“An aggie does not lie, cheat or steal or tolerate those who do”

The Bridge Project

Course instructor: Dr. Michael Schuller

Course: ENGR 216
Section: 506

Team members:
Abdulla Al-Thani
Daniah Al-Abdulghani
Moustafa Faraj
Shahd Khalil

Due Date: April 24, 2022

Abstract:
Newton’s laws, static equilibrium, and torque are applied everywhere around us. Learning about
them and how they are applied is essential. From there, an experiment was designed to
investigate more about them and apply them in a real-world application. In addition, the designed
experiment aims to investigate more about bridges and how those concepts apply in their
construction. The experiment conducted was to build a five-span bridge.
In order to accomplish the aimed objective, firstly, a free body diagram was drawn for the bridge
and the materials and quantities were chosen. Then, the total weight and the weight on the joints
were calculated. After that, free body diagrams were drawn for the joints and the forces were
found by applying Newton's laws and torque. The final step was to construct the bridge and
measure the forces and compare them to the calculated forces. The whole process was repeated
for three cases, one which has no load added, and the other two have loads added on different
positions.
According to the findings of the experiment, it was concluded that forces act symmetrically
when no load is added. In addition, the forces appeared to increase at the location where the load
was applied. Finally, we found that the center of mass shifted towards the location where the
load was added.

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Table of contents:

Abstract: 2

Introduction: 4

Theory: 6

Experimental Apparatus: 8

Test Procedure: 10

Results: 11

Discussion: 13

Findings: 14

Conclusion: 15

References: 15

Appendices: 16
Appendix A: Table showing the masses and weight of the respective components 16
Appendix B: Data corresponding to each joint of the front side of the bridge 16
Appendix C: The table below shows the internal forces for the rest of the beams where the strain
gauge was not placed for the loadless bridge: 17
Appendix D: The table below shows the internal forces for the rest of the beams where the strain
gauge was not placed when the load was placed at joint G: 17
Appendix E: The table below shows the internal forces for the rest of the beams where the strain
gauge was not placed when the load was placed at joint H: 18
Appendix F:Sample calculation of the weight, uncertainty in mass, and uncertainty in weight. 19
Appendix G: Sample calculation of the external forces. 20
Appendix H: Sample calculation of the loadless bridge. 20
Appendix I: Sample calculation of the bridge with load at joint G. 21
Appendix J: Image of the five span bridge. 21

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Introduction:
Bridges are very common nowadays and they are being used daily for different reasons. They
allow people to safely cross roads, provide alternate routes for vehicles, and even assist animals
in crossing rivers and streams. They also help in reducing the traffic and creating shortcuts. In
Qatar, 21 bridges out of 32 bridges are open and the rest are still being worked on. One of those
bridges which has recently been opened in Qatar is Lusail City Bridge (Figure 1) (Ashghal
partially opens cable-stayed bridge 2020). Having more bridges is an indication that the country
is moving towards a faster lifestyle. A lifestyle at which time should be used wisely and
everything connected to each other.

Figure 1: Lusail City Bridge

In the past, bridges were constructed to help people cross rivers and other obstacles which they
face in their way. This invention has been developed to connect mountains, different parts of the
country, and countries together. Over the years their designs and shapes have also been
developed to several designs in which each design is used differently. There are seven main
designs of bridges: Arch Bridge, Beam Bridge, Cable-stayed Bridge, Cantilever Bridge,
Suspension Bridge, Truss Bridge, and Tied Arch Bridge (Types of Bridges. The 7 Main Types -
EngineeringClicks, 2019).

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 Figure 2: Designs of Bridges
Furthermore, it is critical for everyone to have background information or basic knowledge on
something that they personally are taking advantage of daily, such as a bridge. Having
background knowledge about how bridges are constructed and how they work can help in
understanding their importance in life. From here, studying bridges and analyzing them was of
our interest so an experiment was designed to study that. In this experiment a truss bridge was
built, which is a bridge designed to support its weight and the weight on it by connecting
triangular structures which help in enforcing stability.

Figure 3: A Truss Bridge

In this experiment, concepts of forces and torques were utilized to accomplish the main objective
which is to apply and learn about bridges and their importance. In addition, drawing free body
diagrams, choosing the materials used for constructing the bridge, and calculating forces helped
in accomplishing the main objective and the other sub objectives.
In this report, we are presenting the experiment which we have done in constructing a bridge.
We are demonstrating what we have found before constructing it, throughout the process of
constructing it, and after constructing it. In addition, we are sharing what we have learnt from
this experiment and what could be concluded from it. Not only that, but this report also aims at
sharing the results obtained from conducting the experiment and discussing them.

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This report is divided into 7 main parts which are theory, experimental apparatus, test procedure,
results, discussion, findings, and conclusion. In the theory section, the theoretical basis of the
experiment was presented as well as the equations used in the calculations. Then, in the
experimental apparatus section, the apparatus used for building the bridge were presented. In the
test procedure section, the discussion of the process of building the bridge was presented. Later,
in the results section, our figures, tables, and graphs were presented there. The results were later
explained and interpreted in the discussion section. Last but not least, the findings section
presents what we have discovered in this experiment. Finally, in the conclusion section, we have
presented what we have concluded from conducting this experiment.
.

Theory:
In this experiment, the main physics concepts utilized were Newton's laws, torque, as well as
static equilibrium. Static equilibrium helped us when assuming that the whole system is at
equilibrium so the net force acting on the system is zero and the net torque is zero too. Using
these concepts, the internal and external forces were calculated on each joint. These calculations
were done for three cases. Firstly, a case when no load was added. Secondly, when a 1kg load
was added on a lower joint (joint G). Thirdly, when 1kg load was added on an upper joint (joint
H).

Figure 4: Frontside 2D Design of the Bridge

Figure 4 represents the design of the bridge which we came up with, following the instructors
guidelines. The design was made assuming that the bridge is a two-dimensional bridge, just for
simplification at the beginning. The black circles represent the joints of the bridge, the solid lines
represent the beams used for the bridge, and the rectangles represent the strain gauges which can
also be referred to as load cells.

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 Figure 5: Triangle used for finding the angle
Figure 5 represents the triangle from which the angle was calculated. The base length is the
length of the beam used at the base and the other two sides were made of the same beam, so they
had the same length. The triangle obtained was an isosceles triangle so the angles at the bases
were equal. Then, using the Pythagorean theorem (equation 1), the height was found. Later by
applying the trigonometric properties cosine, sine, and tangent of the angle were calculated
(equations 2,3, and 4 respectively).
2 2 2
a + b =c Equation 1
where a and b are the base and height respectively and c is the hypotenuse.
cos (θ)=adjacent /h ypotenuse Equation 2
sin(θ)=opposite /h ypotenuse Equation 3
tan(θ)=opposite / adjacent Equation 4
Weight (w) = n × m× g Equation 5
total weig h t=Σw Equation 6
Equation 5 was used to find the weights of the components. Where n represents the number of
the same components and m represents the mass of that component, and the total weight was
calculated by multiplying the total mass calculated by gravity. Then, after finding the weight for
the components separately, the total weight was found by taking the sum of all the single
weights.
Furthermore, to find the weight on each joint, we combined the weight of the backside trusses
and the front side trusses. Then, the collective masses of the beams, in the front and back side of
the bridge was found and this mass was divided by two, as the beams were shared between two
joints. Later, the masses of the 2 joints and the screws used in them were found. The masses of
the footings and the load cells and screws connected to them were added only to the joints on
which they were connected to. Finally, the joints which had the load cells connected on the
beams connected to it had an additional mass of half the load cell and a screw. The total mass
was found and this mass after multiplying it by acceleration due to gravity gave the weight at a
specific joint. (See appendix F)

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 Σ F=F 1 + F2 + F 3+ ....=0 Equation 7
Σ F x =F1 x + F 2 x + F3 x +....=0 Equation 8
Σ F y =F 1 y + F2 y + F 3 y +....=0 Equation 9
Equation 7 represents Newton's first law which states that if an object is at equilibrium, and an
external force acts on it to change its speed, the object resists that change and maintains its initial
state. So the sum of all forces acting on an object is zero. In addition, for an object to be in
equilibrium, it should either be at rest or moving at a constant speed in a straight line. In this
case, we are considering the object to be at rest. Equation 8 shows that the resultant force in the x
direction is zero and equation 9 shows that the resultant force in the y direction is zero.
τ =F × R=FRsin(θ) Equation 10
Στ=Σ(F y x−F x y )=0 Equation 11
Equation 10 represents the net torque acting on the bridge. Torque is the force that causes an
object to rotate around an axis. The forces which act perpendicular to the lever arm produce
torque but the ones which act parallel to it do not produce torque. In addition, torque is
considered to be positive if it was counterclockwise and negative if it was clockwise. For the
bridge to be in static equilibrium, the net torque should be zero. Equation 11 was used when we
were calculating the reaction forces at the footings. Furthermore, equation 11 is another way of
writing the net torque and it is easier to be used when considering forces in two dimensions
(Torque (article) 2022).
F a/ b=−F b /a Equation 12
Equation 12 represents Newton’s third law which states that for every action force there is a
reaction force for it, equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. This law can also be stated
that forces work in action reaction pairs. This law was used when considering the reaction forces
which were applied from the ground on the footings of the bridge.
Tension is a type of force which causes an object to elongate or stretch. While compression is the
force which causes the object to shorten. Throughout the experiment, tension was referred to as a
positive force and compression to as a negative force.
Σmr
RCM = Equation 13
Σm
Equation 13 represents the equation used to find the center of mass. Where m represents the
single masses and r the position of the center of mass of that component.

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Experimental Apparatus:
For this experiment to be performed a Pasco kit was provided which included all the necessary
equipment to build the bridge. To complete the experiment the following was used:
Table 1: Components used and their quantities
Component Amount Used
beam 5 16
beam 4 20
beam 3 12
beam 2 11
load cell 6
screws 114
half- round connectors 22
Hanging Load 0|1

Figure 6: Apparatus used in the bridge

Table 1 shows the components used in the bridge and their respective amounts. In addition,
figure 6 represents the apparatus used in building the bridge. Beam 5 was used for the upper and
lower part of the bridge. It formed the bases of the triangles in the truss. Then, beam 4 was used
on the sides of the triangle. As a result of using 2 beams having the same length, isosceles
triangles were formed in the truss. The angles on the base of the triangles were found to be equal
and their values are represented in table 2, after taking the cosine, sine, and tangent of the angle.
Then, in order to connect the load cells on the bridge, beam 5 was replaced with a load cell and 2
beam 3. Load cells are used for measuring the tension and compression forces in the beams of
the bridge. Beam 2 was used for the connection of the back side and the front side of the bridge.
The half round connectors are what the beams were screwed to and helped connect everything
together. Finally, for the footings, the footings in the backside beam 5 were used and for the front
side two beam 3 and a load cell for the 2 front footings.

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 Table 2: values of the angles obtained

Trigonometric property Value

cos (θ ) 12
17
sin (θ ) √145
17
tan (θ ) √145
12

The load cells had to be calibrated before measuring the forces. After they were calibrated and
connected on the bridge the values were taken. Some load cells showed unreasonable values. The
measurements were repeated until the values obtained were reasonable.
Table 3: Uncertainty in measurements
Measurement Value Uncertainty
Mass 1.876 ±0.0033
Gravity 9.810 ±0.1000
Weight 18.407 ±0.0103

uncertainty∈weig h t=√ ¿ ¿ Equation 14

Table 3 shows the uncertainty in the total mass of the bridge, acceleration due to gravity, and
weight of the bridge. To find the uncertainty in the mass, the number of components used was
multiplied by the uncertainty of the instruments used to take that measurement. The uncertainty
in the balance was found to be +- 0.05g. Then, the square of that was taken and by adding all the
components and taking the square root, the uncertainty in mass was calculated. Then the
uncertainty in the acceleration due to gravity and its uncertainty was taken from the literature
(Physics). Later, the uncertainty in the weight was found using equation 14. (See appendix F)

Test Procedure:
Before starting the building of the bridge, predicted calculations should be made. A design for
the bridge was made, and the number of components used was determined. For the calculations
the mass of every component was calculated, and the total weight was calculated with and
without the load. After the total force on several points on the bridge were calculated when there
was no load then the same process was made but this time when there is load at points G and H.
After making sure that the predicted calculations are accurate and realistic a Pasco kit was

10
provided to start building the bridge. The above elements named the apparatus were used to build
the bridge the exact amount of listed beams and screws were used to build the bridge. The bridge
was built and finished, and testing of the bridge began. First testing was made with no load then
the bridge was tested by applying a load at G then the same testing happened but this time the
load was placed at point H. After finishing the testing results were obtained and comparison
between the actual results and the predicted calculations began.

Results:
The tables below show the internal forces at the beams between two joints that were estimated by
calculations, followed by the internal forces measured through the use of a program.

Table 4: The table below shows the internal forces in the beams where the strain gauge was
placed for the load less bridge:
Percentage error
Beam component Estimated Tension (in N) Measured Tension (in N) (%)
Footing A -4.602 -6.780 32.129
AC 3.266 4.720 30.810
BD -5.792 -7.700 24.775
HJ -5.792 -9.110 36.418
IK 3.266 5.240 37.677
Footing K -4.602 -6.090 24.440

Table 5: The table below shows the internal forces in the beams where the strain gauge was
placed when the load was placed at joint G:

Beam component Estimated Tension (in N) Measured Tension (in N) Percentage error (%)
Footing A -6.564 -8.370 21.582
AC 5.228 6.070 13.876
BD -9.716 -11.010 11.750
HJ -11.678 -14.480 19.349
IK 6.209 7.550 17.765
Footing K -7.545 -9.330 19.136

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 Table 6: The table below shows the internal forces in the beams where the strain gauge was
placed when the load was placed at joint H:

Beam component Estimated Tension (in N) Measured Tension (in N) Percentage error (%)
Footing A -6.073 -7.380 17.708
AC 4.737 4.420 7.178
BD -8.735 -9.030 3.263
HJ -12.659 -15.030 15.773
IK 6.699 7.580 11.619
Footing K -8.035 -9.970 19.407

To help visualize the data in the Appendices, the following bar graphs were created. For bars that
are above the x-axis, the internal forces represent tension, while for the bars that are below the x-
axis, the internal forces represent compression.

Figure 7: The bar graph above visualizes the internal forces within the beams for the load less
bridge.

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Figure 6: The bar graph above visualizes the internal forces within the beams when the load was
placed at joint G.

Figure 8: The bar graph above visualizes the internal forces within the beams
when the load was placed at joint H.

Discussion:
For the tables above, beam components that have been identified as AB, BD, etc. correspond to
the internal forces of the beam between the two respective joints. Use Figure 4 s a reference to
identify each joint. To better visualize the data, the bar graphs above were created in order to
identify the distribution of the mass of the bridge. Forces FA and FK identify the internal forces

13
of the beam on the footing below the respective joint. When the bar rises above the x-axis, this
indicates that the internal force between the two joints is tension, while if the bar descends below
the x-axis, the internal force between the two joints is compression. However, as seen in Table 4,
Table 5 and Table 6; here is a notable difference between the estimated internal forces and the
measured, as seen in the relatively high percentage uncertainty, this could be explained by three
major points: one is that during calculation, instead of taking the entire bridge into consideration,
only the front-side was considered, which is most likely the error that causes the most difference.
Second is that the program used when measuring the internal forces could have made a reading
error, which could be explained by that in Table 4, the measured internal forces of the footings at
joint A and joint K are not the same, when in reality the values should be very similar, if not
equal. Also, there are some uncertainties in the masses and lengths given, which therefore results
in a uncertainty in the internal forces calculated. One minor error is that the mass of the wires
that connect the strain gauges with the computer with the program were not considered, which
only slightly affects the results.

Some trends that could be seen from the bar graphs is that the beams at the bottom span
experienced tension while the beams at the top span beams experienced compression for all three
cases. Moreover, for these horizontal beams, it could be seen that the magnitudes of the beams
closer to the center of mass tend to have a much greater magnitude in comparison with. On the
contrary, the diagonal beams tend to decrease in magnitude when the beam is closer to the center
of mass. As seen in Table 4, Table 5, and Table 6, the measured internal forces (alongside the
estimated internal forces) also follows the afore mentioned trends. It could be seen that when a
load is added on to the bridge, there is usually a large increase in the magnitude of the internal
forces. It could also be seen that the internal forces at the footings are larger and are no longer
equal to one another when a placed load disrupts the symmetry of the bridge.

Findings:
To summarize, it was found that the beams that are close to the center of mass tend to:
● Have a greater magnitude of internal forces for the horizontal beams.
● Have a lower magnitude of internal forces for the diagonal beams.
Moreover, it was found that the bottom span beams experienced tension, while the top span
beams experienced compression.
When comparing the position of the loads, and the effects of the placing a load in the bridge it
was found that:
● The added weight of the load on the bridge resulted in a much higher magnitude of
internal forces.

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 ● The position of the load affects the center of mass of the entire bridge such that the center
of mass tends to be closer to where the load was placed.
● The reaction forces at the footing tend to be greater if the center of mass of the entire
bridge is closer to the respective footing.
When no load was placed on the bridge, the internal forces and reaction forces at the footings
were found to be similar to the other side of the 2-dimensional cross section that we took,
indicating that the bridge is symmetrical. In addition to that, the center of mass was identified to
be in the middle of the bridge.

Conclusion:
● The objective of this experiment which was to apply Newton's laws, static equilibrium,
and torque on a real-life application was met by designing a five span bridge and
applying those laws on it to build it.
It was concluded that:
● For the bridge to be stable it needs to be in static equilibrium.
● When there is no load on the bridge, the forces are symmetrical and when a load is added
the forces are no longer symmetrical and are greater near the load.
● The center of mass of the bridge is in the middle of the bridge but when a load is added
the center of mass, of the bridge and load combined, shifts slightly towards the position
where the load was added.
● The tension and compression should not be greater than a certain amount otherwise the
beams will snap.

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References:

Different types of Bridges | Bridge and its components. (2018, March 21). CIVIL READ;
civilread.com. https://civilread.com/different-types-of-bridges/

Khan Academy. (2022). Torque (article). Khan Academy. Retrieved April 24, 2022, from
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/torque-angular-momentum/torque-
tutorial/a/torque

Newspaper, T. P. (2020, September 12). Ashghal partially opens cable-stayed bridge.

Peninsula. Retrieved April 24, 2022, from
https://thepeninsulaqatar.com/article/12/09/2020/Ashghal-partially-opens-cable-stayed-
bridge

Newton’s laws of motion | Definition, Examples, & History. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica;
www.britannica.com. Retrieved April 24, 2022, from
https://www.britannica.com/science/Newtons-laws-of-motion

Physics. StudySmarter. (n.d.). Retrieved April 24, 2022, from

https://www.studysmarter.de/en/explanations/physics/measurements/uncertainty-and-
errors/#:~:text=Rounding%20numbers,-When%20errors%20and&text=Measuring
%20the%20value%20of%20the,0.10003m%2Fs%5E2.

Types of Bridges. The 7 Main Types - EngineeringClicks. (2019, September 4)

.EngineeringClicks; www.engineeringclicks.com.
https://www.engineeringclicks.com/types-of-bridges/

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17
 Appendices:

Appendix A: Table showing the masses and weight of the respective components
Amount Amount Used Mass per Mass per Total Mass of Total Weight of
Component Used on the Front Component (g) Component (kg) Component (kg) Component (N)
beam 5 16 5 12.3 0.0123 0.197 1.931
beam 4 20 10 8.55 0.00855 0.171 1.678
beam 3 12 12 5.95 0.00595 0.071 0.700
beam 2 11 5.5 4.1 0.0041 0.045 0.442
load cell 6 6 99.2 0.0992 0.595 5.839
screws 114 63 3.4 0.0034 0.388 3.802
half- round connectors 22 11 18.6 0.0186 0.409 4.014
Hanging Load 0|1 0|1 1000 1 1.000 9.810
Total (without load) 1.876 18.407
Total (with load) 2.876 28.217

Appendix B: Data corresponding to each joint of the front side of the bridge
Beams Beams Beams Beams Load Half-Round Total mass of Weight at each Weight at joint
Joint Screws
#5 #4 #3 #2 Cells Connectors each joint (kg) joint (N) including load (N)
joint A 1.5 1 3 1 1.5 11 2 0.27235 2.672
joint B 0.5 2 1 1 0.5 9 2 0.1507 1.478
joint C 1.5 2 1 1 0.5 11 2 0.1698 1.666
joint D 1.5 2 1 1 0.5 11 2 0.1698 1.666
joint E 2 2 0 1 0 10 2 0.117 1.148
joint F 2 2 0 1 0 10 2 0.117 1.148
joint G 2 2 0 1 0 10 2 0.117 1.148 10.958
joint H 1.5 2 1 1 0.5 11 2 0.1698 1.666 11.476
joint I 1.5 2 1 1 0.5 11 2 0.1698 1.666
joint J 0.5 2 1 1 0.5 9 2 0.1507 1.478
joint K 1.5 1 3 1 1.5 11 2 0.27235 2.672

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Appendix C: The table below shows the internal forces for the rest of the beams where the
strain gauge was not placed for the load less bridge:
Beam component Estimated Tension (in N)
AB -4.618
BC 3.573
CD -2.395
CE 7.486
DE 1.217
DF -8.347
EF -0.406
EG 8.634
FG -0.406
FH -8.347
GH 1.217
GI 7.486
HI -2.395
IJ 3.573
JK -4.618

Appendix D: The table below shows the internal forces for the rest of the beams where the
strain gauge was not placed when the load was placed at joint G:
Beam component Estimated Tension (in N)
AB -7.393
BC 6.348
CD -5.170
CE 13.372
DE 3.992
DF -16.195
EF -3.180
EG 18.444
FG 2.369
FH -20.119
GH 5.379
GI 16.315
HI -6.557
IJ 7.735
JK -8.780

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Appendix E: The table below shows the internal forces for the rest of the beams where the
strain gauge was not placed when the load was placed at joint H:
Beam component Estimated Tension (in N)
AB -6.699
BC 5.654
CD -4.476
CE 11.901
DE 3.298
DF -14.233
EF -2.487
EG 15.991
FG 1.675
FH -17.176
GH -0.864
GI 17.787
HI -7.251
IJ 8.429
JK -9.474

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Appendix F: Sample calculation of the weight, uncertainty in mass, and uncertainty in weight.

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Appendix G: Sample calculation of the external forces.

Appendix H: Sample calculation of the load less bridge.

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Appendix I: Sample calculation of the bridge with load at joint G.

Appendix J: Image of the five span bridge.

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