 442.5 W
159

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CHAPTER 3

3.1` Convection Principles – heat transfer coefficient

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

Heat transfer through a

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

Convection heat transfer coefficient, h: The rate of heat

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

A fluid flowing over a stationary

The determination of the convection heat transfer

The convection heat transfer coefficient, in general, varies along

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

– The Nusselt number is a non-dimensionalized

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

• Thus Nu represents the enhancement of heat transfer

• Nu = 1 for a fluid layer, represents pure conduction.

• Kinematic viscosity () – The ratio of dynamic

• The boundary layer thickness (d) is normally

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

The dashed line, divides the flow

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering 19

– The relative thickness of the velocity and thermal

Molecular Diffusivity of Momentum

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

• The Prandtl numbers of gases are about 1, which indicates

• Heat diffuses very quickly in liquid metals (Pr << 1) and

• Consequently the thermal boundary layer is much thicker

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

– However, the flow regime primarily depends upon

• The Reynolds number is defined as:

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

• A large Re (inertia forces large)

• A small Re (viscous forces large)

• For flow over a flat plate, the generally

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

Rate of mass Rate of mass

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

E in  E out  0 Eheat out, y Emass out, y

Eheat in, x dx Eheat out, x

Eheat in, y Emass31in, y

by mass by heat Viscous dissipation function

• Consider laminar flow over a flat plat. When viscous

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

– At y= : u(x,)= u, T(x,)= T

• Define a dimensionless similarity variable:

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

• Recall, that the stream function is defined as:

• A 3rd order non-linear differential equation. Therefore the system of

• Recall that the definition of a velocity boundary layer is

• Note: both Ts and T are constant.

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

• If this equation is solved for numerous values of Pr, then for Pr

• Therefore substituting these values in gives:

• MEC 551 Thermal Engineering

• So the average Nusselt number for laminar