Department of Mechanical Engineering

College of Engineering and Design

Silliman University

A Comparative Study between a Rubberized, Cotton and Braided Nylon

Shoelaces with Regards to Its Tensile Strength

Submitted to:

Engr. Louie Pierre O. Equio

Submitted by:

Musketer, Alan Je

Matildo, Mervin

Pacites, Lentz

March 30, 2021

 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This research will not be possible without the guidance and help of several

people who contributed and extended their help in the preparation and completion of

this research experiment.

First of all, the researchers would like to thank our Almighty God for guiding

us for the preparations and answering our prayers, giving us strength and courage to

finish this study, also for the protection and safety of our trips to our destinations.

To our adviser, Engr. Louie Pierre O. Equio for his fruitful knowledge and

guiding us in making this research possible, pushing us beyond our limits, and

presenting necessary changes in our experiments.

To Mervin Matildo and Alan Je Musketer’s humble abode and their family,

for always welcoming us and allowing us to conduct our researches. Thank you for

imparting your knowledge and extended patience and understanding to our group. We

express our heartfelt gratitude to you and your families.

And lastly, to all individuals who have been open and approachable all over

the preparation and duration of this project, may God bless you all!

We the researchers, express our gratefulness to each and every one who made

this possible. Thank you very much!

2
 ABSTRACT

This research will conduct a tensile strength testing of different types of

shoelaces which are the following; cotton shoelace, nylon shoelace and lastly the

rubberized shoelace with a modified testing procedure. In this experiment our

objective is to choose the best type of shoelaces that can withstand a high amount of

tensile strength so that consumers will have an idea to buy the right type of shoelaces

in day-to-day activities. The proponents customized their testing procedure with the

use of tools which are the rubber tube tire cut-outs, water bucket extra shoelaces for

tying and a weighing scale. Upon conducting the experiment, we obtain various loads

to break the shoelaces. The average weight of the cotton shoelace is 214.9 N, for the

nylon shoelace it has and average weight of 321.9 N and lastly the rubberized

shoelace’s average weight is 147.24 N. The average ultimate tensile strength of cotton

shoelace is 30.4 MPa, for the nylon braided shoelace has 45.52 MPa and lastly for the

rubberized shoelace has 20.83 MPa. When comparing these three types of shoelaces

we concluded that the braided nylon shoelace has the greatest tensile strength.

3
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement 2

Abstract 3

Table of Contents 4

List of Figures 5

List of Tables 6

I. Introduction 7
A. Background of the Study 7
B. Statement of the Problem 7
C. Hypothesis 8
D. Research Questions 8
E. Objectives of the Study 8
F. Significance of the Study 9
G. Scope and Limitation 9
H. Definition of Terms 9
II. Review of Related Literature, Theoretical Framework
And Conceptual Framework 11

A. Related Works 11
B. Theoretical Framework 13
C. Conceptual Framework 17
III. Methodology 19
1. Preparation of Material 19
2. Experimentation 22
IV. Presentation and Interpretation of Results 26
V. Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations 30
A. Summary 30
B. Conclusion 30
C. Recommendations 31
Bibliography 32

Appendices 33

4
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 13

Figure 2 14

Figure 3 15

Figure 4 16

Figure 5 17

Figure 6 19

Figure 7 20

Figure 8 20

Figure 9 21

Figure 10 21

Figure 11 21

Figure 12 22

Figure 13 23

Figure 14 23

Figure 15 23

Figure 16 24

Figure 17 24

Figure 18 24

Figure 19 26

Figure 20 28
Figure 21 29

5
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 26

Table 2 27

Table 3 29

6
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

It is important to understand how shoes are used for protecting feet from hazards and

weather, and proper fit is needed for the wearer of the shoe to optimize safety and comfort. One

way to ensure the proper fit is the shoelace, and a simple pair of laces, will make the look and fit

of a shoe all the difference in the world. The woven tape that pulls the shoe securely together and

the aglet, the hardened, taped end that fits through the eyelets on a shoe or boot, are the only two

components of a shoelace. In our lives, shoelaces have fascinating meaning. Before competitions

or other fast-moving activities, athletes are vehement about checking and double-checking

shoelaces because they slip on them or take time to retie them on the track. In the year 2000 B.C.,

ancient Mesopotamians wore plain leather pieces that fit under the foot and were attached to the

foot and ankle with rawhide laces.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Shoelaces, also called shoestrings or bootlaces, are a system commonly used to

secure shoes, boots, and other footwear. They typically consist of a pair of strings or

cords, one for each shoe, finished off at both ends with stiff sections, known as aglets. In

this study we will determine the best type of shoelace material that has the highest tensile

strength capability.

7
I.3 HYPOTHESIS

20 billion pairs of shoes are estimated to be produced annually, with about 300 million

pairs ending up in landfills after being worn. In this experiment, we will determine the highest

tensile strength that a shoelace can withstand.

I.4 RESEARCH QUESTION

1.) Which shoelace material has the greatest tensile strength?

2.) What is the average weight applied on each shoelace before they fail?

3.) What is the average ultimate tensile stress of each shoelace?

I.5 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

I.5.1 General Objective

The objective of this study is to determine the highest tensile strength that a

shoelace can withstand in order for us to choose the best shoelace material to be used

in a shoe to have a durable and secure shoelace strength when having such activities.

I.5.2 Specific Objective

-To determine which type of shoelace can support higher loads pulling on it.

-To determine the maximum tensile strength capacity of each type of shoelace

-To determine which type of shoelace has the best tensile strength quality.

-To be able design an alternative testing device for measuring the tensile

strength of a material.

8
I.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

In this study we will provide a good result so that the people who are engaged

onto demanding activities will pick the right type of shoelace to ensure security and

longevity of the shoelaces.

1.7 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

This study is only limited to three different kind of shoelaces materials namely the

cotton shoelace, rubberized shoelace and the nylon braided shoelace. The tensile strength

test is the only experiment that we are going to have.

1.8 Definition of terms

 Shoelaces - a cord or leather strip passed through eyelets or hooks on opposite

sides of a shoe and pulled tight and fastened.

 Water bucket - Water buckets used to carry water. Household and garden buckets

used for carrying liquids and granular products.

 Weighing scale - re used to measure the weight of an item. To use a scale, the

item which needs to be weighed is put on one side of the scale. Then, usually

stones are put on the other side to compare the weight of the stone with

the weight of the object you have chosen.

9
 CHPATER 2

Review of Related Works, Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

2.1. Review of Works

Strength and strengthening of materials for rope applications

Author: Pengzhu Whang

Journal: OIPEEC Conference La Rochelle

Date of Published: April 2017

A rope can be described as a tension member that combines tensile strength with flexibility.

The principal acceptance criterion of a rope is its tensile breaking force, of which rope making

material is the most important influencing factor. At present, steel wires and polymeric fibres

(both natural and synthetic) and sometimes combinations of them are used to manufacture wire

ropes, fibre ropes and hybrid ropes. This paper begins with a historical review of the

development of ropes and the alternation of the dominant role between fibre ropes and steel wire

ropes in conjunction with the evolution and improvement of tensile strength. For gauge length

from 10 to 200mm tested, the fibre filament does not follow the classical weakest link behaviour

(Schwartz et al, 1986) [16]. The authors therefore speculated that critical flaws exist in some

periodic fashion with the period being shorter than the shortest gauge length tested. This is

confirmed by Sanborn et al (2015): “the failure strength of the fibre was not dependent on the

gauge length of the sample indicating that the distribution of any critical defects in the fibre is at

an effective spacing of less than 5 mm

10
 Microstructure and tensile properties of steel wire drawing

Author: Sahib Mahdi

Journal:  International Conference Engineering Sciences

Date of Published: March 2014

Wire drawing process is one of important production processes, the process involves the

introduction piece of wire in a fixed die, may be the process through a series of sequence dies.

Where a reduction is take place in the section through each die until getting the desired wire. In

this study steel wire is drawn from initial diameter 6.5 mm ,once as if the wire as received and

other case by annealing heat treatment, at a temperature of 850 °c for one hour. In the first case

we managed to form a wire across two stages only to diameter 5 mm and 4 mm and unable for

farther reduction because the wire intermittence. In the case of annealing, it is able to make

reduction to 5 mm diameter, then to 4 mm diameter and finally to 2.85 mm diameter. The

samples were taken from all stages of wire drawing for microscopic examination of the

microstructure. From the photograph of the microstructure were calculated grains Size number

(G) using linear intercept ASTM E112. As well tensile testing, from tensile testing a work

hardening index (n) and strengthening coefficient (K) have been calculated. And also the yield

strength and elongation percent have been listed. Drawing the graphical relationships between

the tensile properties obtained with grain size number values. The results show that with the

increased of grain size number (increasing the smoothness of the grain) the elongation percent

and the work hardening index(n) both are decrease, because of the increase in the yield strength

and strengthening coefficient (K) of the wire drawn with grain structure softening.

11
 INSPECTION AND TENSILE TESTS OF SOME WORN WIRE ROPES

Authors: Walter H. Fulweiler. Ambrose H. Stang. and Leroy R. Sweetman

Journal: Part of Journal of Research of the N.ational Bureau of Standards, Volume 17

Date of Published: September 1936

In cooperation with the Special Research Committee on Wire Rope of the American Society

of Mechanical Engineers, the National Bureau of Standards tested 229 specimens taken from 79

worn wire ropes. The condition and strength of each sample were determined. The strength was

estimated using charts prepared by the Roebling Co. It was found that the estimated strength

and the actual strength were nearly the same. These data indicate that the st-ength of worn

ropes may he determined with sufficient accuracy for deciding when the rope should be replaced

by measuring the length of wear on the outside wires and counting the number of broken wires.

12
2.2. Theoretical Framework

Theoretical Framework

o Tensile Test

Figure 1. Test Specimen with

Extensometer Gauges

The most basic test in the study of stress-strain relation is the simple tensile test wherein

a cylindrical specimen of the type is shown in Fig 1 is subjected by a tensile test machine to a

force F along the centerline of the specimen. The distance L between two points on the specimen

is measured at all times by a gauge (1). Another gauge (2) meanwhile measures the diameter D

of the cylinder. As the force F is varied, we measure L and D for each setting of F. Hence, at any

setting, we have the following information:

 Actual stress (τzz)act – computed as F/Aact, where Aact is the cross-sectional area of

the cylinder found by employing the actual diameter D given by gauge.

 Engineering stress (τzz)eng – computed as F/ A0, where A0 is the initial unstrained

cross-sectional area of the cylinder.

13
  Strain εzz – computed by the ratio ⌂L/L 0, where ⌂L is found using 1 and L 0 is the

unstrained length. (Shames, 2014, p. 100)

o Stress

Figure 2.

Normal Stresses in the bar

Stress has units of force per unit area and is denoted by the Greek letter s (sigma). In

general, the stresses s acting on a plane surface may be uniform throughout the area or may vary

in intensity from one point to another. Let us assume that the stresses acting on cross section

mn(Fig. 2) are uniformly distributed over the area. Then the resultant of those stresses must be

equal to the magnitude of the stress times the cross-sectional area A of the bar, that is, P = σA.

Therefore, we obtain the following expression for the magnitude of the stresses: σ = P/A. This

equation gives the intensity of uniform stress in an axially loaded, prismatic bar of arbitrary

cross-sectional shape. When the bar is stretched by the forces P, the stresses are tensile stresses;

if the forces are reversed in direction, causing the bar to be compressed, we obtain compressive

stresses. Inasmuch as the stresses act in a direction perpendicular to the cut surface, they are

called normal stresses. Thus, normal stresses may be either tensile or compressive.

14
 o Tension

Figure 3. Tension in a String

Tension in a string is a non-negative scalar quantity. Zero tension is slack. A string or

rope is often idealized as one dimension, having length but being massless with zero cross

section. If there are no bends in the string, as occur with vibrations or pulleys, then tension is a

constant along the string, equal to the magnitude of the forces applied by the ends of the string.

By Newton's Third Law, these are the same forces exerted on the ends of the string by the

objects to which the ends are attached. If the string curves around one or more pulleys, it will

still have constant tension along its length in the idealized situation that the pulleys

are massless and frictionless. A vibrating string vibrates with a set of frequencies that depend on

the string's tension. These frequencies can be derived from Newton's laws of motion. Each

15
microscopic segment of the string pulls on and is pulled upon by its neighboring segments, with

a force equal to the tension at that position along the string. Tension = τ (x) where (x) is position

along the string.

o Shoelace

Figure 4. Tension in a String

Shoelaces, also called shoestrings (US English) or bootlaces (UK English), are a system

commonly used to secure shoes, boots, and another footwear. They typically consist of a pair

of strings or cords, one for each shoe, finished off at both ends with stiff sections, known

as aglets. Each shoelace typically passes through a series of holes, eyelets, loops or hooks on

either side of the shoe. Loosening the lacing allows the shoe to open wide enough for the foot to

be inserted or removed. Tightening the lacing and tying off the ends secures the foot firmly

within the shoe. The laces can be tied in different shapes, most commonly a simple bow.

16
2.3 Conceptual Framework

Research

Planning

Gathering and preparing of

Materials

Testing Procedures

Testing of Testing of Testing of

Material #1 Material #2 Material #3

Data Collection

Data Analysis

Conclusion

Figure 5. Conceptual Framework

17
 Figure 4 shows the step-by-step process of the researchers when conducting the research

project. The first phase shows the proponents are planning and researching on what type of shoelaces

that are to be used as specimen. The second phase shows the design of our concept and the gathering

of materials that will be used in this research by the proponents. The modification of testing equipment

will follow due to the pandemic which the university will not allow the respondents to use any testing

equipment inside the university. The testing procedure for the following material starts after

modification of the testing equipment. The test would give out results of the tensile strain and tensile

strength. The test would be done with at least five (5) trials to ensure the accuracy of the test. With the

data being gathered after the testing trails, we the proponents would then analyze the results obtained

and solve for the tensile strain and tensile strength of each trial in the 3 material. The last phase would

be the proponents forming a conclusion based on the data being collected.

18
 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

I. Preparation of materials

A. Gathering of Materials

The materials needed for this testing are the different shoelaces which are the

rubberized shoelace, nylon braided shoelace and the cotton shoelace. We will conduct a

tensile strength testing in these 3 types of shoelaces that we gathered. The basic tools that

we are going to use are the following; clamps, scissor, ruler, water bucket and a weighing

scale.

B. Standard Procedure (ASTM D2256)

ASTM D2256 is a testing standard designed to measure the tensile properties of threads

and yarns. This test method is by far the most common specification that is followed for

determining the breaking strength, elongation, and energy of threads, yarns, or other single

strand textiles.  This is a relatively simple tensile test whereby the material is pulled at a

constant rate of speed until it breaks. The specimen can be tested in three different physical

configurations: straight, knotted, or looped.

19
 Figure 6. ASTM D2266 with Pneumatic rope grips

C. Modefied Testing Procedure

a. Cut out sample pieces

 Prepare the 3 types of shoelaces.

 Measure 20 cm on each shoelace and obtain 5 pieces of cut outs and a

total of 15 specimen.

Figure 7. Measuring of the specimen.

Figure 8. Cutting of the specimen.

20
Figure 9. Elastic/Rubber Shoelace Figure 10. Braided Nylon Shoelace

Figure 11. Cotton

Shoelace

b. Experimentation

21
 1. Gather and prepare the cut-off specimen and the equipment that are

needed for testing. Since we cannot use the engineering laboratory for

the desired tensile testing, we just modified or improvised the testing

procedure. (e.g. Shoelace, Chain, Weighing Scale, Water, Water

Bucket).

2. Tie one end of the plastic sample to the chain where it is mounted to a

tree branch.

F i g u r e 1 2 a n d 1 3 .

3. Fill the water bucket with water gently.

22
 Figure 14. Water being slowly added onto the water bucket

4. Slowly add water in the water bucket until the cut breaks.

5. Repeat the test for each of the five samples.

Figure 15. Braided Nylon (Broken)

Figure 16. Cotton (Broken)

23
 Figure 17. Elastic/Rubber (Broken)

6. Make a table, in the space below, for the data collected from each of

the three samples tested.

7. Calculate the average tensile strength in grams and the average strain

from the three trials. Use the mass of the water bucket to determine

the total mass of each trial.

CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION AND INERPRETATION OF RESULTS

The data gathered by the researchers showed a significant difference in their chart load

for each shoelace.

24
Table 1.0. Load carried by the three different types of shoelaces.

(Load Carried in N)

Materials Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Average

Nylon 286.9 N 328.6 N 343.4 N 309.5 N 340.9 N 321.9 N
Cotton 199.1 N 229.1 N 218.3 N 215.8 N 212.3 N 214.9 N
Rubber 147.2 N 142.2 N 152.5 N 137.3 N 157 N 147.24 N

The equation used by the proponents for the tensile strength of the different types of

shoelace material was simply the load taken to break the shoelace in Newtons over the cross-

sectional area of the shoelace in millimeter squared.

Figure 18. Formula of tensile strength

Sample calculation:

m
Tensile strength= (
( 15 kg ) 9.81
s2 )
π (1.5 mm)2

Tensile strength =20.82 MPa

25
Table 2.0. Tensile strength of the three different types of shoelaces.

(Tensile strength in Megapascal)

Materials Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Average

Nylon 40.58 MPa 46.48 MPa 48.57 MPa 43.77 MPa 48.22 MPa 45.52 MPa
Cotton 28.16 MPa 32.4 MPa 30.88 MPa 30.52 MPa 30.03 MPa 30.4 MPa
Rubber 20.82 MPa 20.12 MPa 21.58 MPa 19.43 MPa 22.21 MPa 20.83 MPa

Table 2.0. Shows the individual tensile strength of each trial of the different types of

shoelaces in megapascal (MPa), using the tensile strength formula.

Tensile strength of the three different types of shoelace

60

50 48.57 48.22
46.48
43.77
40 40.58

32.4
30 30.88 30.52 30.03
28.16

21.58 22.21
20 20.82 20.12 19.43

10

0
trial 1 trial 2 trial 3 trial 4 trial 5

nylon cotton rubber

Figure 19. Line graph representation of table 2.0

Figure 19. Shows the line graph of the individual tensile strength of each trial with the three

different types of shoelaces in megapascal (MPa), using the tensile strength formula. Five (5)

specimens for each type were provided by the researchers in order to have accurate results. The

cross-sectional area was at a constant 7.07 mm² for the specimen used.

26
 Table 3. Shows the average tensile strength of each trial of the different types of

shoelaces in megapascal (MPa), using the tensile strength formula.

Average tensile strength of three different types of shoelcaces in MPa

50
45.52
45

40

35
30.4
30

25
20.83
20

15

10

5
0 0 0
0

Cotton Nylon Rubber

Figure 20. Average tensile strength of the three different types of shoelaces.

27
 CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATION

A. Summary
In summary, the proponents conducted an investigation on the tensile strength of different

types of shoelaces which are the following; cotton shoelace, nylon shoelace and lastly the

rubberized shoelace. In this experiment our objective is to choose the best type of shoelaces that

can withstand a high amount of tensile strength so that consumers will have an idea to buy the

right type of shoelaces in day-to-day activities. The proponents customized their testing

procedure with the use of simple tools such as the rubber tube tire cut-outs, water bucket and a

weighing scale. The values obtained from the experiment was the load taken to break the

shoelaces. The average weight of the cotton shoelace is 214.9 N, for the nylon shoelace it has

and average weight of 321.9 N and lastly the rubberized shoelace’s average weight is 147.24 N.

The average ultimate tensile strength of cotton shoelace is 30.4 MPa, for the nylon braided

shoelace has 45.52 MPa and lastly for the rubberized shoelace has 20.83 MPa. When comparing

these three types of shoelaces we the braided nylon shoelace has the greatest tensile strength.

28
 B. Conclusion

Based on the results that we obtained from the experiment, we concluded that the nylon

braided shoelace has the greatest amount of tensile strength that can withstand and recommend to

the consumers to choose this type of shoelace.

C. Recommendation

For the future researchers who are interested in improving this project, the proponents

recommend to use a testing machine that gathers data more accurately and is safer to use. The

proponents also recommend to test more types of shoelaces that are available in the market not

just for day-to-day activities but also in the field of sports. In addition, the proponents also

recommend the inclusion of strain test or each shoelace used for better results in the experiment.

29
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320271403_Strength_and_strengthening_of_m

aterials_for_rope_applications

 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329935821_Microstructure_and_tensile_proper

ties_of_steel_wire_drawing

 https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/jres/17/jresv17n3p401_A1b.pdf

30
 APPENDICES

Figure 1. Test

Specimen with Extensometer Gauges

Figure 2. Normal

Stresses in the bar

31
 Figure 3. Tension in a String

Figure 4. Tension in a String

Research

Planning

Gathering and preparing of

Materials

Testing Procedures

Testing of Testing of Testing of

Material #1 Material #2
32 Material #3
 Data Collection

Data Analysis

Conclusion
Figure 5. Conceptual Framework

Figure 6. ASTM

D2266 with Pneumatic rope grips

33
Figure 7. Measuring of the specimen. Figure 8. Cutting of the specimen.

Figure 9. Elastic/Rubber Shoelace

Figure 10. Braided Nylon Shoelace

34
 Figure 11. Cotton Shoelace Figure 12. C-clamp being attached to a steel

pipe as the fixed body.

Figure 13 and 14. Sample

specimen being attached to the modified testing equipment.

35
Figure 15. Water being added into the bucket.

Figure

16. Braided Nylon (Broken) Figure 17. Cotton (Broken)

36
 Figure 18. Elastic/Rubber (Broken)

Figure 19. Formula of tensile strength

Tensile strength of the three different types of shoelace

60 Figure 20.
50 48.57 48.22Line graph
46.48
43.77
40 40.58
32.4 30.88 30.52
representation of table
30 28.16 30.03
21.58 22.21
20 20.82 20.12 19.43 2.0
10

0
trial 1 trial 2 trial 3 trial 4
Average tensiletrial 5
strength of three different types of
nylon cotton shoelcaces in MPa
rubber

50 45.52
40
30.4
30
20.83
20
10
0 0 0
0

Cotton Nylon Rubber

37
Figure 21. Average tensile strength of the three different types of shoelaces.

38