REVIEWER IN ETHICS ◦ Ethical Subjectivism / Personalism–
truth or falsity of ethical propositions
BASIC THEORIES AS FRAMEWORKS IN ETHICS
Framework?
 Framework can be defined as a basic
structure underlying a system or concept.
 Framework in Ethics refers to “a set of
assumptions, concepts, values and practices
that constitute a way of viewing reality”.
So, this means that…
This means that…in Ethics…
 Personally, held frameworks, theories or
principles in Ethics dictate one’s moral
disposition or a way/avenue a person
resolves moral dilemmas.
 Importance: it is important to
LEARN/UNDERSTAND the basic moral
theories held by YOU and many people .
The study of morality is divided into 3
general subject areas…
1. META-ETHICS
 It is a branch of ethics that studies the
nature of morality.
 It talks about the meaning, reference and
truth values of moral judgments.
 It explains what goodness and wickedness
mean.
 It studies the meaning of ethical language
and the metaphysics of moral truths.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF META-ETHICS
1. COGNITIVISM VS. NON-COGNITIVISM
 Cognitivism – moral judgments convey
propositions. Hence, right and wrong are
matters of FACT/REAL.
◦ Moral Realism / Objectivism / Absolute –
existence of moral facts and truth or falsity
of ethical propositions are independent of
people’s thoughts and perceptions.
are dependent on the attitudes or
standards of a person or group of
persons.
 Non-Cognitivism – denies that moral
judgments are either true or false.
Ethical propositions do not convey
authentic statements hence are
neither true nor false.
◦ Emotivism – moral judgments are mere
expressions of our emotions and
feelings.
2. UNIVERSALISM VS. RELATIVISM
 Moral Universalism – theorizes that
moral facts and principles apply to
everybody/everyone in all places.
 Moral Relativism – theorizes that
different moral facts and principles
apply to different persons or group of
individuals.
3. EMPIRICISM VS. RATIONALISM VS.
INTUITIONALISM
 Moral Empiricism – moral facts are
known through observation and
sense-experience. a posteriori
 Moral Rationalism – contends that
moral facts and principles are
knowable a priori, that is, by pure
reason alone and without reference
to experience. (Mathematical
equation/formula, Numbers,
Cosmology/Metaphysic, Quantum
theory, Theory of Relativity)
 Moral Intuitionalism – moral truths
are knowable by intuition, insight, or
gut-feeling that is, by immediate
instinctive knowledge without
reference to any evidence
 2. NORMATIVE ETHICS
 A branch of Ethics that studies how
human being OUGHT TO ACT morally.
 Evaluates standards for the rightness
and wrongness of actions and
determines a moral course of action.
 It is prescriptive in nature wherein it
addresses specific moral questions
about what we should do or believe.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF NORMATIVE ETHICS
a. Virtue ethics (Aristotle/ St. Thomas)
b. Deontology (Immanuel Kant)
c. Teology (Mill/ Bentham)
 “Deon”tology – an ethical system that
bases morality on independent moral
rules or duties. Also called non-
consequentialism.
 “Teleo”logy – (telos) an ethical system
that determines the moral value of
actions by their end, outcomes or
results. Also called consequentialism.
 Virtue Ethics – an ethical system that
places emphasis on developing good
habits of character
(virtue/”arete”)and avoiding bad
character traits.
3. APPLIED ETHICS
 Philosophically examines specific
application, practical and
controversial moral issues.
 Attempts to determine
(philosophically) the ethically correct
course of action in specific realms of
human action.
Subfields of Applied Ethics:
1. Bioethics
2. Environmental Ethics
3. Business Ethics
4. Sexual Ethics
5. Social Ethics
 Bioethics – concerning ethical issues
pertaining to life, biomedical
researches, medicines, health care
and medical profession.
 Environmental Ethics – concerning
nature, ecosystem, and its nonhuman
contents.
 Business Ethics – concerning business
environment which involves issues
about corporate malpractices,
policies, business behaviors, and the
conducts and relationships of
individuals in organization.
 Sexual Ethics – about sexuality, sexual
act, and human sexual behavior,
Genital mutilation, etc.
 Social Ethics – deals with what is right
for a society to do and how it should
act as a whole.
VIRTUE ETHICS
 Introduction
Greek Great Thinkers/Triumvirate: Socrates,
Plato, Aristotle...
Introduction
 Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and Aquinas.
 Virtue Ethics said to have started with
these three great Greek philosophers.
 Thomas Aquinas (of the Medieval Era)
enhanced and “Christianized” the
Greek Virtue Ethics.
 We will discuss Virtue Ethics from
these philosophers’ views.
 Primordial Question: What kind of
person should I be?
Virtue Ethics (definition)
 A moral philosophy that teaches that
an action is right if it is an action that
a virtuous person (virtue) would
perform in the same situations. In the
same manner, a wrong action is the
simply the opposite of what a virtuous
person in doing. (vice)
 Developing one’s moral
capacity/character to the fullest is
pursuing ethical/moral excellence,
which is displayed by the virtues.
 The person/agent’s moral character is
the ultimate measurement of what is
right or wrong.
 Character/virtue-based Ethics.
resemblance to, or participation in,
this universal FORM of IDEA.
 In analogy, there is also a FORM even
for MORAL predicates.
 The highest of all forms is the form of
the GOOD.
 Bad actions are performed
out of NOT knowing the
GOOD.
 Virtue therefore is regarded as
knowledge and can be taught – to
know the good means to do the
good.
 Rational Idealism of Socrates and
Plato

 Ignorance = doing something

 The ancient Greeks list four
evil/leads to vice!
“CARDINAL VIRTUES”:
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
 Wisdom
 Generally, his ethical system is
 Courage
characterized into
 Moderation
3 fundamental concepts:
 Justice
a. His ethical system is “self-
 Christians also have Theological realizationism/actualizationism”
virtues - faith, hope, charity and love. wherein someone acts in line with
his/her nature/essence or end/goal
 Moral virtues - They are prudence, (“telos”).
temperance, fortitude, and justice. 
b. His view is
 Others also suggest grace, mercy, “eudaimonia/eudaimonistic” wherein
forgiveness, honor, restraint, it focuses on happiness/flourishing,
solidarity. as good, and how to obtain it.
Socrates and Plato’s Virtue Ethics c. His philosophy is “arete/aretaic” or
 Socrates believed in the existence of virtue-based.
objective ethical standards though he d. Empiricist – sense - experience
admitted that it is not that easy to
specify them. Aristotle’s “Telos”

 Plato adheres to his “theory of  It is the end or goal or purpose.

forms/world of ideas” …  For us persons, there are different
 That everything in the material world ends or goals.
is what it is by virtue of its
  Every person seeks for b. Practical intellect, ethical
happiness/goodness: some seek for it wisdom
in pleasure, wealth, power, prestige,
 Speculative Intellect or Reason
etc.
a. Act of Contemplation
 Hierarchical Goal/Ends/Needs
b. capability of intuition of the
 Sample: Abraham Maslow’s concept
most fundamental principles,
 We must seek for the TRUE and Science, and philosophia
ULTIMATE END OR GOAL.
 Practical Intellect or Reason

a. Life of Moral/Ethical Virtue

within the Community/polis

Happiness and Virtue

 Self-realization is the ultimate human

goal which entails achieving one’s
natural purpose by functioning or
living consistently with human
nature.

 Three natures/essence of man:

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
The ergon of Man
 Aristotle asks what
the ergon (“function”, “task”, “work”)
of a human being is, and argues that it
consists in activity of the rational part
of the soul in accordance with virtue
 proper function or purpose in order to
attain the true and ultimate end –
Highest end – highest good/happiness
 requires knowing and understanding
what is man/woman
 Essence of Man/Woman?
What is man?
a. Rational-Intellect
b. Animal-Instinctive
c. Vegetative - Nutritive
 Accomplishing it leads to “goodness”.
 Ethics for Aristotle is the inquiry into
the human good.
 This human good is eudaimonia or
happiness / flourishing (the ultimate
end which all human beings want).
 In other words, happiness is the
summum bonum (the
greatest/ultimate good) of all human
life.

 Body and Soul Virtue as Habit

 The SOUL has two parts: RATIONAL  Happiness for Aristotle is understood
and IRRATIONAL in the sense of human flourishing –
attained by the habitual practice of
The Rational soul: moral and intellectual virtues.
a. Speculative intellect, pure
thought
 Virtue manifests itself in action and in
a stable equilibrium/balance with the
soul (character).
Virtues and the Golden Mean
 Two kinds of virtue
a. Intellectual virtue: the virtue
of knowledge or
understanding (the rational
part of the soul - intellect)
intellectual excellence
b. Practical virtue: the virtue of
action and feeling (moral
virtue) – ethical or moral
excellence
 Virtues are not innate. They are habits
(learned/acquired).
 Virtue lies neither in the vice of
deficiency nor in the vice of excess
but in the middle ground.
 In other words, moral virtue is the
golden mean/path between the two
less desirable extremes.
Examples
 Courage is the mean between
recklessness and cowardice
 Self-control/temperance is the mean
between self-indulgence and being
“insensible”
 Generosity is the mean between
extravagance and stinginess
Four basic moral virtues
 Courage
 Temperance
 Justice
 Prudence
 In using the golden mean to become
virtuous, we must recognize not only
that the mean is neither too much nor
too little, but also relative to us as
moral agents.
a. The “right amount” differs
from person to person.
 Aristotle teaches about PHRONESIS,
the intellectual virtue of practical
wisdom.
Phronesis
 Or practical wisdom is a grasp of the
appropriate way to respond, to feel
and act, in a particular situation.
a. Examples are the application of “right
amount” – prudence/temperance/self-
control
Conclusion
 a morally virtuous man/woman is
someone who constantly and
habitually acts according to moral
virtue and practical wisdom, ideally
exhibiting a lifetime of rational living
and avoidance of vice, thereby
achieving self-realization and thus
realizing happiness and human good.
AQUINAS AND THE NATURAL LAW
VIRTUE ETHICS
Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274)
 Aquinas was dubbed “the dumb
Sililian ox” by his fellow students, for
being large and quiet. He was
apparently quiet because he was busy
thinking; he became the Catholic
Church’s top theologian and
philosopher, a title he still holds
today, without dispute.
Who is he?
  Aquinas was a Catholic priest in the  Notion of “Summum Bonum”
Dominican Order and one of the most (naturalistic and supernatural –
important Medieval philosophers and Christianized)
theologians.
And…
 Famously known as the “Angelic
 The blend of Aristotle’s teachings and
Doctor”
Christianity is also evident in Aquinas’s
 He was immensely influenced by views about right and wrong and about
scholasticism and Aristotle and known how one comes to know the difference
for his synthesis of the two. between the two…

Most Influential Work  …the NATURAL LAW ETHICS.

 Aquinas’s most influential work, the AQUINAS’ PHILOSOPHY OF NATURAL

Summa Theologica, is divided into 4
parts.
o Prima Pars (1st Part) Existence
and Nature of God
o Prima Secundae (1st Part of
the 2nd Part) Happiness,
Psychology, Virtues, Law
(Human, Natural, Divine)
o Secunda Secundae (2nd Part of
the 2nd Part) The virtues in
detail
o Tertia Pars (3rd Part) Christian
Doctrine
AQUINAS AND ARISTOTLE
ARISTOTLE
 Every person seeks for happiness
 Happiness is closely connected with our
For Aquinas, morality is:
end or purpose.
LAW
 Based on Two Fundamental
authorities:
a. The Bible
b. Aristotle
 Aquinas rejected Plato’s idea of the
physical world being unimportant and
shadowy – purely idealism
 Instead, he followed Aristotle who
claimed that the world is real and
important. – sense perception /
empirical world
 In his work Summa Theologica,
Aquinas described natural law as a
moral code existing within the
purpose of nature, created by God.
 Natural Law = “God’s order set
within the parameters of the
universe”

 Notion of “Ultimate End” (naturalistic) ACCESSIBLE UNIVERSAL/ UNCHANGING

THROUGH AND FOR ALL
 …and many others RELEVANT TO
THE TIME
ALL
NATURAL
AQUINAS SITUATIONS
ORDER
 He considers ethics (means) as a quest
for happiness. GIVEN BY ACCESSIBLE WHETHER OR
GOD TO ALL… NOT THEY
 To achieve happiness, we must fulfill our
BELIEVE IN GOD
purpose.

Aquinas’ Basic Moral Law:

  “Good is to be done and pursued…and
evil is to be avoided.
 All the other precepts of the law of
nature are based on this.”
 Aquinas’ message:
DO GOOD AND AVOID EVIL
How can we know natural law?
1. Through Revelation/Sacred Scripture:
e.g. Paul’s Letter to the Romans. Paul asks
why Gentiles obey laws from the Torah, when
they’ve never heard of it.
God gave us two laws:
i. the Torah for Jews;
ii. Natural Law for Gentiles.
2. Through Human Reason/Intelligence:
a moral life is a life lived according to reason.
An immoral life is one lived at odds with
reason.
Reason tells us that the ultimate purpose
or telos of human life = fellowship with God.
(Beatific Vision of God)
Romans 2. 14-15:
 “When Gentiles, who do not possess the
law, do instinctively what the law requires,
these, though not having the law, are a
law to themselves. They show that what
the law requires is written on their hearts,
to which their conscience (little voice of
God) also bears witness.”
o Humans have the natural inclination to
do GOOD. The faculty of moral insight
(conscience) according to Thomas is
called SYNDERESIS.
Aquinas’ ideas of purpose and perfection
1. The perfection of creation
CREATION MUST BE GOOD BECAUSE GOD
CANNOT CREATE ANYTHING CONTRARY TO
HIS NATURE
God = Creator
God = changeless and consistent, Infinite
God = Good
 Natural law regulates everything in
creation, and so reveals God’s nature.
Therefore…
 FOLLOWING NATURAL LAW IS THE
WAY HUMANS CAN SHARE IN GOD’S
ETERNAL NATURE.
Aquinas’ ideas of purpose and perfection
oPrimary and secondary precepts
 Aquinas agreed with Aristotle that
eudaimonia is our natural telos.
 Then he added a moral/ethical
dimension – happiness can only be
achieved by pursuing certain good
actions.
 He also believed that eudemonia =
achieving union with God.
 In order to achieve eudaimonia,
Aquinas said that humans must follow
certain natural laws or precepts.
 The most important of these is SELF-
PRESERVATION
 Primary precepts are required to
ensure self-preservation:
a. Reproduction
b. Education
c. Peaceful Living in Society
d. Worship God
 Secondary precepts set out the way in
which the primary precepts can be
put into practice.
  Reason identifies 4 natural or
cardinal/moral virtues: Prudence ,
AQUINAS’ TYPES OF LAW
Temperance , Fortitude and Justice
Natural law is not the only law – according to
Theological Virtues: faith, hope,
Aquinas, there are four kinds:
charity and love
1. Eternal – law refers to the rational and
 Aquinas also identified 7 vices or
eternal plan of God by which all creation is
cardinal sins which lead people away
ordered. e.g. Laws in Heaven, Hell or
from Natural Law.
Purgatory, Earth, etc.
 PRIDE
2. Natural – eternal law which is accessible to
human reason. e. g. Law of Gravity  AVARICE

3. Divine – Law of revelation, disclosed  LUST

through sacred text or scriptures and the
 ENVY
Church. e. g. Ten Commandments
 GLUTTONY
4. Human – refers to the positive laws. e. g. !
987 Philippine Constitution  ANGER

 SLOTH

Real Goods and Apparent Goods  Develop the virtues.

Aquinas believed that:  Eliminate the vices.

 Requires habitual practice.

 Virtues should become habitual.

FEATURES OF HUMAN ACTS

 Species – the object of the action. The

kind of action.

 Accidents – circumstances
surrounding the action.

 A real good is something that  End – agent’s intention.

is good according to natural law
 Aquinas states that for an action to be
(correctly reasoned goods that help the
moral, the kind it belongs to must not
moral agent achieve their telos).
be bad, the circumstances must be
appropriate, and the intention must
 An apparent good is a mistake, and it
be virtuous.
diminishes a person's human nature
(wrongly reasoned goods that don't help HUMAN ACTS VS ACTS OF MAN
the moral agent achieve their God given
 3 Elements of Human Act –
purpose).
Knowledge, Freewill and Consent, and
Voluntariness
  Acts of Man – An act that is not - Today Königsberg has been renamed
proper to man as a rational being is Kaliningrad and is part of Russia.
called Act of Man. Example eating,
hearing, tasting, smelling, etc.
example: exercise to be physically fit, Works
etc… Acts of man- instinctive;
physiological. Passion, habit, etc. -Autonomy of the Will and Deontological
Theory
EXTERIOR AND INTERIOR ACTS
-Moral Duty and Categorical Imperative
 For Aquinas, both the intention and
the act are important…

 To act in a good way for the wrong Introduction

reason is to perform a good exterior  Kant categorically rejects that ethical
act but a bad interior act and so is the judgments are based on
vice versa. feelings/emotions.
Example 1:  For him, human feelings and emotions
 I help an old lady across the road. even serve as
(good) obstructions/impediments/hindrance to
our discernment of right or wrong.
 I do it to impress someone. (bad)
 His ethical theory bases moral judgments
 Example 2 on pure reason alone/Absolute
 I steal money. Rationalism.

 I give the money to a friend in need.
 According to Aquinas, the theft of the
money is not made good by my
intention to help my friend.
 Acts are intrinsically good or evil .
 The end does not justify the means
(Aristotle)
 When humans act in accordance with
their telos/end (to do good and avoid
evil), then God is glorified.
 Reason, for him, “is what deems an
action ethical or otherwise”.
1. Good Will
Kant believes that one of the functions and
capacities of our reason is to produce a Will
which is Good not as a means to some further
end, but good in itself. (Intrinsic Value)
Good will is:
- The highest good(from Highest
Intelligence/Reason) Abstraction

- The highest condition of all goods within the

IMMANUEL KANT and the RIGHTS THEORY
Categorical Imperative
 KANTIAN ETHICS
IMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804)
- Born April 22, 1724 in Königsberg, near the
southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea.
will (Supreme Being)
- Kant disagrees with happiness as the
summum bonum.
- Happiness for Kant can be corrupting and
may be worthless or even positively evil
WHEN NOT combined with Good Will.
Who is a person with “good will”
A person with goodwill (or a good person) is
person who acts from a sense of duty even in
the face of difficulty.
A moral act must be:
 An act of a free agent
 An act done NOT from inclination/
disposition (from pure reason alone)
 An act done from sense of duty
Inclination vs. Duty
 Inclination refers to the
feeling/emotions that pushes us to
select a particular option or make a
particular decision.
 Duty (or Obligation) is that which we
OUGHT to do despite our inclination
to do otherwise.
Duty (deon)
 Acts done “from the motive” of duty
 Acts done “in accordance” with duty
Examples of acts done in accordance
with duty:
◦Respecting one’s parents for obedience
of custom
◦Paying one’s debt for being sued
◦Displaying honesty for an award
◦Helping others because it is pleasing to
do so
◦Taking care of children because one is
tender to do so
 Acting morally entails acting “from
the motive” of duty regardless of
consequences that doing so or not
doing so will bring.
***It is only when we recognize that we
ought to do an act because it is our duty,
understand the nature of this duty, and
act upon it = means to perform an
authentic moral act.
Maxim/Rules/Regulations/Principles
Can a person know what his duty is in a
given situation?
Is there a test to find out what one’s duty
is in a particular set of circumstances?
*** as rational beings, it is our duty to act
on principle or maxim and not simply on
impulse.
Categorical Imperative
What is a maxim?
- it is a general rule or principle which
serves as a guide to action.
Examples:
Be honest always.
Do not shoot the ball when you get it
Don’t wear the wedding gown before
wedding
Kant’s Two (2) Classes of Maxims:
◦HYPOTHETICAL maxim (imperative)
◦CATEGORICAL maxim (imperative)
◦Hypothetical imperatives
– are being true only under some
conditions, and therefore not universally
valid.
- contingent (conditional) and derivative
- example: If you wish to pass the exam,
then study hard.
Categorical imperatives – command a
person to act in particular ways regardless
of what goals one looks for or what the
end may be. (Non-conditional)
◦Categorical = EXCEPTIONLESS
(binding on all persons, in all
circumstances/events, at all times, in all
places)
= UNIVERSALIZABILITY
“Act only on that maxim through which
you can at the same time will that it
should become a universal law”
◦UNIVERSALIZABILITY = “how would this
action appear if it were to become a
universal rule?”
◦Categorical = END IN ITSELF
“Act as to use humanity, both in your own
person and in the person of every other,
always at the same time as an end, never
simply as means.”
Moral Standards for Kant
1.Human being must act as if the principles
of his actions are UNIVERSAL in nature.
2.The individual must always treat other
individuals as an END ITSELF.
***Can I rationally will everyone to act as I
propose to act?
***Does my action respect the goals of
human beings rather than merely using
them for my own purposes?
4 Formulations of Categorical
Imperative:
1.Universalizability means that a moral act is
unconditional in nature – any act must be
morally justifiable in all places at all times,
universality means that when put in the same
situation, any individual would act in the same
manner.
2.The idea that the human being is an End in
Itself (Humanity) emanates from the fact that
each person has dignity and that each human
person is inviolable.
3. Autonomy “The idea of the will of every
rational being as a will that legislates universal
law.”- laws are of our own making.
Autonomy - our status as independent/free
moral agents is the source of our dignity and
worth- we are “moral beings above all.”
4. Kingdom of Ends “Act in accordance with
the maxims of a member giving universal laws
for a merely possible kingdom of ends.”
Our moral obligation is to act only on
principles which could earn the acceptance of
a community of fully rational agents each of
whom has an equal share in legislating
principles for the community.
RIGHTS THEORY
Principle of Rights Theory
 The notion that in order for a society to
be efficacious, “government must
approach the making and enforcement of
laws with the right intentions in respect
to the end goals of the society that it
governs.”
 “Members of the society agree to give
up some freedoms for the protection
enjoyed by organized society, but
governments cannot invade upon the
rights that citizens have been promised.
 When applied to war, rights theory
states that in order for a war to be
deemed morally justifiable, the intention
of entering into war ought to be right in
relation to human rights.
 For Kant, the reasoning of our actions
together with the outcome are equally
significant.
 If the intent is evil, then the outcome, IN
ALL LIKELIHOOD, is evil as well.
Rights Based Ethics
 There are some rights, positive and
negative, that all humans have based
only on the fact that they are human.
These rights are NATURAL
CONVENTIONAL.
 Natural – rights that are moral
 Conventional – rights that are created
by humans and reflect society’s
values.
Rights Based Ethics System (examples)
 Right to Life
 Right to Liberty
 Right to pursue happiness
 Right to jury trial
 Right to a lawyer
 Right to practice a religious choice
(Universal Declaration of Human Rights)
Legal vs. Moral Rights
Legal Rights – all the rights found within
existing legal codes.
◦These enjoy the recognition
protection of the law.
◦Questions can be resolved by referring to
the legal instrument or piece of
legislation.
◦Limited validity set by jurisdiction by the
body which passed its legislation.
Moral Rights – exist prior to and
independently from their legal
counterparts.
◦The existence and validity of a moral
right is not dependent on jurists and
legislators.
◦Cannot be reduced to and exclusively
identified to legal rights.
and
◦Universal even though it is not
recognized legally by all places.
UTILITARIANISM (Consequentialism)
Proponents:
EPICURUS
Jeremy Bentham
John Stuart-mill
The Utilitarian Tradition
Etymology:
UtilitarianISM = “Theory of Usefulness”
= from the Latin word/s: “Utilis” or “utile
bonum”.
“Utilis” – means ‘useful’ or usefulness’
“utile bonum” – means ‘good use’
e.g. “A good ballpen is something I can
use, if not then it is useless.”
and “Bakit ko isusulat yan, eh hindi naman
lalabas sa exam…”
What is USEFUL IS GOOD – the morality of
actions are determined by the utility of its
consequences.
2 Principles of Utilitarianism
1. Act Utilitarianism – the principle of
utility is applied directly to every
alternative act in a situation of choice.
◦The right act = the one which brings
about the best results or the least amount
of bad results. Individual act of a person.
2. Rule Utilitarianism – the principle of
utility is used to decide the validity of
rules of conduct (moral standards).
◦Moral or immoral are defined as
following or breaking the rules.
Proponents of Utilitarianism
a. Epicurus = Ancient Greek Philosopher.
= Samos, Asia Minor in 341 (Died: 270)
Philosophical Theory: Atomistic
Materialism
- states that the universe is composed of
(tiny) matter (atom) moving in empty
space.
Ethical Theory: Hedonism (Hedonistic)
a. Egoistic Hedonist
- the belief that one ought to be
primarily or solely concerned about his
own pleasures to the deprivation of
others.
b. Act Utilitarian (GG)
- “An act is right if and only if it results
in as much good as any available
alternative.”
Jeremy Bentham
- For him, the principle of utility states
that an action is right insofar as it tends to
produce the greatest happiness for the
greatest number.
- Regarded as a quantitative hedonist
creating the “Hedonistic Calculus” to
calculate the quantitative worth of
pleasures…

- Pleasure is the only good in life. It is the

beginning and end of the blessed life.
Hedonic or Hedonistic Calculus:
Kinds of Hedonism:
Formula: { N [ C (I × D) ]  +   Nf  [ Cf  ( If  ×
A. Ethical Hedonism – act to produce the Df ) ] }
greatest pleasure.
 Intensity (I)--How intense is the
B. Psychological Hedonism – pleasure or pain?
physiologically to pursue pleasure and
 Duration (D)--How long does the
avoid pain.
pleasure of pain last?
 Certainty (C)--What is the probability
b. Jeremy Bentham = British Philosopher. that the pleasure or pain will occur?

= 15 February 1748, London, England  Propinquity (N)-- (nearness or

remoteness) How far off in the future
Philosophical Tradition: Political, Legal,
is the pleasure or pain?
and Moral Philosophy
 Fecundity (F)--What is the probability
-e.g. Reform Bill of 1832 – Aristocracy
that the pleasure will lead to other
to Urban bourgeoisie
pleasures?
Ethical Theory:
 Purity (P)--What is the probability that
- PLEASURE the pain will lead to other pains?
 Extent (E)--How many persons are
affected by the pleasure?
c. John Stuart-Mill = British Philosopher.
= 20 May 1806, London, England
Philosophical Tradition: Political
Moral Philosophy
Ethical Theories:
PLEASURE
a. Universalistic or Altruistic Hedonist
- the belief that we ought to sacrifice
personal happiness in order to bring any
increase of happiness to others. 
b. Rule Utilitarian (GNofP)
- “An act is right if and only if it is
required by a rule that is itself a member
of a set of rules whose acceptance would
lead to greater utility for society than any
available alternative.”
Difference with Bentham’s Utilitarianism:
1. Stuart-Mill rejects purely quantitative
treatment of the principle of utility.
2. Stuart-Mill introduces the theory of
Rule Utilitarianism
Two types of Pleasures:
1. Higher pleasures – intellectual (artistic,
political, spiritual)
2. Lower pleasures – same with the
animals (food, drink, sex)
c. John Stuart-Mill
 Thus, Stuart-Mill denies that
happiness is not just the physical
pleasure and the absence of pain.
 Stuart-Mill is considered a Qualitative
Hedonist because for him, happiness
that is made up of higher pleasures is
higher, deeper, truer and more
valuable form of happiness.
 Utilitarianism is, broadly speaking, an
ethical theory which focuses on the
and
“outcome of an act” in order to
determine whether it is Good or Not.
 And so… one can say that an ACT IS
GOOD OR BAD according to its EFFECT
or if GOOD THINGS HAPPEN as a
result of doing something.
 In Tagalog… “May mabuti bang
kinahinatnan?”
 “May mapapala ba ako dyan?”
Utilitarianism is, broadly speaking, an
ethical theory which focuses on the
“outcome of an act” in order to determine
whether it is good or not.
Two Theses/Propositions/Premises:
1.Value Theory
-Seek maximum value of an
action
2. Theory of RIGHT ACTION
- Seek maximum happiness of an action
- Utilitarianism tells us to maximize the
overall good or to produce the greatest
good for the greatest number (of People).
Two Elements:
a. The Greatest Good Least Pain that my
action can bring– Principle of Utility
(Bentham)
b. The Greatest Number of Persons who The Principle of Justice
will be affected by the action – Happiness
“Equals should be treated equally and
Principle (Stuart-Mill)
unequals unequally.”
Utilitarianism tells us to maximize the
-Aristotle
overall good or to produce the greatest
good for the greatest number (of People).
Simply said… Categories of Justice
If the action makes good 1.Compensatory Justice
results/happiness for the greatest number
2.Retributive Justice
of persons, then…
3.Distributive Justice
The action is ETHICAL!
Compensatory Justice
Example…
•Concerns the just way in compensating
Did the Intramural/Foundation Day make
someone for a past injustice or what
good results?
he/she lost when wronged by others.
Did the Intramural/Foundation Day make
Retributive Justice
good results for the greatest number of
PSUNIANS? •It consists in the just imposition of
punishment and penalties on those who
If yes! .then action/event is ETHICALLY
do wrong. This is related to procedural
Acceptable!
justice, referring to fair decision
Core of UTILITARIANISM procedures, parties, & agreements.
“an action is good if it results in maximum Distributive Justice
satisfaction for a large number of
•It involves the just allocation of goods or
people who are likely to get affected by
fair distribution of benefits and burdens.
the action. “
•When issues concerning the common
The ultimate moral principle: Principle of
good are at stake, distributive justice
Utility
comes into play.
“The right thing to do, in any situation, is
•Ex: Sales persons A and B have the same
whatever would produce the best overall
job positions but at the end of the year,
outcome for all those who will be affected
person A sold more than B, therefore A
by your action.”
gets the merit increase or promotion.
Types of Distributive Justice
JUSTICE and FAIRNESS (John Rawls)
•Equity – member’s outcomes should be
Justice & Fairness: Concept
based on their inputs.
•Traditional Concept
•Equality – regardless of inputs, all group
“Justice means giving each person members should be given equal share of
what he or she deserves, or what is due.” the rewards/cost.
•Power – Those with more authority, freedom and see this as justifying strong
status, or control over the group should protections for individual freedom.
receive more than those in lower level
5. Justice as Fairness: John Rawls
positions.
•Need – those in greatest needs should
be provided with resources needed to Justice as Equality: Egalitarianism
meet those needs.
 For egalitarians, no relevant
•Responsibility – members who have the differences among the people can
most should share their resources with justify unequal treatment.
those who have less.
 “Every person should be given exactly
Theories of Distributive Justice equal shares of a society’s or a
group’s benefits and burdens.”
1. Justice as Equality among people:
Egalitarianism  Criticism: No equality in human
beings. Human beings differ in
a belief in human equality especially with
abilities, intelligence, virtues, needs,
respect to social, political, and economic
desires, and other physical and
affairs
mental characteristics.
2. Justice Based on Contribution:
Justice Based Contribution: Capitalist
Capitalist Justice
Justice
(Laissez-faire capitalist) - a doctrine
 “Benefits should be distributed
opposing governmental interference in
according to the value of the
economic affairs beyond the minimum
contribution the individual makes to a
necessary for the maintenance of peace
society, a task, a group, or an
and property rights
exchange”.
3. Justice Based on Needs and Abilities:
Justice Based on Needs and Abilities:
Socialism –
Socialism
•theory or system of social organization
 “Work burdens should be distributed
that advocates the ownership and control
according to people's abilities, and
of the means of production and
benefits should be distributed
distribution, capital, land, etc., by the
according to people’s needs.
community as a whole, usually through a
centralized government.  Criticism: There would be no relation
between amount of effort of worker
•(in Marxist theory) the stage following
and amount of remuneration worker
capitalism in the transition of a society to
receives. Consequently, no incentive
communism, characterized by the
for worker to work harder knowing he
imperfect implementation of collectivist
will receive the same.
principles.
Justice as Freedom: Libertarianism
4. Justice as Freedom: Libertarianism -
Libertarians strongly value individual  Robert Nozick:
 “From each according to what he
chooses to do, to each according to
what he makes for himself (perhaps
with contracted aids of others) and
what others choose to do for him and
choose to give him of what they’ve
been given previously and haven’t yet
expended or transferred.
 Criticism:
 Libertarian principle will generate
unjust treatment of the
disadvantaged.
 People, through no fault of their own,
should not be made to depend on
outside chances that others will
provide for their need of survival.
Justice as Fairness: John Rawls
Rawl’s theory: a fair method of resolving
conflicts involving justice.
•Each person is to have an equal right to
the most extensive total system of equal
basic liberties compatible with a similar
system of liberty for all especially in a
political institution.
•Social and economic inequalities are to
be arranged so that they are both
•to the greatest benefit of the least
advantaged, consistent with the just
savings principle, and
•attached to offices and positions open to
all under conditions of fair equality of
opportunity.
Rawl’s Two Principles
•Liberty Principle (First principle) –
concerns all political institutions.
•Everybody has the same basic liberties
which can never be taken away.
•Fair Equality of Opportunity and
Difference Principle (Second Principle) –
concerns social and economic institutions.
•Opportunities must be open to
everybody.
•All social and economic differences
should work for the good of the least
favored.
Inclusive Growth
•the economic growth that creates
opportunity for all segments of the
population and distributes the dividends
of increase prosperity fairly across society.
•Example:
Taxation and social welfare programs
ETHICS THROUGH THICK AND THIN, AND
ETHICS AND RELIGION
 According to Mariano, globalization
can be defined as “the continuing
world-wide economic integration,
recently facilitated by emerging
information technologies, that has
also affected the environment,
culture, and politics of different
groups of people” (Mariano, 2016).
 Today, there are a variety of
technological and other
advancements that enable cultures
from all over the world to collaborate
and be closer to one another. Though
there are surely benefits of
globalization, one must also look into
the ethical challenges that it brings to
the society and to everyone.
 •In this Module, aside from learning
the ethical challenges of globalization,
you will also learn your qualities as a
“Filinnial” (Filipino Millennial) and the
different challenges you are
experiencing or may experience in a
globalized world.
 Finally, you will also learn about the
role of religion in a globalized world.
Globalization
•Globalization emphasizes the increasing
trans-border or transnational relations,
which are occurring in the contemporary
world.
•Globalization has brought about the
escalation of global relations.
•Globalization is said to have begun after
World War II but has accelerated since the
mid 1980s, driven by two factors.
•First is the technological advances
•The other factor has to do with the
business escalating liberalization of trade
and capital markets.
•Globalization is said to have begun after
World War II but has accelerated since the
mid 1980s, driven by two factors.
•First is the technological advances
•The other factor has to do with the
business escalating liberalization of trade
and capital markets.
Ethical Challenges of Globalization
 One criticism against the presently
unfolding neoliberal globalization is
that it concentrates wealth in the
hands of a few, leaving the majority in
the condition of poverty.
 That globalization and the
propagation of the laissez-faire
capitalism deepen the inequalities
within and between nations is
ethically condemnable from both the
consequentialist and deontological
standpoints.
 Another problem with globalization is
that states are in effect increasingly
losing their sovereignty
 The disastrous repercussion of this is
that elected indigenous leaders cede
their prerogative  over  economic 
management  to  unelected  officials 
of international organizations.
 Ecologically speaking, another moral
challenge arising out of globalization
is the problem of handling the global
environment in order to prevent a 
global ecological collapse, a scene
that threatens humanity with the
threat of annihilation.
 These problems involve
anthropogenic greenhouse effect that
is supposedly generating global
climate change, commonly known as
global warming.
 Aggravating the various global
environmental problems mentioned is
the explosive population growth
which threatens to surpass the
 earth’s carrying capacity and bust the  Globalization ties countries together,
biosphere. so that if one country collapses, the
collapse is likely to ripple through the
 Global environmental considerations
system, pulling many other countries
form the need for international
with it. 
environmental ethics which is an
aspect of global ethics.  
Some Problems of Globalization Challenges of Filinnials and Millennials
 Globalization uses up finite resources  Millennials, also known as Generation
more quickly. Y or Net Generation are the
demographic cohort directly following
 Globalization increases world carbon
Generation X.
dioxide emissions. 
´Millennials and Filinnials
 Globalization makes it virtually
impossible for regulators in one  5 Generations that presently make up
country to foresee the worldwide our society and specifies birth years
implications of their actions.  for each generation as follows:
 Globalization acts to increase world  Generation Z (Gen Z), iGen or
oil prices.   Centennials – born 1996 to present
 Globalization transfers consumption  Millennials or Gen Y – born 1977 to
of limited oil supply from developed 1995
countries to developing countries. 
 Generation X – born 1965 to 1976
 Globalization transfers jobs from
 Baby Boomers – born 1946 to 1964
developed countries to less
developed countries.   Traditionalists or Silent Generation –
born 1945 and below
 Globalization  transfers  investment
spending  from   developed   countries
to   less developed countries. 
 Filinnials is a term used to denote
 With the dollar as the world’s reserve Filipino Millennials.
currency, globalization leads to huge
 Filinnials’ generation is commonly
U.S. balance of trade deficits and
characterized by an increased
other imbalances.
use ad familiarity with
 Globalization sets up a currency “race communications, media and
to the bottom,” with each country digital technologies.
trying   to get an export advantage by
 They trust Google and Wikipedia.
dropping the value of its currency. 
They are significantly influenced
 Globalization encourages dependence by INTERNET/SOCIAL MEDIA.
on other  countries  for  essential 
 Filinnials and Millennials are
goods  and services. 
“special, sheltered, confident,
 team-oriented, conventional,
pressured and achieving”.
Other findings of Grossman:
 Millennials belong to what is
¼ of millennials say that marriage has become
called “Generation Me” because
old-fashioned and out of date, while 71%
there is increased narcissism
disagree.
among Millennials.
Millennials fall into a 4-way split on “pro-life”
and “pro-choice” labels.
Ethical Outlook and Cultural Identity
7% of millennials identify either as lesbian,
 In the United Kingdom, a 2013 a Pew gay, bisexual or transgender.
Research Center poll found that
Millennials were more open-minded
than their parents on controversial Work Ethics
topics.
A study by Verschoor reveals relatively high
 84% of Generation Y or Millennials percentages of Millennials who consider some
favored legalizing the use of behaviors in the workplace to be ethical,
marijuana. including:
 In 2014 same research revealed that  Using social networking (media)
Millennials in adulthood are detached to find out the company’s
from institutions and network with competitors – 37%
friends.
 “Friending” a client or customer
 Millennials are labeled as the on social network – 36%
Boomerang Generation or Peter Pan
 Uploading personal photos on a
Generation because of their
company network – 26%
perceived tendency for delaying some
rites of passage to adulthood (such as  Keeping copies of confidential
living with parents for longer periods) documents – 22%
 Generation Y members are very  Working less to compensate for
upbeat and more open to change cuts in benefits or pay – 18%
than older generations.
 Buying personal items using a
 Most Millennials of every religion, company credit card – 15%
race and ethnicity support access to
 Blogging or tweeting negatively
affordable contraception according to
about a company – 14%
a study (Grossman, n.d.)
 Taking a copy of work software
 56% of people ages 18-35 say that in
home for personal use – 13%
some situations, choosing to have
abortion is the most responsible
decision that a woman can make
 The widespread use of social
(Grossman, n.d.).
networking appears to pose
 challenges, as substantial numbers of  Millennials are more progressive
Millennials post questionable on social issues.
information on their personal social
 Millennials are hesitant to
networking sites, including the
identify themselves with a
following:
political party.
 Feelings about their jobs – 40%
 Millennials are less worthy.
 Bad joke told by the boss – 26%
 Millennials are reluctant to get
 Work on a project – 26% married.
 Picture of a co-worker drinking –  More millennials live at home
22% that their parents (Baby
Boomers) did at the same age.
 Annoying habit of a co-worker –
20%
 Information about the company’s Secularism and Humanism
competitors – 19%
 Secularism – a non-theistic belief
 Opinion about co-worker’s system or a worldview which does not
politics – 16% acknowledge supernatural or divine
views of reality.
Individualism
 It includes atheism, agnosticism,
 Millennials are said to be highly
naturalism, materialism,
individualistic and a class of self-
scientism, Darwinism and other
centered and self-absorbed persons.
ideologies.
 Millennials are self-focused but does
 Humanism – is a system of thought
not necessarily mean selfish; it rather
which gives emphasis to the value of
means that they have fewer social
human beings ad favors man’s
rules and obligations, and more
thought over faith or religious
freedom to be self-directed.
doctrine.
 Overall, Millennials are said to be
 The word humanism is derived
more individualistic and
from the old Italian term
materialistically motivated.
Umanista (humanista) which
Conflict with Parents pertains to a teacher or scholar of
classical Greek and Latin
 Millennials are generally the children
Literature.
of Baby Boomers. The common
observation that Millennials are often  Concepts centered on humanity
in conflict with Baby Boomers. without attention to any concepts
of the supernatural.
 The following are some of the major
differences between Baby Boomers Concepts under Secular Humanism:
and Millennials:
 Human experience as Moral Basis –
Secular humanism explains that moral
rules are derived from human
experience.
 Human need and reason – secular
humanists admit that Ethics is
conventional, but it has a natural
basis (this natural basis is none less
than human need and human reason
Analysis of Secularism and Humanism
 How could morally valuable and
responsible beings emerge from
valueless matter?
The Role of Religion in Ethics
Religious Ethics concerns beliefs and
practice of what is good or bad, right or
wrong, virtuous or vicious, from a
religious point of view.
Example: A Christian Ethic may be based
on the teachings of the religious Leader,
Jesus Christ about loving one’s neighbor,
being a Good Samaritan, loving one’s
enemies, etc.
Religion and Ethics
 Religion – defined as people’s beliefs
and opinions concerning the
existence, nature and worship of a
deity or deities, and divine
involvement in the universe and
human life.
 Religion – is also viewed as an
organized collection of beliefs,
cultural systems, and worldviews that
relate humanity to an order of
existence.
Religion’s Role in Ethics
 Many ethicists believe that religion is
necessary for the continued survival
of morality as an integral part of
human life especially in a globalized
world.
 Glenn C. Graber (Philosophy
professor at University of Tennessee)
said that “Morality cannot survive, in
the long run, if its ties to religion are
cut”.
 Leo Tolstoy (Russian Writer, 1828-
1910) “…without religion there can be
no real, sincere morality, just as
without roots there can be no real
flower”
 Basil Willey, a religionist, calls for
urgent action to re-unite religion and
ethics. He said that “what we see
around us in the world today – the
moral and spiritual nihilism of the
modern world, particularly of the
totalitarian creeds.”
Theistic Ethics
 Believes that a supernatural being
called God is the foundation of
morality.
 God is viewed as the true source of all
moral laws, and as the only plausible
cause of moral obligations which
possess overriding and binding
character.
 Moral supernaturalism – a moral
system that can satisfactorily explain
the existence of objective ethical
values and the moral law.
Can Justify Moral Values
 Only an absolute Moral Law-Giver is a
sufficient foundation for absolute
moral laws.
 It is not denied that those who refute
moral absolutes can believe in general
moral principles, many of which are
agreeably righteous.
 Only theism are all persons held
morally accountable for their actions
in the real sense.
 Only the ethics rooted in a Moral Law-
Giver can be truly prescriptive in any
objective sense of the word.
Can explain Moral Accountability
 Theists believe that all people have
this moral experience of feeling
morally obligated and that this sense
of moral responsibility is connected to
God.
No Real Accountability in non-theism
 We cannot reasonably say that there
is no real moral accountability for
one’s actions in non-theistic
ideologies wherein the so-called life-
after-death of theism is absent (final
reward and punishment – that which
accounts for the ultimate justice).
Euthyphro Dilemma
 Is a good thing good because God
desires it? Or does God desire it
because it is already good?