Grade 10 Calculus Module

TEACHER’S GUIDE IN CALCULUS WITH ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
RENE E. LEONIDA
LEO RENE A. LEONIDA
Mindanao State University

General Santos City
August, 2020
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE 1
1 INEQUALITIES IN ONE VARIABLE ....................................................................... 3
1.1 Intervals and Interval Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ....................................... 4
1.2 Properties of Inequalities ...................................................................................... 6
1.3 Linear Inequalities in One Variable ..................................................................... 7
1.4 Quadratic Inequalities in One Variable ............................................................. 11
1.5 Rational Inequalities in One Variable ................................................................ 18
2 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS ............................................................................. 25
2.1 Cartesian Product .................................................................................................. 25
2.2 Relations .................................................................................................................. 26
2.3 Functions ................................................................................................................. 26
2.4 The Domain and Range of a Function ............................................................... 34
2.5 Operations on Functions ...................................................................................... 42
2.6 Functions as Mathematical Models ................................................................... 48
3 SOME ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS ...................................................................... 56
3.1 Linear Functions .................................................................................................... 56
3.2 Quadratic Functions .............................................................................................. 58
3.3 Rational Functions ................................................................................................. 60
3.4 Functions of the Form f(x) = pg(x) ..................................................................... 64
3.5 Functions of the Form f(x) = p3 g(x) ................................................................... 66
3.6 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions .......................................................... 70

3.7 Trigonometric Functions ..................................................................................... 76
4 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS ..................................................... 84
4.1 Intuitive Idea of Limit ........................................................................................... 84
4.2 Computation of the Limits of Functions ........................................................... 87
4.3 One-Sided Limits .................................................................................................... 96
4.4 Infinite Limits ....................................................................................................... 103
4.5 Limits at Infinity ................................................................................................... 108
4.6 Continuity of a Function at a Real Number .................................................... 111
4.7 Continuity of a Function on an Open Interval ............................................... 115
5 DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION ........................................................................... 122
5.1 Definition of the Derivative ............................................................................... 122
5.2 Theorems on Differentiation ............................................................................. 125
5.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions ........................................................ 134
5.4 Derivative of the Natural Logarithmic Function........................................... 140
5.5 Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function ........................................... 147
5.6 Derivatives of Other Exponential and Logarithmic Functions .................. 150
5.7 Geometric Interpretation of a Derivative ....................................................... 152
5.8 Derivatives of Higher Order .............................................................................. 155
ii
CHAPTER 1
INEQUALITIES IN ONE VARIABLE
Learning Outcomes of the Lesson

At the end of the lesson, the student must be able to:
1. identify bounded intervals and unbounded intervals, write them in
intervalnotation and set description, and draw the graph.
2. write sets of real numbers in interval notation and in set description,
anddraw the graph.
3. state and apply the properties of inequalities.
4. solve linear inequalities in one variable and write their solution sets in
interval notation.
5. solve quadratic inequalities in one variable and if possible write their
solution sets in interval notation.
6. solve rational inequalities in one variable and write their solution sets
ininterval notation.
1.1 Intervals and Interval Notations

Consider the number line with the points a and b on it, where a < b.
| | .a b
The points a and b divide the number line into the so called intervals. These
intervals are classified as bounded intervals and unbounded intervals.
Bounded Intervals
1. The open interval from a to b is (a,b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}.
( ).
| | .a b
2
2. The closed interval from a to b is [a,b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}.
[ ].
| | .a b
3. The half-open interval on the left from a to b is (a,b] = {x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b}.
4. The half-open interval on the right from a to b is [a,b) = {x ∈R : a ≤ x < b}.
[ ).
| | .a b
In each of the intervals above, the numbers a and b are called endpoints of
the intervals. The number a is the left endpoint and the number b is the right endpoint.
In the open interval (a,b), the endpoints a and b are not included in the interval while
in the closed interval [a,b], the endpoints a and b are included in the interval.
Example 1.1.1 Write the following sets in interval notation and its equivalent set
description, and draw the graph.
1. The set of real numbers x greater than −4 and less than 1.
2. The set of real numbers x greater than −3 and less than or equal to 0.
3. The set of real numbers x greater than or equal to 1 and less than 7.
4. The set of real numbers x greater than or equal to 3 and less than or equal to 5.

Solution: (−4,1) = {x ∈R : −4 < x < 1}.
( ).
| | .
−4 1
2. The set of real numbers x greater than −3 and less than or equal to 0.
Solution: (−3,0] = {x ∈R : −3 < x ≤ 0}.
3
( ].
| | .
−3 0
Solution: [1,7) = {x ∈R : 1 ≤ x < 7}.
[ ).
| | .
1 7
4. The set of real numbers x greater than or equal to 3 and less than or equal to 5.
Solution: [3,5] = {x ∈R : 3 ≤ x ≤ 5}.
[ ].
| | .
3 5
Sample Problem 1.1.2 Write the following sets in interval notation and its equivalent
set description, and draw the graph.
1. The set of real numbers x greater than or equal to −0.5 and less than 0.5.
2. The set of real numbers x greater than or equal −1 and less than or equal to −1/2.
3. The set of real numbers x greater than −11 and less than or equal to −11/2.
Unbounded Intervals
The symbols −∞ and +∞ are called negative infinity and positive infinity,
respectively.
1. (a,+∞) = {x ∈R : x > a}.
( . | .
a
2. (−∞,b) = {x ∈R : x < b}.
4
. .............. . . . . . )
. . . . ................. .
| . b
3. [a,+∞) = {x ∈R : x ≥ a}.
[ .
| . a
4. (−∞,b] = {x ∈R : x ≤ b}.
. .................. . . . . . . . ]
. . . . . .. .................... .
| .b
5. (−∞,+∞) = {x : x ∈R} = R.
Example 1.1.3 Write the following sets in interval notation and its equivalent set
1. The set of real numbers x greater than −1.
2. The set of real numbers x less than 3.
3. The set of real numbers x less than or equal to 1.75.
4. The set of real numbers x greater than or equal to −2/3.
1. The set of real numbers x greater than −1.

Solution: (−1,+∞) = {x ∈R : x > −1}.
( .
| .
−1

Solution: (−∞,3) = {x ∈R : x < 3}.
. ................... . . . . . . )
. . . . . . .................... ..
| .
3
5
3. The set of real numbers x less than or equal to 1.75. Solution: (−∞,1.75] = {x
∈R : x ≤ 1.75}.
. .................. . . . . . . . ]
. . . . . . ..................... .
| .
1.75
4. The set of real numbers x greater than or equal to −2/3. Solution: [−2/3,+∞)
= {x ∈R : x ≥−2/3}.
[ .
| .
−2/3
Sample Problem 1.1.4 Write the following sets in interval notation and its equivalent
set description, and draw the graph.
1. The set of real numbers x less than or equal to -7.
2. The set of real numbers x greater than 7/3.
3. The set of real numbers x greater than 4 or less than or equal to -3/5.
4. The set of real numbers x less than 11 and greater than or equal to -1.
Exercises 1.1.5 Write the following sets in interval notation and its equivalent set
1. The set of real numbers x greater than or equal to −5 and less than 5.
2. The set of real numbers x greater than or equal −6 and less than or equal to −4/3.
3. The set of real numbers x greater than 0 and less than or equal to 11/2.
4. The set of real numbers x greater than −1/2 and less than 0.
5. The set of real numbers x greater than −1/2 and less than −1/3.
6. The set of real numbers x greater than or equal −0.5.
8. The set of real numbers x greater than −4/3.
9. The set of real numbers x less than or equal to 8.
10. The set of real numbers x greater than or equal to 4.5.
6
1.2 Properties of Inequalities
Definition 1.2.1 A number a is said to be greater than b, written as a > b, if a−b is

positive. We say a is less than b, and write a < b, if a − b is negative. We write a ≥ b to
mean that either a > b or a = b. Similarly, we write a ≤ b to mean that either a < b or a
= b.
Theorem 1.2.2 (Properties of Inequalities) Let a,b,c ∈R. Then the following hold:
1. If a > b and b > c, then a > c.
2. If a > b, then a + c > b + c.
3. If a > b and c > 0, then ac > bc.
4. If a > b and c < 0, then ac < bc.
5. If a > 0, then .
6. If a < 0, then .
Since a < b is equivalent to b > a, equivalent versions of properties (1) to (4)

for < (and for ≤ and ≥) also hold. Property (1) is referred to as the transitive property
of inequality.
Example 1.2.3 Apply the properties of inequalities to solve for x:

1. 2. 2.
4. 3. x + 5
≥−10.
4. 5. 5.
2 4. 6. −3x > −9.
7. 12. 8..
Solution:
1. Given: x−1 > 2. Apply property 2, that is, add 1 to both sides of the inequality.
x − 1 + 1 > 2 + 1. ⇒ x > 3.
2. Given: x+2 < 4. Apply property 2, that is, add -2 to both sides of the inequality.
x + 2 − 2 < 4 − 2. ⇒ x < 2.
3. Given: x + 5 ≥ −10. Apply property 2, that is, add -5 to both sides of the inequality.
7
x + 5 − 5 ≥−10 − 5. ⇒ x ≥−15.
4. Given: x−3 ≤−5. Apply property 2, that is, add 3 to both sides of the inequality. x −
3 + 3 ≤−5 + 3. ⇒ x ≤−2.
5. Given: 2x < 4. Apply property 3, that is, multiply to both sides of the inequality.
⇒ x < 2.
6. Given: −3x < −9. Apply property 4, that is, multiply to both sides of the
inequality and reverse the direction of the inequality.
⇒ x > 3.
7. Given: 12. Apply property 3, that is, multiply to both sides of the
inequality.
⇒ x ≥−8.
8. Given: . Apply property 4, that is, multiply to both sides of the

inequality and reverse the direction of the inequality.
. ⇒ .
Sample Problem 1.2.4 Apply the properties of inequalities to solve for x:

1. 2. 2.
3. 3. x + 4
≥−10.
4. 3. 5.
3 6. 6. −3x > −12.
7. 15. 8..
1.3 Linear Inequalities in One Variable
Definition 1.3.1 Any inequality in variable x is called linear if it can be reduced into
any of the following forms:
8
ax + b > 0, ax + b < 0, ax + b ≥ 0, ax + b ≤ 0,
where a,b ∈R and a 6= 0.

Procedure for Finding the Solution Set of Linear Inequalities
1. Separate the constant term from the nonconstant term.
2. If necessary, apply properties (2) and (3) or properties (2) and (4) simultaneously.
3. Write the solution set in interval notation and draw the graph.
Example 1.3.2 Find the solution set of the inequality 3x + 10 > 4. Write the solution
set in interval notation and draw the graph.
Solution:
( . | .
−2
Example 1.3.3 Find the solution set of the inequality 4x − 7 < 2x + 5. Write the solution
Solution:
9
. ............ . . . )
. . . . ............... .
| .
6
Example 1.3.4 Find the solution set of the inequality 4−3x ≥ 5x+12. Write the solution
Solution:
. .............. . . . . . ]
. . . . ................. .
| .
−1
Example 1.3.5 Find the solution set of the inequality 5x+6−7(x+2) ≤ 0. Write the
solution set in interval notation and draw the graph.
Solution:
[ .
| .
10
Example 1.3.6 Find the solution set of the inequality . Write the
Solution:
[ .
| .
8/15
Sample Problem 1.3.7 Find the solution set of the following inequalities. Write the
1. 4
3. 2( 5.
4(3
7.
11
1.4 Quadratic Inequalities in One Variable

Definition 1.4.1 Any inequality in variable x is considered quadratic if it can be
reduced into any of the following forms:
ax2 + bx + c > 0, ax2 + bx + c < 0, ax2 + bx + c ≥ 0, ax2 + bx + c ≤ 0,
where a,b,c ∈R and a 6= 0.
Example 1.4.2 The following are examples of quadratic inequalities:

1. x2 > 4. 2. x2 + 8 > 6x. 3. x2 + 5x ≥−6.
4. x2 ≥ 4x. 5. x2 < 9. 6. x2 − 10 < 2x.
7. x2 ≤ 3x. 8. x2 − x ≤ 12. 9. x2 + 6x ≤ 0.
Theorem 1.4.3 Let a,b ∈R. If ab > 0, then either (i) a <
0 and b < 0 or (ii) a > 0 and b > 0.
The theorem is valid if the symbol ”>” is replaced by ”≥”.
Example 1.4.4 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 > 4. If possible, write the
solution set in interval notation.
Solution:
SS = {x ∈R : x2 > 4}
= {x ∈R : x2 − 4 > 0}
= {x ∈R : (x + 2)(x − 2) > 0}
= {x ∈R : x + 2 < 0 and x − 2 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x + 2 > 0 and x − 2 > 0}
= {x ∈R : x < −2 and x < 2}∪{x ∈R : x > −2 and x > 2}
= {x ∈R : x < −2}∪{x ∈R : x > 2}
= (−∞,−2) ∪ (2,+∞).
Example 1.4.5 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 −6x+8 > 0. If possible, write
the solution set in interval notation.
Solution:
SS = {x ∈R : x2 − 6x + 8 > 0}
= {x ∈R : (x − 2)(x − 4) > 0}
= {x ∈R : x − 2 < 0 and x − 4 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x − 2 > 0 and x − 4 > 0}
12
= {x ∈R : x < 2 and x < 4}∪{x ∈R : x > 2 and x > 4}

= {x ∈R : x < 2}∪{x ∈R : x > 4}
= (−∞,2) ∪ (4,+∞).
Example 1.4.6 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 + 5x ≥−6. If possible, write the
Solution:
SS = {x ∈R : x2 + 5x + 6 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈R : (x + 3)(x + 2) ≥ 0}
= {x ∈R : x + 3 ≤ 0 and x + 2 ≤ 0}∪{x ∈R : x + 3 ≥ 0 and x + 2 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈R : x ≤−3 and x ≤−2}∪{x ∈R : x ≥−3 and x ≥−2}
= {x ∈R : x ≤−3}∪{x ∈R : x ≥−2}
= (−∞,−3] ∪ [−2,+∞).
Example 1.4.7 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 ≥ 4x. If possible, write the
Solution:
SS = {x ∈R : x2 − 4x ≥ 0}
= {x ∈R : x(x − 4) ≥ 0}
= {x ∈R : x ≤ 0 and x − 4 ≤ 0}∪{x ∈R : x ≥ 0 and x − 4 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈R : x ≤ 0 and x ≤ 4}∪{x ∈R : x ≥ 0 and x ≥ 4}
= {x ∈R : x ≤ 0}∪{x ∈R : x ≥ 4}
= (−∞,0] ∪ [4,+∞).
Example 1.4.8 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 + 1 > 2x. If possible, write the
Solution:
SS = {x ∈R : x2 + 1 > 2x}
= {x ∈R : x2 − 2x + 1 > 0}
= {x ∈R : (x − 1)(x − 1) > 0}
13
= {x ∈R : x − 1 < 0 and x − 1 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x − 1 > 0 and x − 1 > 0}

= {x ∈R : x − 1 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x − 1 > 0}
= {x ∈R : x < 1}∪{x ∈R : x > 1}
= (−∞,1) ∪ (1,+∞).
Example 1.4.9 Find the solution set of the inequality 4x2−4x+1 ≥ 0. If possible, write
Solution:
SS = {x ∈R : 4x2 − 4x + 1 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈R : (2x − 1)(2x − 1) ≥ 0}
= {x ∈R : 2x − 1 ≤ 0 and 2x − 1 ≤ 0}∪{x ∈R : 2x − 1 ≥ 0 and 2x − 1 ≥ 0}
= R.
Sample Problem 1.4.10 Find the solution set of the following quadratic inequalities and
if possible, write the solution set in interval notation.
1. x2 > 16. 2. x2 + 6 > 5x. 3. x2 + x ≥ 12.
4. x2 ≥ 5x. 5. x2 + 5x + 6 > 0. 6. x2 − 12 ≥−4x.
7. x2 + 2x + 1 ≥ 0. 8. x2 − 8x + 16 > 0. 9. 9x2 + 1 ≥ 6x.
Theorem 1.4.11 Let a,b ∈R. If ab < 0, then either (i) a >
0 and b < 0, or (ii) a < 0 and b > 0.
The theorem is valid if the symbol ”<” is replaced by ”≤”.
Example 1.4.12 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 < 9. If possible, write the
Solution:
SS = {x ∈R : x2 < 9}
= {x ∈R : x2 − 9 < 0}
14
= {x ∈R : (x + 3)(x − 3) < 0}
= {x ∈R : x + 3 > 0 and x − 3 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x + 3 < 0 and x − 3 > 0}
= {x ∈R : x > −3 and x < 3}∪{x ∈R : x < −3 and x > 3}
= {x ∈R : −3 < x and x < 3}∪{x ∈R : x < −3 and 3 < x}
= {x ∈R : −3 < x < 3}∪{}
= {x ∈R : −3 < x < 3}
= (−3,3).
Example 1.4.13 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 − 10 < 2x. If possible, write
Solution:
SS = {x ∈R : x2 + 10 < −7x}
= {x ∈R : x2 + 7x + 10 < 0}
= {x ∈R : (x + 5)(x + 2) < 0}
= {x ∈R : x + 5 > 0 and x + 2 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x + 5 < 0 and x + 2 > 0}
= {x ∈R : x > −5 and x < −2}∪{x ∈R : x < −5 and x > −2}
= {x ∈R : −5 < x and x < −2}∪{x ∈R : x < −5 and − 2 < x}
= {x ∈R : −5 < x < −2}∪{}
= {x ∈R : −5 < x < −2}
= (−5,−2).
Example 1.4.14 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 ≤−6x−5. If possible, write the
Solution:
SS = {x ∈R : x2 ≤−6x − 5}
= {x ∈R : x2 + 6x + 5 ≤ 0}
= {x ∈R : (x + 5)(x + 1) ≤ 0}
= {x ∈R : x + 5 ≥ 0 and x + 1 ≤ 0}∪{x ∈R : x + 5 ≤ 0 and x + 1 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈R : x ≥−5 and x ≤−1}∪{x ∈R : x ≤−5 and x ≥−1}
15
= {x ∈R : −5 ≤ x and x ≤−1}∪{x ∈R : x ≤−5 and − 1 ≤ x}

= {x ∈R : −5 ≤ x ≤−1}∪{}
= {x ∈R : −5 ≤ x ≤−1}
= [−5,−1].
Example 1.4.15 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 + 5x ≤ 0. If possible, write
Solution:
SS = {x ∈R : x2 + 5x ≤ 0}
= {x ∈R : (x + 5)x ≤ 0}
= {x ∈R : x + 5 ≥ 0 and x ≤ 0}∪{x ∈R : x + 5 ≤ 0 and x ≥ 0}
= {x ∈R : x ≥−5 and x ≤ 0}∪{x ∈R : x ≤−5 and x ≥ 0} = {x ∈R : −5 ≤
x and x ≤ 0}∪{x ∈R : x ≤−5 and 0 ≤ x}
= {x ∈R : −5 ≤ x ≤ 0}∪{}
= {x ∈R : −5 ≤ x ≤ 0}
= [−5,0].
Example 1.4.16 Find the solution set of the inequality x2−6x+9 < 0. If possible, write
Solution:
SS = {x ∈R : x2 − 6x + 9 < 0}
= {x ∈R : (x − 3)(x − 3) < 0}
= {x ∈R : x − 3 > 0 and x − 3 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x − 3 < 0 and x − 3 > 0}
= {x ∈R : x − 3 > 0 and x − 3 < 0}
= {x ∈R : x > 3 and x < 3}
= {}.
Example 1.4.17 Find the solution set of the inequality x2+4x+ ≤−4. If possible, write
Solution:
16
SS = {x ∈R : x2 + 4x ≤−4}
= {x ∈R : x2 + 4x + 4 ≤ 0}
= {x ∈R : (x + 2)(x + 2) ≤ 0}
= {x ∈R : x + 2 ≥ 0 and x + 2 ≤ 0}∪{x ∈R : x + 2 ≤ 0 and x + 2 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈R : x + 2 ≥ 0 and x + 2 ≤ 0} = {x ∈R
: x ≥−2 and x ≤−2}
= {x ∈R : x = −2}
= {−2}.
1. x2 < 16. 2. x2 + 6 < 5x. 3. x2 + x ≤ 12.
4. x2 ≤ 5x. 5. x2 + 5x + 6 < 0. 6. x2 − 12 ≤−4x.
7. x2 + 2x + 1 ≤ 0. 8. x2 − 8x + 16 < 0. 9. 9x2 + 1 ≤ 6x.
Proposition 1.4.19 Let r1 and r2 be real numbers such that r1 < r2. If ax2 + bx + c = (x −
r1)(x − r2), where a > 0, then the following correspondence hold:
Inequality Solution Set
(x − r1)(x − r2) > 0 (−∞,r1) ∪ (r2,+∞)
(x − r1)(x − r2) ≥ 0 (−∞,r1] ∪ [r2,+∞)
(x − r1)(x − r2) < 0 (r1,r2)
(x − r1)(x − r2) ≤ 0 [r1,r2]
Proposition 1.4.20 Let r be a real number. If ax2 +bx+c = (x−r)(x−r), where a > 0, then
the following correspondence hold:
(x − r)(x − r) > 0 (−∞,r) ∪ (r,+∞)
(x − r)(x − r) ≥ 0 R
(x − r)(x − r) < 0 {}
(x − r)(x − r) ≤ 0 {r}
Proposition 1.4.21 Let ax + bx + c, where a > 0, be a quadratic polynomial. If b2 − 4ac
2
is a negative real number, then the following correspondence hold:

17
ax2 + bx + c > 0 R
ax + bx + c ≥ 0
2 R
ax + bx + c < 0
2 {}
ax2 + bx + c ≤ 0 {}
Example 1.4.22 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 + 2x + 2 > 0.
Solution: The right side of the inequality cannot be factored in the set R. Then
b2 − 4ac = (2)2 − 4(1)(2) = 4 − 8 = −8.
Therefore, by Proposition 1.4.21, SS = {x ∈R : x2 + 2x + 2 > 0} = R.
Example 1.4.23 Find the solution set of the inequality 3x2 − x + 1 ≥ 0.
b2 − 4ac = (−1)2 − 4(3)(1) = 1 − 12 = −11.
Therefore, by 1.4.21, SS = {x ∈R : 3x2 − x + 1 ≤ 0} = R.
Example 1.4.24 Find the solution set of the inequality 2x2 + x + 2 < 0.
b2 − 4ac = (1)2 − 4(2)(2) = 1 − 16 = −15.
Therefore, by 1.4.21, SS = {x ∈R : 2x2 + x + 2 < 0} = {}.
Example 1.4.25 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 − 2x + 4 ≤ 0.
b2 − 4ac = (−2)2 − 4(1)(4) = 4 − 16 = −12.
Therefore, by 1.4.21, {x ∈R : x2 − 2x + 4 ≤ 0} = {}.
1. x2 + 2x + 4 > 0. 2. 2x2 + 2x + 3 ≥ 0. 3. 3x2 − 3x + 2 < 0.
18
4. 4x2 − 5x + 2 ≤ 0. 5. x2 + 4 < 3x. 6. x2 + 5 ≤ 3x.

7. 4x2 + 2x + 1 > 0. 8. 3x2 + 2 ≥ 4x.
Exercises 1.4.27 Find the solution set of the following quadratic inequalities and if
possible, write the solution set in interval notation.
1. x2 + 2x > 8. 2. x2 + 3 ≥ 4x. 3. x2 + 6x + 9 > 0.
4. x2 < 2x + 8. 5. x2 − 4 ≤ 3x. 6. x2 + 25 ≤ 10x.
7. 4x2 + 1 > 2x. 8. 3x2 − 2 ≥ x. 9. 3x2 ≤ 6x.
10. x2 + 5 > 2x. 11. x2 − 16 > 0. 12. 4x2 < 6x.
1.5 Rational Inequalities in One Variable
Theorem 1.5.1 Let , then either

(i) a < 0 and b < 0, or (ii) a
> 0 and b > 0.
Example 1.5.2 Find the solution set of 0. If possible, write the solution set in
interval notation.
Solution:
= {x ∈R : x − 3 < 0 and x − 4 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x − 3 > 0 and x − 4 > 0}

= {x ∈R : x < 3 and x < 3}∪{x ∈R : x > 3 and x > 4}
= {x ∈R : x < 3}∪{x ∈R : x > 4}
= (−∞,3) ∪ (4,+∞).
Example 1.5.3 Find the solution set of 1 . If possible, write the solution set in
interval notation.
Solution:
= {x ∈R : x − 2 < 0 and x + 3 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x − 2 > 0 and x + 3 > 0}

19
= {x ∈R : x < 2 and x < −3}∪{x ∈R : x > 2 and x > −3}

= {x ∈R : x < −3}∪{x ∈R : x > 2}
= (−∞,−3) ∪ (2,+∞).
interval notation.
Solution:
= {x ∈R : x + 3 < 0 and x + 4 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x + 3 > 0 and x + 4 > 0} = {x ∈R : x < −3

and x < −4}∪{x ∈R : x > −3 and x > −4}
= {x ∈R : x < −4}∪{x ∈R : x > −3}
= (−∞,−4) ∪ (−3,+∞).
Sample Problem 1.5.5 Find the solution set of the following rational inequalities and
if possible, write the solution set in
interval notation.
1. 0. 2. 0. 3. 1.
4. 0. 5. 0. 6. 2
Theorem 1.5.6 Let a,b ∈R. If ab < 0, then either (i) a >
0 and b < 0, or (ii) a < 0 and b > 0.
interval notation.
Solution:
= {x ∈R : x − 3 > 0 and x − 1 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x − 3 < 0 and x − 1 > 0}

= {x ∈R : x > 3 and x < 1}∪{x ∈R : x < 3 and x > 1}
20
= {}∪{x ∈R : 1 < x < 3}

= {x ∈R : 1 < x < 3}
= (1,3).
interval notation.
Solution:
= {x ∈R : x + 3 > 0 and x − 3 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x + 3 < 0 and x − 3 > 0}

= {x ∈R : x > −3 and x < 3}∪{x ∈R : x < −3 and x > 3}
= {x ∈R : −3 < x < 3}∪{}
= {x ∈R : −3 < x < 3}
= (−3,3).
Example 1.5.9 Find the solution set of 1 . If possible, write the solution set in
interval notation.
Solution:
= {x ∈R : x + 2 > 0 and x + 4 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x + 2 < 0 and x + 4 > 0}

= {x ∈R : x > −2 and x < −4}∪{x ∈R : x < −2 and x > −4}
= {}∪{x ∈R : −4 < x < −2}
21
= {x ∈R : −4 < x < −2}

= (−4,−2).
Sample Problem 1.5.10 Find the solution set of the following rational inequalities
and if possible, write the solution set in
interval notation.
1. 0. 2. 0. 3. 1.
4. 0. 5. 0. 6. 2
Theorem 1.5.11 Let a,b ∈R. If ab ≥ 0, then either (i) a ≤
0 and b < 0, or (ii) a ≥ 0 and b > 0.
Example 1.5.12 Find the solution set of 0. If possible, write the solution set
in interval notation.
Solution:
= {x ∈R : x − 1 ≤ 0 and x − 3 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x − 1 ≥ 0 and x − 3 > 0}

= {x ∈R : x ≤ 1 and x < 3}∪{x ∈R : x ≥ 1 and x > 3}
= {x ∈R : x ≤ 1}∪{x ∈R : x > 3}
= (−∞,1] ∪ (3,+∞).
Solution:
= {x ∈R : x + 4 ≤ 0 and x + 3 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x + 4 ≥ 0 and x + 3 > 0} = {x ∈R : x ≤−4

and x < −3}∪{x ∈R : x ≥−4 and x > −3}
= {x ∈R : x ≤−4}∪{x ∈R : x > −3}
= (−∞,−4] ∪ (−3,+∞).
22
Solution:
= {x ∈R : x − 4 ≤ 0 and x + 3 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x − 4 ≥ 0 and x + 3 > 0}

= {x ∈R : x ≤ 4 and x < −3}∪{x ∈R : x ≥ 4 and x > −3}
= {x ∈R : x < −3}∪{x ∈R : x ≥ 4}
= (−∞,−3) ∪ [4,+∞).
Sample Problem 1.5.15 Find the solution set of the following inequalities. If possible,
write the solution set in
interval notation.
1. 0 2.
4. 1 5.
Theorem 1.5.16 Let a,b ∈R. If ab ≤ 0, then either

(i) a ≥ 0 and b < 0 or (ii) a
≤ 0 and b > 0.
Solution:
23
= {x ∈R : x + 1 ≥ 0 and x + 2 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x + 1 ≤ 0 and x + 2 > 0}

= {x ∈R : x ≥−1 and x < −2}∪{x ∈R : x ≤−1 and x > −2}
= {}∪{x ∈R : −2 < x ≤−1}
= {x ∈R : −2 < x ≤−1}
= (−2,−1].
Solution:
= {x ∈R : x + 2 ≥ 0 and x − 1 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x + 2 ≤ 0 and x − 1 > 0}

= {x ∈R : x ≥−2 and x < 1}∪{x ∈R : x ≤−2 and x > 1}
= {x ∈R : −2 ≤ x < 1}∪{}
= {x ∈R : −2 ≤ x < 1}
= (−2,1).
Example 1.5.19 Find the solution set of 1 . If possible, write the solution set
Solution:
24
= {x ∈R : x − 6 ≥ 0 and x − 4 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x − 6 ≤ 0 and x − 4 > 0}

= {x ∈R : x ≥ 6 and x < 4}∪{x ∈R : x ≤ 6 and x > 4}
= {}∪{x ∈R : 4 ≤ x < 6}
= {x ∈R : 4 ≤ x < 6}
= (4,6).
Sample Problem 1.5.20 Find the solution set of the following rational inequalities. If
possible, write the
solution set in interval
notation.
1. 0 2.
4.1 5.
Exercises 1.5.21 Find the solution set of the following inequalities. If possible, write
the solution set in interval
notation.
1. 0 2.
1 5.
0 8.
1 11.
CHAPTER 2
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

1. define relation and find the domain and range of a relation.
2. define function and find the value of a function at a real number.
3. determine whether or not a relation is a function.
4. find the domain and range of a function.
5. define the sum, diference, product, and quotient of two function; and
findtheir respective domains.
6. define the composite of two functions.
2.1 Cartesian Product
Definition 2.1.1 Let A and B be nonempty sets. Then the Cartesian product of
A and B, denoted by A × B, is the set of ordered pairs (a,b) with a ∈ A and b ∈
B. That is, A × B = {(a,b) : a ∈ A,b ∈ B}.
Example 2.1.2 Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {4,5}. Then
A × B = {(1,4,(1,5),(2,4),(2,5),(3,4),(3,5)},
A × A = {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(3,1),(3,2),(3,3)},
B × B = {(4,4),(4,5),(5,4),(5,5)},
B × A = {(4,1),(4,2),(4,3),(5,1),(5,2),(5,3)}.
Example 2.1.3 Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {−2,−4,−6}. Then
A×B = {(1,−2),(1,−4),(1,−6),(2,−2),(2,−4),(2,−6),(3,−2),(3,−4),(3,−6)}, B×A =
{(−2,1),(−2,2),(−2,3),(−4,1),(−4,2),(−4,3),(−6,1),(−6,2),(−6,3)}.
26
Sample Problem 2.1.4 1. Let A = {x,y} and B = {1,2,3}. Find A × B, B × A, A × A,

and B × B.
2. Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {−1,−2,−3}. Find A × B, B × A, A × A, and B × B.
3. Let A = {2,−2} and B = {5,10,15,20}. Find A × B, and B × A.
2.2 Relations
Let R be the set of all real numbers. In this section, we limit our
discussion to Cartesian product of real numbers R × R = {(x,y) : x,y ∈ R}. Hence,
we will define relation as ordered pairs of real numbers.
Definition 2.2.1 A relation in R × R is any subset R of R × R.
Example 2.2.2 The

following sets are
examples of relations
in R × R.
1.
2. .
3.
4.
5.
7.
8.
Definition 2.2.3 Let R be a relation in R × R. The domain of R, denoted by D(R),

is the set of all first coordinates of R. The range of R, denoted by R(R), is the set
of all second coordinates of R.
Example 2.2.4 Let R = {(1,0),(2,0),(3,0),(4,0)}. Then D(R) = {1,2,3,4} and R(R) =

{0}.
27
Example 2.2.5 Let R = {(1,1),(2,4),(3,9),(4,16),(5,25),(6,36)}. Then D(R) =

{1,2,3,4,5,6} and R(R) = {1,4,9,16,25,36}.
Example 2.2.6 Let R = {(x,y) ∈ R × R : 2x − y = 4}. Find D(R) and

R(R).
Solution:
2x − y = 4. ⇒ y = 2x + 4.
D(R) = {x ∈ R : 2x + 4 ∈ R} = {x
∈ R : x ∈ R} = R.
= R.
If a relation R is defined in terms of an equation, then the following

procedure are usefull in finding the domain and range of a relation.
Procedure in Finding the Domain and Range of a Relation:

1. Solve for y in terms of x. The domain of the relation is the set of all
permissible values of the real numbers x.
2. Solve for x in terms of y. The range of the relation is the set of all
permissible values of the real numbers y.
Example 2.2.7 Let R = {(x,y) ∈ R×R : x2−y = 1}. Find D(R) and R(R).
Solution: Solve for y in terms of x:
x2 − y = 1. ⇒ y = x2 + 1.
D(R) = {x ∈ R : x2 + 1 ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R} = R.
Solve for x in terms of y:
28
= [−1,+∞).
Example 2.2.8 Let R = {(x,y) ∈ R×R : 2x−xy +y = 0}. Find D(R) and
R(R).
.
.
= (−∞,2) ∪ (2,+∞).
Example 2.2.9 Let R = {(x,y) ∈ R×R : x+y2 = 1}. Find D(R) and R(R).

29
.
= R.
Sample Problem 2.2.10 Given the following relations, find D(R) and R(R).
1. R = {(1,−1),(2,−2),(3,−3),(4,−4)}.
2. R = {(1,1),(2,8),(3,27),(4,64),(5,125),(6,216)}.
3. R = {(x,y) ∈ R × R : x − y + 2 = 0}.
4. R = {(x,y) ∈ R × R : 2x − 3y + 6 = 0}.
5. R = {(x,y) ∈ R × R : x2 − y = 4}.
6. R = {(x,y) ∈ R × R : x − xy + y = 0}.
7. R = {(x,y) ∈ R × R : x + y2 = 4}. 8. R = {(x,y) ∈ R × R : y2 = x − 1}.
9. R = {(x,y) ∈ R × R : y − x2 + 1 = 0}.
10. R = {(x,y) ∈ R × R : 4x − xy + y = 0}.
2.3 Functions
In this section, we limit our discussion to Cartesian product of real
numbers R × R = {(x,y) : x,y ∈ R}. We will define function as ordered pairs of real
numbers.
Definition 2.3.1 A function is a set f of ordered pairs in R × R = {(x,y) : x,y ∈ R}

such that no two distinct ordered pairs have the same first elements.
30
Example 2.3.2 The following

sets are examples of functions
in R × R.
1.
2..
3.
4.
5.
6.
7. 8.
In the above definition, a function f is defined as a set of ordered pairs

(x,y) of real numbers. The numbers x and y are called variables. Since the value
of y is dependent on the value of x, we call x the independent variable and y the
dependent variable.
If (x,y) is an element of f , it is customary to write y = f(x) instead of (x,y)
∈ f. We often refer to y as the value of f at the real number x, or the image of the
real number x under f.
Example 2.3.3 The functions in Example 3.3.2 can be written in the notation
Example 2.3.4 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = x2 −3x+4. Find: (a) f(−1); (b)
f(0); (c) f(2); (d) f(3a); (e) f(2x − 1); (f) f(x + h)
Solution: (a) f(−1) = (−1)2 − 3(−1) + 4 = 1 + 3 + 4 = 8;

31
(b) f(0) = (0)2 − (0) + 4 = 4;

(c) f(2) = (2)2 − 3(2) + 4 = 4 − 6 + 4 = 2;
(d) f(3a) = (3a)2 − 3(3a) + 4 = 9a2 − 9a + 4;
+8;
√
Example 2.3.5 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = x − 1. Find: (a) f(1); (b) f(5);
(c) f(9); (d) f(3a + 5); (e) f(2x − 1); (f) f(x + h)
√ √
Solution: (a√) f(1) = √1 − 1 = 0 = 0;
(b) f(5) =√5 − 1 =√4 = 2; √√ √
(c) f(9) = √9 − 1 = 8 = p√4(2) = 4 2 = 2 2;

(d) f(3a) = 3a√+ 5 − 1 = 3a√+ 4;
(e) f(2x − 1) =√ 2x − 1 − 1 = 2x − 2;
(f) f(x + h) = x + h − 1.
Example 2.3.6 Let f be a function defined by ;

find (a) f(−6); (b) f(−4); (c) f(0); (d) f(4).
Solution: (a) If x ≤ −4, then f(x) = x + 4. Thus, f(−6) = −6 + 4 = −2;

(b) If x ≤ −4, then f(x) = x + 4. Thus, f(−4) = −4 + 4 = 0;
(c) If −4 < x, then f(x) = 4 − x. Thus, f(0) = 4 − 0 = 4;
(d) If −4 < x, then f(x) = 4 − x. Thus, f(4) = 4 − 4 = 0.
if x < 2 if
x + 3, x = 2; if
2<x
Example 2.3.7 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = 4,
2x − 1,
find (a) f(0); (b) f(2); (c) f(3); (d) f(−2).
Solution: (a) If x < 2, then f(x) = x + 3. Thus, f(0) = 0 + 3 = 3;

(b) If x = 2, then f(x) = 4. Thus, f(2) = 4;
32
(c) If 2 < x, then f(x) = 2x − 1. Thus, f(3) = 2(3) − 1 = 5; (d) If x <

2, then f(x) = x + 3. Thus, f(−2) = −2 + 3 = 1.
Sample Problem 2.3.8 1. Given f(x) = 3x − 4, find (a) f(1); (b) f(−5); (c) f(9); (d)
f(3a + 5); (e) f(2x − 1); (f) f(x + h).
2. Given f(x) = 3x2+2x−4, find (a) +5);
(e) f(2x − 1); (f) f(x + h).
3. Given , find (a) f(−2); (b) ); (d) f(3a + 5);

(e) f(2x − 1); (f√) f(x + h).
4. Given f(x) = 9 − x, find (a) +5);
(e) f(2x − 1); (f) f(x + h).
if x ≤ 0
5. Let f be a function defined by,
, if 0 < x
find (a) f(−2); (b) f(−1); (c) f(0); (d) f(2).
if x < 1
6. Let f be a function defined by,
find (a) f(−2); (b) f(−1); (c) f(0); (d) f(2). , if 1 ≥ x
2, x if x < −1 if
x = −1, if
7. Let f be a function defined by f(x) = 0, −1 < x Example 2.3.9
Determine
2x − 1, whether each
find (a) f(−2); (b) f(−1); (c) f(0); (d) f(2). relation is a
function.
33
1.
2..
3.
4.
5.
6.
Solution: 1. R = {(1,−1),(2,−2),(3,−3),(4,−4)}. No two distinct ordered pairs in
the given relation have the same first components. Therefore, the relation is a
function.
2. R = {(0,0),(1,1),(1,−1),(4,2),(4,−2)}. Two ordered pairs in the given
relation, namely (1,1) and (1,−1), have the same first component. Therefore,
the relation is not a function.
3. R = {(x,y) ∈ R × R : x − y − 9 = 0} = {(x,y) ∈ R × R : y = x − 9}. For every real
number x, there corresponds to exactly one real number y. Thus, no two
ordered pairs in the given relation have the same first component. Therefore,
the relation is a function.√
4. R = {(x,y) ∈ R × R : y = x − 4. For every real number x, there corresponds

to exactly one real number y. Thus, no two ordered pairs in the given relation
have the same first component. Therefore, the relation is a function. √
5. R = {(x,y) ∈ R × R : x2 + y2 = 1} = {(x,y) ∈ R × R : y = ± 1 − x2}.

The ordered pairs (0,1) and (0,−1) are elemenmts of R and they have the same
first component. Therefore, the relation is not a function.
6. R = {(x,y) ∈ R×R : x2−y = 4} = {(x,y) ∈ R×R : y = x2−4}. For every real
number x, there corresponds to exactly one real number y. Thus, no two
ordered pairs in the given relation have the same first component. Therefore,
the relation is a function.
Sample Problem 2.3.10 Determine whether each relation is a function.

34
1.
2..
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
2.4 The Domain and Range of a Function

Definition 2.4.1 Let f be a function in R × R. Then the domain of f, denoted by
D(f), is the set of all real numbers x that occurs as first member of the elements
of f and the range of f, denoted by R(f), is the set of all real numbers y that
ocuurs as second member of the elements of f.
In set notation, the domain of a function y = f(x) is
D(f) = {x ∈ R : f(x) ∈ R}
and the range is
R(f) = {y ∈ R : f−1(y) ∈ R}, where y = f(x) ⇔ x = f−1(y).
Procedure in Finding the Domain and Range of a Function
To find the domain, find the largest set of real numbers for which the value f(x)
is a real number. Exclude all real numbers that lead to division by zero and real
numbers that result in an even root of a negative real number.
To find the range, solve for x in terms of y and find the largest set of real
numbers for which the value f−1(y) is a real number. Exclude all real numbers
35
that lead to division by zero and real numbers that result in an even root of a
negative real number.
Example 2.4.2 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = 3x − 5. Find D(f) and R(f).
Solution:
D(f) = {x ∈ R : f(x) ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : 2x − 5 ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R} = R.
.
= R.
Example 2.4.3 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = x2 − 4. Find D(f) and R(f).
Solution:
36
.
Example 2.4.4 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = 4x2 + 3. Find D(f) and R(f).
Solution:
Example 2.4.5 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = 3 − x2. Find D(f) and R(f).
37
Solution:
= (−∞,3].
Example 2.4.6 Let f be a function defined by . Find D(f) and

R(f).
Solution:
38
= (−∞,2) ∪ (2,+∞).

R(f).
Solution:
.
39
= (−∞,3) ∪ (3,+∞).

R(f).
Solution:
40
= (−∞,1) ∪ (1,+∞).
√
Example 2.4.9 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = x − 1. Find D(f) and R(f).
Solution:
and
41
= {y ∈ R : y ∈ R and y ≥ 0}
√
Example 2.4.10 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = 1 − x. Find D(f) and R(f).
Solution:
.
and
= {y ∈ R : y ∈ R and y ≥ 0}
Sample Problem 2.4.11 Find the domain and range of the following functions.
1. f(x) = 5x + 4; 2. f(x) = x2 + 7; 3. f(x) = 6 − x2;
4.; 5.; 6.;
√ √
√
7. f(x) = x − 7; 8. f(x) = x + 9; f(x) = 6 − x.
42
2.5 Operations on Functions
Definition 2.5.1 Let f and g be functions in R × R. Then

(i) their sum, denoted by f + g, is the function defined by
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x);
(ii) their difference, denoted by f − g, is the function defined by
(f − g)(x) = f(x) − g(x);
(iii) their product, denoted by f · g, is the function defined by
(f · g)(x) = f(x) · g(x); (iv) their
quotient, denoted by , is the function defined
by
The domain of the resulting function consists of all real numbers x common to
the domain of f and g, with the additional requirement in case (iv) where g(x)
6= 0 for all x.
and
43
∩R
Example 2.5.2 Let f and g be functions defined by f(x) = x2 − 1 and g(x) = x+5.
Define the following functions and find their respective domains:
(a) f + g; (b) f − g; (c) f · g; and (d) .
Solution:
D(f) ∩ D(g) = R = R.
(a) (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) = x2 − 1 + x + 5 = x2 + x + 4 and
D(f + g) = D(f) ∩ D(g) = R.
(b) (f − g)(x) = f(x) − g(x) = x2 − 1 − (x + 5) = x2 − x − 6 and
D(f − g) = D(f) ∩ D(g) = R.
(c) (f · g)(x) = f(x) · g(x) = (x2 − 1)(x + 5) = x3 + 5x2 − x − 5 and
D(f · g) = D(f) ∩ D(g) = R.
and
= (−∞,−5) ∪ (−5,+∞).
Example 2.5.3 Let f and g be functions defined by and g(x) = x −

1. Define the following functions and find their respective domains: (a) f + g;
(b) f − g; (c) f · g; and (d) .

Solution:
and
44
∩R
D(f) ∩ D(g) = [(−∞,3) ∪ (3,+∞)] = (−∞,3) ∪ (3,+∞).

1) and
D(f + g) = D(f) ∩ D(g) = (−∞,3) ∪ (3,+∞).
1) and
D(f − g) = D(f) ∩ D(g) = (−∞,3) ∪ (3,+∞).
and
and
= (−∞,1) ∪ (1,3) ∪ (3,+∞).

√
Example 2.5.4 Let f and g be functions defined by f(x) = x − 4 and g(x) = x+3.
Define the following functions and find their respective domains:
and
45
∩R
(a) f + g; (b) f − g; (c) ; and (e) .

Solution:
and
46
∩R
= [4,+∞).
+ 3 and
3 and
4
and
D(f · g) = D(f) ∩ D(g) = [4,+∞).
and
and
= (4,+∞).
Definition 2.5.5 Let f and g be functions in R×R. Then the the composite
function, denoted by f ◦ g, is the function defined by
(f ◦ g)(x) = f((g(x)).
47
The domain of f ◦ g is the set of all real numbers x in the domain of g such that
g(x) is in the domain of f.
Example 2.5.6 Let f and g be functions defined by f(x) = x+4 and g(x) = x2 + 6.
Define the following functions: (a) f ◦ g and (b) g ◦ f.
Solution: (a) (f ◦ g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(x2 + 6) = x2 + 6 + 4 = x2 + 10. (b) (g◦f)(x) =

g(f(x)) = g(x+4) = (x+4)2+6 = x2+8x+16+6 = x2+8x+22.
Example 2.5.7 Let f and g be functions defined by f(x) = 3x − 5 and

. Define the following functions: (a) f ◦ g and (b) g ◦ f.
Solution: (a )(
Example 2.5.8√ Let f and g be functions defined by f(x) = x+4 and g(x) =
x − 1. Define the following functions: (a) f ◦ g and (b) g ◦ f.

√ √
Solution: (a) (f ◦ g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(√ x − 1) = x√− 1 + 4;
(b) (g ◦ f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x + 4) = x+4−1= x + 3.
Example 2.5.9√ Let f and g be functions defined by f(x) = x2 + 4 and

g(x) = x − 2. Define the following functions: (a) f ◦ g; (b) g ◦ f; (c) f ◦ f and; (d)
g ◦ g.
√ √
Solution: (a) (f ◦g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f( x − 2) = ( x − 2) +4 = x−2+4 = x + 2; √
2
+ 20;
√ p√
(b) (g ◦ g)(x) = g(g(x)) = g( x − 2) = x − 2 − 2.
Sample Problem 2.5.10 1.Let f and g be functions defined by f(x) = x2−4 and
g(x) = x + 2. Define the following functions and find their respective
48
domains: (a) f + g; (b) f − g; (c) f · g; and (d).

√
2.Let f and g be functions defined by f(x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = 2x + 3. Define the
following functions and find their respective domains: (a) f + g; (b) f − g; (c) f ·
g; and (d) .
3.Let f and g be functions defined by and g(x) = x + 4. Define the
following functions and find their respective domains: (a) f +g; (b) f
−g; (c) f ·g; and (d) . 4. Let f and g be functions defined by f(x) = x2 −3
and
√
g(x) = x + 2. Define the following functions: (a) f ◦ g; (b) g ◦ f; (c) f ◦ f and; (d)
g ◦ g.
2.6 Functions as Mathematical Models

In this lesson ,we will express a real-world situations using functions,
which is called a mathematical model of the situation. This will give practice
in obtaining functions as mathematical models and as preparation to some of
the applications in calculus such as extremum and related problems.
Suggestions for Solving Problems Involving Function as a Mathematical
Model
1. Draw a fugure if possible.
2. Determine the known and unknown quantities. Assign a symbol, say x, for
the independent variable and a symbol, say f(x), for the function to be
obtained.
3. Write any numerical facts about the variable and the function value
anddetermine two algebaic expressions for the same number. From these
two expressions form an equation that defines a function, which is the
mathematical model of the problem.
Example 2.6.1 The sum of two positive numbers is 12.

49
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the product of the

twonumbers as a function of one of the numbers.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the product of the numbers if one of the numnber
is 4?
Solution: (a) Let x be one of the positive number, y be the other positive
number, x + y = 12 be the sum of the two positive numbers, and P be the
product of the two positive numbers. Then
P = xy and x + y = 12.
Solving for y in the second equation, we get
P = xy and y = 12 − x.
Thus,
P = x(12 − x) = 12x − x2.
Therefore, P is a function of x defined by
P(x) = 12x − x2.
= {x ∈ R : x > 0 and x − 12 < 0} ∪ {x ∈ R : x < 0 and x − 12 > 0}

= {x ∈ R : x > 0 and x < 12} ∪ {x ∈ R : x < 0 and x > 12}
= {x ∈ R : 0 < x < 12} ∪ { }
= {x ∈ R : 0 < x < 12}
= (0,12).
(c) If x = 4 then P(4) = 12(4)−(4)2 = 48−16 = 32. Therefore, if one of the

positive number is 4, the product of the two positive numbers is 32.
Example 2.6.2 A rectangular garden is to be fenced off with 30 m of fencing

material.
50
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the area of the

garden as afunction of its length.
(c) What is the area of the garden if the length is 12 m?
Solution: (a) Let x be the length of the garden, y be the width of the garden,
A be the area of the garden, and P = 30 be the perimeter of the garden. Then
A = xy and P = 2x + 2y.
Since P = 30, we have 30 = 2x + 2y. Solving for y, we get
A = xy and .
Thus,
A = x(15 − x) = 15x − x2.
Therefore, A is a function of x:
A(x) = 15x − x2.
= {x ∈ R : x ≥ 0 and x − 15 ≤ 0} ∪ {x ∈ R : x ≤ 0 and x − 15 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : x ≥ 0 and x ≤ 15} ∪ {x ∈ R : x ≤ 0 and x ≥ 15}
= {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x ≤ 15} ∪ { }
= {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x ≤ 15}
= [0,15].
(c) If x = 12 then A(12) = 15(12)−(12)2 = 180−144 = 36. Therefore, if the

length is 12 m, the area of the garden is 36 m 2.
Example 2.6.3 A closed tin can of volume 16π in3 is to be made in the form of
a right circular cylinder.
51
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the total surface

area of thecan as a function of the radius.
(c) What is the surface area of the can when the radius is 10
in?
Solution: (a) Let r be the radius of the can, h be the height of the can, A be the
surface area of the can, and V = 60 be the volume of the can. Then
A = 2πrh + πr2h and V = πr2.
Since V = 60, we have 60 = πr2h. Solving for h, we get
A = 2πrh + πr2 and .

Thus,
.
Therefore, A is a function of r:
and
= {r ∈ R : r 6= 0 and r > 0}
= {r ∈ R : r > 0}
= (0,+∞).
(c) If r = 10 then. Therefore, when

10
the radius is 10 in., the surface area of the can is 112π in2.
Example 2.6.4 A sheet of cardboard 4 ft by 6 ft is to made into an open box by

cutting equal squares from each corner and turning up the sides.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the volume of the box as
afunction of the length of the side of the square cut out.
52

(c) What is the volume of the box if the length of the square cut out
is0.5 ft?
Solution: (a) Let x be the length of the square cut out (this becomes the height
of the box, y be the width of the box, z be the length of the box, and V be the
volume of the box. Then
V = xy, and y = 4 − 2x, z = 6 − 2x.
Thus,
V = x(4 − 2x)(6 − 2x).
Therefore, V is a function of x:
V (x) = x(4 − 2x)(6 − 2x).
(b) D(A) = {x ∈ R : x(4 − 2x)(6 − 2x) ≥ 0}

= {x ∈ R : x ≥ 0 and 4 − 2x ≥ 0 and 6 − 2x ≥ 0},since x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, z ≥ 0
= {x ∈ R : x ≥ 0 and x ≤ 2 and x ≤ 3}
= {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x ≤ 2}
= [0,2].
(c) If x = 0.5 then V (0.5) = 0.5[4−2(0.5)][6−2(0.5)] = 0.5[3][5] = 7.5.

Therefore, if the length of the square cut out is 6 in, the volume of the box is 7.5
ft3.
Example 2.6.5 An online seller sells a certain product by the kg; If not more
than 20 kg are ordered, the online seller charges 4 pesos per kg and if more
than 20 kg are ordered, the online seller charges 3 pesos per kg.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the total cost of the
orderas a function of the amount of the product ordered.
(c) What is the total cost of an order of 16 kg?
(d) What is the total cost of an order of 25 kg?
Solution: (a) Let x be the number of kg of an order and C be the total cost of an
order. Then
53
(
4x, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 20
C= .
3x, if 20 < x
Therefore, C is a function of x given by
(
4x, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 20
C(x) = .
3x, if 20 < x
(b) D(C) = {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x ≤ 20} ∪ {x ∈ R : 20 < x}}

= [0,20] ∪ (20,+∞) =
[0,+∞).
(c) If 0 ≤ x ≤ 20, then C(x) = 4x. Thus, if x = 16, then C(16) = 4(16) =
64. Therefore, the total cost of an oder of 16 kg is 64 pesos.
(d) If 20 < x, then C(x) = 3x. Thus, if x = 25, then C(25) = 3(25) =
75. Therefore, the total cost of an oder of 25 kg is 75 pesos.
Sample Problem 2.6.6 In each of the following problem, find a mathematical

model of a particular situation.
1. The sum of two positive numbers is 20.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the product of the
twopositive numbers as a function of one of the positive numbers.
(c) What is the product of the two positive numbers if one of
thenumbers is 15?
1. A rectangular field is to be enclosed with 200 m of fence.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the total area of
the field asa function of its length.
(c) What is the area of the field if its length is 60 m?
2. A rectangular garden is to be fenced off with 100 m of fencing material.

54
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the area of the

garden as afunction of its length.
(c) What is the area of the garden if the length is 40 m?
3. A piece of tin with dimensions 8 in by 15 in will be made into an open

boxby cutting equal squares from four corners and turning up the sides.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the volume of the
box as afunction of the length of the side of the square cut out.
(c) What is the volume of the box if the length of the square
cut out is2 in?
4. A piece of cardboard with dimensions 40 cm by 60 cm will be made into

anopen box by cutting equal squares from four corners and turning up the
sides.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the volume of the
box as afunction of the length of the side of the square cut out.
(c) What is the volume of the box if the length of the square
cut out is5 cm?
5. A seller sells a product by the grams; If less than 10 g are ordered, the
sellercharges 50 pesos per gram and if at least 10 g are ordered, the seller
charges 45 pesos per gram.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the total cost of the
orderas a function of the amount of the product ordered. (b) Find the
domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the total cost of an order of 9 g?
(d) What is the total cost of an order of 12 g?
6. The regular adult admission to an evening performance at a

downtowntheater is 120 pesos, while the price for persons under 18 years of
age is 100 pesos.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the admission
price as afunction of the person’s age.
55
(c) What is the admission price if the person is 12 years old?

(d) What is the admission price if the person is 25 years old?
CHAPTER 3
SOME ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

1. find the domain and range of some elementary functions.
2. investigate basic properties of some elementary functions.
3. sketch the graph of some elementary functions.
3.1 Linear Functions

Definition 3.1.1 A function f in R × R defined by f(x) = ax + b, where a,b ∈ R and
a 6= 0, is called a linear function.
Example 3.1.2 The following are examples of linear functions.

1. f(x) = 2x + 4 2. f(x) = −2x + 2 3.
Theorem 3.1.3 Let f(x) = ax + b, where a 6= 0. Then

(i) D(f) = R and R(f) = R;
(ii) The graph of f is a line which is increasing if a > 0 and is
decreasing if a < 0.
Example 3.1.4 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = 2x + 4. Find D(f) and R(f).
Identify the graph of f and determine whether it is increasing or decereasing.
Sketch the graph of f.
Solution: D(f) = R and R(f) = R.

The graph of f is a line which is increasing since a = 2 > 0.
. ..............
............... ...............................
......................
.......
..........................
............................
...................... ...............
.......................
................................ ...............
.................. ...............
57
....................
. ............... ............... ................................................ ............... .. ............... ............... ............... ............... ............... .

..................
................
...................... ............... .................
...............
Example 3.1.5 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = −2x + 2. Find D(f) and R(f).

The graph of f is a line which is decreasing since a = −2 < 0.
.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. ............... ..
............... ............... ............... ............................................. ........................................................................................................................ ............... ............... ............... .
...............
Example 3.1.6 Let f be a function defined by + 2. Find D(f) and R(f).


The graph of f is a line which is increasing since
.
...............
............... ....... ............

..... .....
.....................................
.................................
............... ......................................
............................
.........................
............................. ..........................
..................................................
.....................................
..................................... ...............
..................................
.......................................
. . .
...... ...... ............................................................................................ .......... .
...
..
.. . ........
.. ...............
............... ............... .. . .. .
. .. . .......
..........
.....
58
............... ............... . . ..
.......... .
............... ...............
............... ..
...............................
...................................... ...............
....
...............
...............
Sample Problem 3.1.7 Given the following linear functions, find D(f) and R(f);
and determine whether the graph of f is increasing or decereasing.
1. f(x) = 3x + 6 2. f(x) = 3x − 6 3.
4. f(x) = −4x + 6 5. f(x) = 2x − 5 6.
3.2 Quadratic Functions
Definition 3.2.1 A function f in R×R defined by f(x) = ax2 +bx+c, where a,b,c ∈ R
and a 6= 0 is called a quadratic function.
Example 3.2.2 The following are examples of quadratic functions.

1. f(x) = x2 − 2x 2. f(x) = −x2 + 2x + 2 3. f(x) = −2x2 − 4 4. f(x) = −2x2+4x.
5. f(x) = x2−4x+1. 6. f(x) = −x2+3x−3.
Theorem 3.2.3 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a,b,c ∈ R

and a 6= 0. Then
(i) the vertex is ;

(ii) D(f) = R;
and ,
if a < 0.
(iv) the graph of f is a parabola opening upward if a > 0 and is a parabola
opening downward if a < 0.
Example 3.2.4 Let f(x) = x2 − 2x. Find the vertex, D(f), and R(f). Determine
whether the graph of f is opening upward or opening downward. Skecth the
graph of f.
59
Solution: Let a = 1, b = −2, and c = 0. Then
= 1 and
Hence,
V = (1,−1),D(f) = R, andR(f) = [−1,+∞).
Since a > 0, the graph is a parabola opening upward.
We may construct a table of values:

x 1 2 0
y = f(x) - 0 0
1
Using these three points, we sketch the graph of f.
.
. ............... ............... . . . .
.
............... V = (1,−1)
Example 3.2.5 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = −x2 + 2x + 2. Find the vertex,
D(f), and R(f). Determine whether the graph of f is opening upward or opening
downward. Sketch the graph of f.
Solution: Let a = −1, b = 2, and c = 2. Then
= 1 and
Hence,
V = (1,3), D(f) = R, and R(f) = (−∞,3].
Since a < 0, the graph is a parabola opening upward. Construct a table of values.
x 0 1 2
60
y 2 3 2
Using these three points, sketch a graph of the parabola.
.
. ............... ............... . . .
Sample Problem 3.2.6 . Let f be a quadratic function. Find the vertex, D(f),
and R(f). Determine whether the graph of f is opening upward or opening
downward. Sketch the graph of f.
1. f(x) = x2−2x+3. 2. f(x) = x2+4x+5. 3. f(x) = −x2−2x−3.
4. f(x) = −2x2+4x. 5. f(x) = x2−4x+1. 6. f(x) = −x2+3x−3.
3.3 Rational Functions
Definition 3.3.1 A function f in R × R defined by , where p(x) and q(x)

are polynomial functions and q(x) 6= 0, is called a rational function.
Example 3.3.2 The following are examples of rational functions.
1. 2. 3.
Theorem 3.3.3 Let f be a function defined by , where p(x) and q(x)

are polynomial functions and q(x) 6= 0. Then (i) D(f) = {x ∈ R : f(x) ∈ R} = {x ∈ R
: q(x) 6= 0}. (ii) R(f) = {y ∈ R : f−1(y) ∈ R}.

R(f).
Solution:
61
= (−∞,0) ∪ (0,+∞).

R(f).
Solution:
.
62
= (−∞,1) ∪ (1,+∞).

R(f).
Solution:
= (−∞,1) ∪ (1,+∞).
63
Example 3.3.7 Let f be a function defined by . Find D(f) and R(f).

Solution:
Sample Problem 3.3.8 . Given the following rational functions, find D(f),
64
2.3.
5.6.
3.4 Functions of the Form f(x) = pg(x)
Theorem 3.4.1 Let f(x) = pg(x), where g(x) is a polynomial function with g(x) ≥
0. Then
(i) D(f) = {x ∈ R : f(x) ∈ R} = {x ∈ R : g(x) ≥ 0}.
(ii) R(f) = {y ∈ R : f−1(y) ∈ R and y ≥ 0}.
√
Solution:
and
and
= {y ∈ R : y ∈ R and y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y ≥ 0}
= [0,+∞).
√
Example 3.4.3 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = x + 8. Find D(f) and R(f).
Solution:
65
and
and
= {y ∈ R : y ∈ R and y ≥ 0}
√
Example 3.4.4 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = x2 − 4. Find D(f) and R(f).
Solution:
and
= ny ∈ R : ±py2 + 4 ∈ R and y ≥ 0o
66
0 and
= {y ∈ R : y ∈ R and y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y ≥ 0}
= [0,+∞).
Sample Problem 3.4.5 Find the domain and range of the
following functions.
1. 7 2. +6 3.
4.4 3.9 4.
3.5 Functions of the Form f(x) = p3 g(x)
Theorem 3.5.1 Let f be a function in R×R defined by f(x) = p3 g(x), where g(x) is a
function in R × R. Then
(i) D(f) = {x ∈ R : f(x) ∈ R} = {x ∈ R : g(x) ∈ R}. (ii) R(f) = {y
∈ R : f−1(y) ∈ R}.
√
3
Solution:
.
67
= R.
√
Example 3.5.3 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = 3 x2 − 1. Find D(f) and R(f).
Solution:
√
Example 3.5.4 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = 3 1 − x2. Find D(f) and R(f).
Solution:
68
Solution:
69
= (−∞,1) ∪ (1,+∞).
Solution:
70
Sample Problem 3.5.7 Find the domain and range of the following functions.
1. + 5
2.3.
4.5.6.
3.6 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Definition 3.6.1 A function f in R × R defined by f(x) = bx, where b > 0 and b 6=

1, is called an exponential function.
71
Example 3.6.2 The following are examples of

exponential function.
1. f(x) = 2x 2.3.
4. f(x) = ex 5.3..
Theorem 3.6.3 Let f(x) = bu(x), where b > 0, b = 16, and u(x) is a function.
Then
(i) D(f) = {x ∈ R : f(x) = bu(x) ∈ R} = {x ∈ R : u(x) ∈ R}. (ii) R(f) = {y
∈ R : f−1(y) ∈ R}.
Definition 3.6.4 A function f in R×R defined by f(x) = logb x, where b > 0 and b
6= 1, is called a logarithmic function.
Example 3.6.5 The following are examples of

logarithmic function.
1. f(x) = log2 x 2.3.
4. f(x) = loge x 5.3..
Remark 3.6.6 For x > 0 and b > 0, b 6= 1, y = logb x is equivalent to x = by. Remark
3.6.7 For x > 0, y = loge x is equivalent to y = lnx.
Theorem 3.6.8 Let f(x) = logb u(x), where b > 0, b 6= 1, u(x) is a function with
u(x) > 0 for all x. Then
(i) D(f) = {x ∈ R : f(x) = logb u(x) ∈ R} = {x ∈ R : u(x) > 0}. (ii) R(f) = {y ∈
R : f−1(y) ∈ R}.
Example 3.6.9 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = log2 x. Find D(f) and R(f).
Solution:
D(f) = {x ∈ R : f(x) ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : logx x ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : x > 0}
= (0,+∞).
72
f(x) = log2 x ⇒ y = log2 x

⇒ 2y = x
⇒ x = 2y
⇒ f−1(y) = 2y.
R(f) = {y ∈ R : f−1(y) ∈ R}
= {y ∈ R : 2y ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : y ∈ R} = R.
Example 3.6.10 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = log2(3x). Find D(f) and R(f).
Solution:
D(f) = {x ∈ R : f(x) ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : log2(3x) ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : 3x > 0}
= {x ∈ R : x > 0}
= (0,+∞).
.
Example 3.6.11 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = log3(3x − 6). Find D(f) and
R(f).
Solution:
D(f) = {x ∈ R : f(x) ∈ R}
73
= {x ∈ R : log3(3x − 6) ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : 3x − 6 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : x > 2}
= (2,+∞).
.
Example 3.6.12 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = 2x. Find D(f) and
R(f).
Solution:
D(f) = {x ∈ R : f(x) ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : 2x ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R} = R.
Example 3.6.13 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = ln(x−5). Find D(f) and R(f).
Solution:
D(f) = {x ∈ R : f(x) ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : ln(x + 5) ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : x + 5 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : x > −5}
= (5,+∞).
f(x) = ln(x + 5) ⇒ y = ln(x + 5)

74
⇒ y = loge(x + 5)
⇒ ey = x + 5 ⇒ x
= ey − 5
⇒ f−1(y) = ey − 5.
R(f) = {y ∈ R : f−1(y) ∈ R}
= {y ∈ R : ey − 5 ∈ R}
= {y ∈ R : y ∈ R} = R.
Example 3.6.14 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = 2x. Find D(f) and
R(f).
Solution:
D(f) = {x ∈ R : f(x) ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : 2x ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R} = R.
f(x) = 2x ⇒ y = 2x
⇒ x = log2 y
⇒ f−1(y) = log2 y.
Example 3.6.15 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = 3x+1. Find D(f) and R(f).
Solution:
75
f(x) = 3x+1 ⇒ y = 3x+1

⇒ x + 1 = log3 y ⇒ x
= log3 y − 1
⇒ f−1(y) = log3 y − 1.
Example 3.6.16 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = ex2. Find D(f) and r(f).
Solution:
76
Sample Problem 3.6.17 Given the following functions, find D(f) and R(f).
3.7 Trigonometric Functions
Definition 3.7.1 A functiion in R×R defined by f(x) = sinx is called a sine function.
Theorem 3.7.2 Let f be a functiion in R × R defined by f(x) = sinx. Then
D(f) = R and R(f) = [−1,1].
To sketch the graph of f(x) = sinx, we may construct a table of values:

π π 3π
x 0 π
√4 2 √4
2 2
y = sinx −1 0 1 0
2 2
We sketch the graph of f on the the interval [−2π,2π].
.
...............
. . .
...............
.
77
Theorem 3.7.3 Let f be a function in R × R defined by f(x) = sinu(x), where u(x) is

a function of x. Then
D(f) = {x ∈ R : sinu(x) ∈ R} = {x ∈ R : u(x) ∈ R}.
Example 3.7.4 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = sin(2x + 5). Find D(f).
Solution:
D(f) = {x ∈ R : f(x) ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : sin(2x + 5) ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : 2x + 5 ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R} = R.
Example 3.7.5 Let Let f be a function defined by .

Find D(f).
Solution:
= R.
Example 3.7.6 Let f be a function defined by . Find

D(f).
Solution:
= (−∞,3) ∪ (3,+∞).
78
Definition 3.7.7 A function f in R × R defined by f(x) = cosx is called a cosine

function.
Theorem 3.7.8 Let f be a function in R × R defined by f(x) = cosx. Then
D(f) = R and R(f) = [−1,1].
To sketch the graph of f(x) = cosx, we may construct a table of values:

x 0 √4π π2 3π π
√4
2 2
y = cosx 0 1 0 -1
2 2
We sketch the graph of f on [−2π,2π].
.
...............
..... .....
−2π 2π
. .
... ...
. ..... .
...............
Theorem 3.7.9 Let f be a function in R × R defined by f(x) = cosu(x), where u(x)

is a function of x. Then
D(f) = {x ∈ R : sinu(x) ∈ R} = {x ∈ R : u(x) ∈ R}.
Example 3.7.10 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = cos(x3 + 1). Find D(f).
Solution:
Example 3.7.11 Let f be a function defined by . Find

79
D(f).
Solution:
= (−∞,−3) ∪ (−3,+∞).
√
Example 3.7.12 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = cos x − 4. Find
D(f).
Solution:
= [4,+∞).
Definition 3.7.13 A function f in R × R defined by f(x) = tanx is called a tangent

function.
Theorem 3.7.14 Let be a function in R×R defined by f(x) = tanx. Then

(i) D(f) = nx ∈ R : x 6= + πk, k ∈ Zo;
2
(ii) R(f) = R;
(iii) The lines are

the vertical asymptotes of the graph of f.
80
Theorem 3.7.15 Let f(x) = tanu(x), where u(x) is a function in R × R. Then
.
Example 3.7.16 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = tan(x − π). Find D(f).
Solution:
Example 3.7.17 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = tan2x. Find D(f).
Solution:
Example 3.7.18 Let f be a function defined by . Find D(f).
Solution:
Definition 3.7.19 A function f in R × R defined by f(x) = cotx is called a cotangent

function.
Theorem 3.7.20 Let f be a function in R×R defined by f(x) = cotx. Then

(i) D(f) = {x ∈ R : x 6= πk, k ∈ Z};
(ii) R(f) = R;
81
(iii) The lines x = πk, k ∈ Z are the vertical asymptotes

of the graph of f.
Theorem 3.7.21 Let f(x) = cotu(x), where u(x) is a function in R × R.
Then
D(f) = {x ∈ R : cotu(x) ∈ R} = {x ∈ R : u(x) 6= πk, k ∈ Z}.
Example 3.7.22 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = cot(x − π). Find D(f).
Solution:
D(f) = {x ∈ R : cot(x − π ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : x − π 6= πk, k ∈ Z} = {x ∈
R : x 6= π + πk, k ∈ Z}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= π(k + 1),k ∈ Z}.
Example 3.7.23 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = cot(3x). Find D(f).
Solution:
Example 3.7.24 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = cot . Find D(f).
Solution:
Definition 3.7.25 A function f in R × R defined by f(x) = secx is called a secant

function.
Theorem 3.7.26 Let f be a function in R×R defined by f(x) = secx. Then

82
;
(ii) R(f) = (−∞,−1] ∪ [1,+∞); π
(iii) The lines x = + πk, k ∈ Z are the vertical asymptotes
of the
2
graph of f.
Theorem 3.7.27 Let f(x) = secu(x), where u(x) is a function in R × R. Then
Example 3.7.28 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = sec(2x). Find D(f).
Solution:
Solution:
Definition 3.7.30 A function f in R × R defined by f(x) = cscx is called a cosecant

function.
Theorem 3.7.31 Let f be a function in R×R defined by f(x) = cscx. Then

(i) D(f) = {x ∈ R : x 6= πk, k ∈ Z};
(ii) R(f) = (−∞,−1] ∪ [1,+∞);
(iii) The lines x = πk, k ∈ Z are the vertical asymptotes
of the graph of f.
83
Theorem 3.7.32 Let f(x) = cscu(x), where u(x) is a function in R × R.

Then
D(f) = {x ∈ R : cscu(x) ∈ R} = {x ∈ R : u(x) 6= πk, k ∈ Z}.
Example 3.7.33 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = csc(3x). Find D(f).

Solution:
Solution:
Sample Problem 3.7.35 Given the following trigonometric functions, find the
domain.
1. 6) 2.
4. +5 5.
7. f(x) = cot(x + 2π)) 8. ) = cot
10. f(x) = sec(3x) 11. f(x) = csc(4x) 12.

CHAPTER 4
LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

1. find the limit of a function using the intuitive idea of limit.
2. evaluate limits of functions applying the theorems on limits.
3. evaluate one-sided limits, infinite limits and limits at infinity of functions.
4. show that a function is continuous or not continuous at a real number.
5. find the open interval at which the function is continuous.
6. show that a function is continuous or not continuous at an open interval.
4.1 Intuitive Idea of Limit
Let f be a function defined at each x on some open interval I containing

the real number a, except possibly at a itself. If x gets closer and closer to a, the
value f(x) gets closer and closer to some real number L, then we say that ”the
limit of f(x), as x approaches a, is L” or ”f(x) approaches L as x approaches a”,
written
.
Let us consider some examples.
Example 4.1.1 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = x+2 and a = 1. Then f is

defined for all x on every open interval containing a = 1. Find lim f(x).
x→1
Solution: Let us investigate the value f(x) when x gets closer and closer to 1 but
not equal to 1.
x 0.9 0.99 0.999 0.9999 0.99999
f(x) 2.9 2.99 2.999 2.9999 2.99999
As x gets closer and closer to 1 from the left, the value f(x) gets closer
and closer to 3.
x 1.00001 1.0001 1.001 1.01 1.1
85
f(x) 3.00001 3.0001 3.001 3.01 3.1

As x gets closer and closer to 1 from the right, the value f(x) gets closer
and closer to 3.
Hence, f(x) approaches 3 as x approaches 1. Therefore,
Example 4.1.2 Let f be a function defined by f(x) = x2 + 2 and a = 0.

Then f is defined for all x on every open interval containing a = 0. Find lim f(x).
x→0
not equal to 0.
x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 −0.00001
f(x) 2.01 2.0001 2.000001 2.000001 2.0000001
and closer to 2.
x 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
f(x) 2.000001 2.00001 2.0001 2.001 2.01
and closer to 2.
Example 4.1.3 Let f be a function defined by and a = 2.

Then f is defined for all x on every open interval containing a = 2 except at a =
2. Find lim f(x).
x→2
not equal to 2.
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 1.99999
f(x) 3.9 3.99 3.999 3.9999 3.99999
and closer to 4.
x 2.00001 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.1
86
f(x) 4.00001 4.0001 4.001 4.01 4.1

and closer to 4.
Example 4.1.4 Let f be a function defined by and a = −3.

Then f is defined for all x on every open interval containing a = −3 except at a
= −3. Find lim f(x).
x→−3
Solution: Let us investigate the value f(x) when x gets closer and closer to −3
but not equal to −3.
x −3.1 −3.01 −3.001 −3.0001 −3.00001
f(x) −3.1 −3.01 −3.001 −3.0001 −3.00001
As x gets closer and closer to −3 from the left, the value f(x) gets closer
and closer to −3.
x −2.99999 −2.9999 −2.999 −2.99 −2.9
f(x) −2.99999 −2.9999 −2.999 −2.99 −2.9
As x gets closer and closer to −3 from the right, the value f(x) gets closer
and closer to −3.
Hence, f(x) approaches −3 as x approaches −3. Therefore,
lim f(x) = −3.

x→−3
Sample Problem 4.1.5 Evalute the following limits applying the ”Intuitive
Idea of Limit”.
2) 2. lim + 4) 3.
lim
4. lim (x2 + 1) 5. lim

x→−2
87
4.2 Computation of the Limits of Functions
We enumerate some limit theorems for the straightforward

computation of limits of functions.
Theorem 4.2.1 (Limit of the Constant Function) If c is a constant, then for any
real number a,
Example 4.2.2 1. lim 4 = 4; 2.lim(−2) = −2; 3. lim . x→0

x→4
Theorem 4.2.3 (Limit of the Polynomial Function) If c0,c1,...,cn−1,cn are

constants, then for any real number a, lim(cnxn + cn−1xn−1 + ... + c1x + c0) = cnan +
cn−1an−1 + ... + c1a + c0.
x→a Example 4.2.4 Evaluate lim(5x −
6).
x→3
Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3, lim(5x − 6) = 5(3) − 6 = 9.

x→3 Example 4.2.5
Evaluate lim (2x2 − 4x + 3).

x→−1
Solution: By Theotem 4.2.3, lim
Example 4.2.6 Evaluate lim(x3 − 8).

x→2
Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3, lim(x3 − 8) = (2)3 − 8 = 0.

x→2
Theorem 4.2.7 (Limit of the Sum and Difference) Let f and g be functions such that
lim f(x) and lim g(x) both exist. Then
88
x→a x→a lim[f(x) ± g(x)] = lim f(x) ±

lim g(x). x→a x→a x→a
Example 4.2.8 Use Theorem 4.2.7 to evaluate lim [(2x2 +1)+(x3 +3x2)].
x→−1
Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3,
lim (2x2 + 1) = 2(−1)2 + 1 = 3 and lim (x3 − 3x2) = (−1)3 + 3(−1)2 = 2.

x→−1 x→−1
Therefore, by Theorem 4.2.7,
lim [(2x2 + 1) + (x3 + 3x2)] = lim (2x2 + 1) + lim (x3 + 3x2) x→−1 x→−1
x→−1
=3+2
= 5.
Example 4.2.9 Use Theorem 4.2.7 to evaluate lim [(2x2 +1)−(x3 +3x2)].
x→−1
lim (2x2 + 1) = 2(−1)2 + 1 = 3 and lim (x3 − 3x2) = (−1)3 + 3(−1)2 = 2. x→−1
x→−1
lim [(2x2 + 1) − (x3 + 3x2)] = lim (2x2 + 1) − lim (x3 + 3x2) x→−1 x→−1
x→−1
=3−2
= 1.
By induction, Theorem 4.2.7 can be extended to a finite number of functions.
Example 4.2.10 Use Theorem 4.2.7 to evaluate lim

(x4 − 6)].

89
12 = 4,
5(2) = 2,
and
lim(x4 − 6) = (2)4 − 6 = 10.

x→2 Therefore, by Theorem 4.2.7, lim[(2x3 − 12) + (3x2 − 5x) −
(x4 − 6)] = lim(2x3 − 12) + lim(3x2 − 5x) − lim(x4 − 6) x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2
= 4 + 2 − 10
= −4.
Theorem 4.2.11 (Limit of the Product) Let f and g be functions such that lim
f(x) and lim g(x) both exist. Then x→a x→a
lim[f(x) · g(x)] = lim f(x) · lim g(x). x→a x→a

x→a
Example 4.2.12 Use Theorem 4.2.11 to evaluate lim[(2x − 4)(2x3 − 5x2)].

x→3
Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3, lim(2x − 4) = 2(3) − 4 = 2 and lim(2x3 − 32) =

2(3)3 − 5(3)2 = 9. x→3 x→3
lim[(2x − 4)(2x3 − 5x2)] = lim(2x − 4) · lim(2x3 − 5x2) x→3

x→3 x→3
= 2(9)
= 18.
noindent By induction, Theorem 4.2.11 can be extended to a finite

number of functions. Example 4.2.13 Use Theorem 4.2.11 to evaluate
lim[−2x3(x2−4x)(3x4−4)].
x→1

90
2,
3,
and
Therefore, by Theorem 4.2.11, lim[−2x3(x2 − 4x)(3x4 − 5)] = lim(−2x3) ·

lim(x2 − 4x) · lim(3x4 − 4) x→1 x→1 x→1 x→1
= −2(−3)(−1)
= −6.
Theorem 4.2.14 (Limit of the nth Power of a Function) Let f be a function such that
lim f(x) exist and n a positive integer. Then
x→a
nh in lim[f(x)] =
lim f(x) . x→a x→a
Example 4.2.15 Evaluate lim(3x3 − 7x2 − 15)3.

x→3
3 2 3h 3 2 i3
lim(3x − 7x − 15) = lim(3x − 7x − 15) x→3 x→3
= (3)3
= 27.
Example 4.2.16 Evaluate lim (x4 + 4x2 − 3)4.

x→−1
lim (x4 + 4x2 − 3) = (−1)4 + 4(−1)2 − 6 = −1.

91
x→−1
= 1.
Theorem 4.2.17 (Limit of the nth Root of a Function) Let f be a

q function such
that lim f(x) exist and n a positive integer. If n lim f(x) ∈ R, x→a x→a
then
lim pn f(x) = qn lim f(x). x→a

x→a
Example 4.2.18 Evaluate lim
lim (4x2 − 5x + 1) = 4(−2)2 − 5(−2) + 1 = 27.

x→−2
Then,
√
q3 2 − 5x + 1) = 3 27 = 3 ∈ R. lim (4x x→−2

√
lim 3 4x2 − 5x + 1 = q3 lim (4x2 − 5x + 1) x→−2
x→−2
= 3.
√
Example 4.2.19 Evaluate lim 5 2x3 − 5x − 4.
x→−1

92
Then
q5 lim (2x3 − 5x − 1) = √5 −1 = −1 ∈ R.
x→−1

√
lim 5 2x3 − 5x − 1 = q5 lim (2x3 − 5x − 1) x→−1
x→−1
= −1.
Theorem 4.2.20 (Limit of the Quotient) Let f and g be functions such that lim
f(x) and lim g(x) both exist. If lim g(x) 6= 0, then x→a x→a x→a
.
3
Example 4.2.21 Evaluate lim .
Solution: By Theorem 4.2.3, + 3 = 30 and lim(3x2 − 4x) = 3(3)2 − 4(3) = 15.

x→3
= 2.

93
9 = 0 and lim
= 0.
2
1 = 3 and lim(x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.
x→2
Since the limit of the denominator is zero, Theorem 4.2.20 does not apply.
Example 4.2.24 Evaluate lim.

x→2
4 = 0 and lim(x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.
x→2
Since the limit of the denominator is zero, Theorem 4.2.20 does not apply.
In Example 4.2.24, because the limit of the denominator is also zero, we

may apply the next theorem.
Theorem 4.2.25 Let F and G be functions such that F(x) = G(x) for all x 6= a. If
lim G(x) exists, then lim F(x) exists. Moreover, x→a x→a
lim F(x) = lim G(x). x→a

x→a
Theorem 4.2.25 may be applied if the limits of the numerator and the
denominator are both zero.
94

x→2
4= 0 and lim(x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.
x→2
We may apply Theorem 4.2.25 because the limits are both zero.
If x 6= 2, then
Evaluate lim(x + 2):

x→2
By Theorem 4.2.3,
lim (x2 + 3x) = (−3)2 + 3(−3) = 9 − 9 = 0 and lim (x + 3) = −3 + 3 = 0. x→−3

x→−3
If x 6= −3, then
.
Evaluate lim x:
x→−3
By Theorem 4.2.3,
lim x = −3. x→−3

95

x→3
lim(x2 − 5x + 6) = (3)2 − 5(3) + 6 = 9 − 15 + 6 = 0 and x→3

lim(x − 3) = 3 − 3 = 0. x→3
If x 6= 3, then
Evaluate lim(x − 2):

x→3
By Theorem 4.2.3,

x→4
5(4) + 4 = 0 and lim(x − 4) = 4 − 4 = 0.

x→4
If x 6= 3, then
96
Evaluate lim(x − 1):

x→4
By Theorem 4.2.3,
x+2
Example 4.2.30 Evaluate lim if it exist. x→2 x −
2
+ 2) = 2 + 2 = 4 and lim(x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.
x→2
The limit of the denominator is zero but the limit of the numerator is a nonzero
real number. Thus, Theorem 4.2.25 does not apply. In this case, we conclude
that does not exist in R.
Example 4.2.30 will be discussed in Section 4.5.
Sample Problem 4.2.31 Evaluate the following limits. When appropriate,

indicate the limit theorems being applied:
4.3 One-Sided Limits

In our discussion of the limit of a function as the variable x approaches
a real numnber a, we are concerned with the values of x in an open interval I
97
containing a but not at a itself. Both values of x from the right and from the left
of a, which are close to a, are considered. The ordinary limit that we defined is
also called the two-sided limit. But, there are functions that are not defined in
any open interval containing a. Thus, we consider only either those values of x
greater then a or those values of x less than a. For example, consider the
function
√ f(x)
= x−2
Then f(x) is not defined if x < 2, which implies that f is not defined on any open
interval I containing 2. Thus,
) has no meaning.
√
However, if we restrict values of x greater than 2, the value of x − 2 can be made
closer and closer to 0 as x gets closer and closer to 2 but greater than 2. In this
case, as x approaches 2 from the right, the right-hand limit of f(x) is 0. In
symbols, we write
lim f(x) = 0.
x→2+
Definition 4.3.1 (Right-Hand Limit) Let f be a function defined for all x in

some open interval (a,c). Then the limit of f(x) as x approaches a from the right
is L, written
,
if for every > 0, however small, there exists a δ > 0 such that
if 0 < x − a < δ, then .
Definition 4.3.2 (Left-Hand Limit) Let f be a function defined for all x in some
open interval (b,a). Then the limit of f(x) as x approaches a from the left is L,
written
,
if for every > 0, however small, there exists a δ > 0 such that
if 0 < a − x < δ, then .
98
Remark 4.3.3 The limit theorems discussed earlier hold if ”x → a” is replaced

by ”x → a+” or ”x → a−”.
lim (x − 2) = 0.
x→2+
Then
.
√
Note: 2 is not defined since the function f(x) = x − 2 is not
defined for all x < 2.
lim (x + 2) = −2 + 2 = 0.
x→−2+
Then
.
√ Note: + 2
is not defined since the function f(x) = x − 1 is not defined for
all x < −2.

99
lim (1 − x) = 1 − 1 = 0.
x→1−
Then
.
√
Note:is not defined since the function f(x) = 1 − x is not
defined for all x > 1.
lim (x2 − 4) = (2)2 − 4 = 0.

x→2+
Then
.
Example 4.3.8 Let

, if x < 0
if 0 ≤ x.
Find (a) lim f(x) and (b) lim f(x).

x→0− x→0+
Solution: If x < 0, then f(x) = x + 3. By Theorem 4.2.3,
lim f(x) = lim (x + 3) = 0 + 3 = 3.

x→0− x→0−
If 0 ≤ x, then f(x) = 3 − x. By Theorem 4.2.3,

100
lim f(x) = lim (3 − x) = 3 − 0 = 3.

x→0+ x→0+
Example 4.3.9 Let
if x < −1 if −1
x + 1, ≤ x ≤ 1 if 1 ≤
x.
f(x) = x2
2 − x,
Find lim f(x) and lim f(x).
x→−1− x→1+
Solution: If x < −1, the f(x) = x + 1. By Theorem 4.2.3,
lim f(x) = lim (x + 1) = −1 + 1 = 0.

x→−1− x→−1−
If 1 ≤ x, the f(x) = 2 − x. By Theorem 4.2.3,
Theorem 4.3.10 lim f(x) exists if and only if lim f(x) and lim f(x) both
x→a x→a+ x→a−
exist and are equal. Moreover,
Example 4.3.11 Let
(2x2, if x < 1
f(x) =
3 − x, if 1 ≤ x.
Find lim f(x) if it exists.

x→1
Solution: We evaluate the left-hand and right-hand limits of f(x) at a = 1.
If x < 1, then f(x) = 2x2. By Theorem 4.2.3,
lim f(x) = lim (2x2) = 2(1)2 = 2.

101
x→1− x→1−
If 1 ≤ x, then f(x) = 3 − x. By Theorem 4.2.3,
Thus,
lim f(x) = lim f(x).

x→1− x→1+
Example 4.3.12 Let

( x + 4, if x < 3
f(x) = x2 −
1, if 3 ≤ x.
Find lim f(x) if it exist.

x→3
Solution: We evaluate the left-hand and right-hand limits of f(x) at a = 3.
If x < 3, then f(x) = x + 4. By Theorem 4.2.3,
√
If 3 ≤ x, then f(x) = x2 − 1. By Theorem 4.2.3,
lim (x2 − 1) = (3)2 − 1 = 8.

x→3+
Thus,
lim f(x) 6= lim f(x).

x→3− x→3+
) does not exist.
Example 4.3.13 Let

102
if x ≤ 1
, if 1 < x
Find lim f(x) if it exist.

x→1
Solution: We evaluate the left-hand and right-hand limits of the function at a =

1.
If x < 1, then f(x) = x2 − 1. By Theorem 4.2.3,
lim f(x) = lim (x2 − 1) = (1)2 − 1 = 0.

x→1− x→1−
If x > 1, then f(x) = 1 − x 2. By Theorem 4.2.3,
lim (1 − x2) = 1 − (1)2 = 0.

x→1+
Thus,

indicate the limit
theorems being
applied:
5 2.
lim
3. lim 9 5. lim 9
6. lim
; find lim f(x).

x→−4
103
8.; find lim f(x).

t→−2
x + 1, if x < −1
9. f(x) = x 2, if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1; find lim f(x).

x→1
2 − x, if 1 < x
if x < −1 if −1
≤ x ≤ 1; if 1 < x
find lim f(x).
, x→−1
4.4 Infinite Limits
In this section ,we will discuss functions whose valus increases without
bound or decreases withour bound as the independent variable gets closer and
closer to real number.
Definition 4.4.1 Let f be a function defined for all x in some open interval I
containing the real number a, except possibly at a itself. We say that f(x)
increases without bound as x approaches a, written
lim f(x) = +∞,
x→a
if for every real number K > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that
if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then f(x) > K.
Remark 4.4.2 can also be read as ”the limit of f(x), as x

approaches a, is positive infinity”. The one sided limits lim and
, can be defined accordingly.
Example 4.4.3 Let f be a function defined by and a = 0. Determine whether the

limit is +∞ or −∞.
Solution: The function f is defined for all real numbers x on every open interval
containing a = 0 except at a = 0. Let us investigate the value f(x) when x gets
closer and closer to 0 but not equal to 0.
x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 −0.00001
f(x) 100 104 106 108 1010
104
As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the left, the value f(x) increases
without bound.
x 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
f(x) 1010 108 106 104 100
As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the right, the value f(x) increases
without bound.
Hence, f(x) increases without bound as x approaches 0. Therefore,
lim f(x) = +∞.

x→0
Note that the symbol +∞ is not a symbol for a real number. Thus, the
symbol lim can be read as ”the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is
positive infinity.” This means that the limit of the function as x approaches a
does not exist in the set R. The symbol lim indicates that the
behavior of a function values increases without bound as x gets closer and
closer to a.
In a similar manner, we can indicate the behavior of a function whose
function values decrease without bound.
Definition 4.4.4 Let f be a function defined for all x in some open interval I
containing the real number a, except possibly at a itself. We say that f(x)
decreases without bound as x approaches a, written
lim f(x) = −∞,
x→a
if for every real number K < 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that
if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then f(x) < K.
Remark 4.4.5 can also be read as ”the limit of f(x), as x

approaches a, is negative infinity”. The one sided limits lim and
, can be defined accordingly.
Example 4.4.6 Let f be a function defined by and a = 0.

Determine whether the limit is +∞ or −∞.
105
Solution: The function f is defined for all real numbers x on every open interval
containing a = 0 except at a = 0. Let us investigate the value f(x) when x gets
closer and closer to 0 but not equal to 0.
x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 −0.00001
f(x) −100 −104 −106 −108 −1010
As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the left, the value f(x) decreases
without bound.
x 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
f(x) −1010 −108 −106 −104 −100
As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the right, the value f(x) decreases
without bound.
Hence, f(x) decreases without bound as x approaches 0. Therefore,
.
Theorem 4.4.7 If r is any positive integer, then
is even;
is odd;
is even.
Example 4.4.8 Applying 4.5.6, we have
, 2
. lim ,
, 4. lim ,
, 6. lim
, 8. lim
Theorem 4.4.9 If a is a real number, and if lim g(x) = 0 and lim f(x) = c,
x→a x→a
where c is a constant not equal to zero, then

106
and if g(x) → 0 through positive values of g(x), then
;
(ii) if lim f(x) = c > 0 and if g(x) → 0 through negative values of g(x), then x→a
;
(iii) if lim f(x) = c < 0 and if g(x) → 0 through positive values of g(x), then x→a
;
(iv) if lim f(x) = c < 0 and if g(x) → 0 through negative values of g(x), then x→a
Remark 4.4.10 Theorem 4.5.9 is true if ”x → a” is replaced by ”x → a+” or ”x →

a−”.

x→2+
Solution: lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.
x→2+ x→2+ does not exist in R. Determine if the limit

is +∞ or −∞.
Since x → 2+, consider a real number x > 2 but closer to 2.
Let x = 2.1 and substitute in x − 2:
2.1 − 2 = 0.1 > 0.
Hence,
lim (x + 2) > 0 and (x − 2) → 0 through positive values.

x→2+
Therefore, by Theorem 4.5.9(i),
.
107

x 2
Solution: lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4 and lim (x − 2) = 2 − 2 = 0.
x→2− x→2− does not exist in R. Determine if the limit

is +∞ or −∞.
Since x → 2−, consider a real number x < 2 but closer to 2. Let x =

1.9 and substitute to x − 2:
1.9 − 2 = −0.1 < 0.
Hence,
lim (x + 2) > 0 and (x − 2) → 0 through negative values.

x→2−
Therefore, by Theorem 4.5.9(ii),

x 1
Solution: lim (x − 2) = −1 and lim (x2 + 2x − 3) = 0.
x→1− x→1− does not exist in R. Determine if the limit

is +∞ or −∞.
Since x → 1−, consider a real number x < 1 but closer to 1. Let x =
0.9 and substitute to x2 + 2x − 3:
(0.9)2 + 2(0.9) − 3 = −0.39 < 0.

Hence,
lim (x − 2) < 0 and (x2 + 2x − 3) → 0 through negative values.

x→1 −
Therefore, by Theorem 4.5.9(iv),

108

x 1
Solution: lim (x − 2) = −1 and lim (x2 + 2x − 3) = 0.
x→1+ x→1+ does noe exist in R. Determine if the limit

is +∞ or −∞.
Since x → 1+, consider a real number x > 1 but closer to 1. Let x =
1.1 and substitute to x2 + 2x − 3:
(1.1)2 + 2(1.1) − 3) = 0.41 > 0.
Hence,
lim (x − 2) < 0 and (x2 + 2x − 3) → 0 through positive values.

x→1+
Therefore, by Theorem 4.5.9(iii),

indicate the limit theorems being applied:
4. lim
4.5 Limits at Infinity
In this section, we consider limits of functions when the independent

variable either increases or decreases without bound. Let f be a function
defined by
.
109
We investigate the function values as x increases without bound. Consider the

table below.
x 10 102 103 104 105
f(x) .99 .9999 .999999 .99999999 .999999999
As x increases without bound, f(x) gets closer and closer to 1. In this
case, we write
Definition 4.5.1 Let f be a function defined at every real number in some open
interval (a,+∞). The limit of f(x) as x increases without bound , is L, written
,
if for every > 0, there exists a real number N > 0 such that
if x > N, then .
Definition 4.5.2 Let f be a function defined at every real number in some open
interval (−∞,a). The limit of f(x) as x decreases without bound , is L, written
lim f(x) = L.
x→−∞
if for every > 0, there exists a real number N < 0 such that
if x < N, then .
Theorem 4.5.3 If r is a positive integer and c is any real number, then

and .
Remark 4.5.4 Theorem 4.5.8 is still valid if x → a is replaced by x → +∞ or x →
−∞.
Solution: Divide the numerator and denominator by x2 (x2 is the highest power
of x occuring in either the numerator or the denominator).
110
.
By Theorem 4.6.3(i),
=0 and lim
Hence,
Therefore,
Solution: Divide the numerator and denominator by x3.
.
By Theorem 4.6.3(ii),
= 0, and lim
Hence,
Therefore,
111

Solution: Divide the numerator and denominator by x4.
.
By Theorem 4.6.3(ii),
= 0, and lim
Hence,
Therefore,

indicate the limit theorems
being applied:
1. lim 2.
lim 3.
lim
4. lim 5. lim 6. lim

4.6 Continuity of a Function at a Real Number
In our discussion of the limit of a function, we pointed out that if lim f(x)
exists, its value is not necessarily equal to f(a), the value of the
x→a
112
function at the real number a. In fact, f(a) may be undefined. If both f(a) and
lim ) exists and are equal, then f is continuous at a. We state the
following definition.
Definition 4.6.1 The function f is said to be continuous at the real number a if

the following three conditions are satisfied
(i) f(a) exists; (ii)
lim f(x) exists; x→a
(iii) lim f(x) = f(a).
x→a
If one or more of these three conditions fails to hold at a, then the

function is said to be discontinuous at a. Geometrically, a function f is
discontinuous at a real number a if there a break or cut in the graph of y = f(x)
at x = a.
If f is discontinuous at a real number a but lim ) exists, then it is

called a removable discontinuity. If f is discontinuous at a real number a such
that lim ) does no exist, then it is called an essential discontinuuity.
Example 4.6.2 Determine if the function f(x) = 3x − 5 is continuous or

discontinuous at x = 1. If it is discontinuous at x = 2, determine if the
discontinuity is removable or essential.
Solution:
(i) f(1) = 3(1) − 5 = −2.
(ii) lim(3x − 5) = 3(1) − 5 = −2. x→1
(iii) lim(3x − 5) = f(2). x→1
Therefore, f is continuous at x = 1.
Example 4.6.3 Determine if the function f(x) = x2 + 2 is continuous or

discontinuous at x = 2. If it is discontinuous at x = 2, determine if the
Solution:
(i) f(2) = (2)2 + 2 = 6.
113
Example 4.6.4 Determine if the function is continuous at x = 2.

If it is discontinuous at x = 2, determine if the discontinuity is removable or
essential.
Solution:
2
. Hence, f(2) is not defined.

Therefore, f is discontinuous at x = 2.
(ii) Evaluate lim.

x→2
4=0 and lim

If x 6= 2, then
Hence,
Therefore, the discontinuity is removable.
Example 4.6.5 Determine if the function

( x − 1, if x < 1
f(x) =
1 − x2, if 1 ≤ x
is continuous at x = 1. If it is discontinuous at x = 1, determine if the

Solution:
(i) If 1 ≤ x ,then f(x) = 1 − x2. Thus, f(1) = 1 − (1)2 = 0.
114
(ii) Evaluate lim f(x).

x→1
If x < 1, then f(x) = x − 1. Thus,

lim f(x) = lim (x − 1) = 1 − 1 = 0.
x→1− x→1−
If 1 ≤ x, then f(x) = 1 − x2. Thus,
lim f(x) = lim (1 − x2) = 1 − (1)2 = 0.

x→1 + x→1+
Hence, lim f(x) = 0.

x→1
Example 4.6.6 Determine if the function
(4 − x2, if x 6= 2 f(x) =
1, if x = 2
is continuous at x = −2. If it is discontinuous, determine if the discontinuity is

removable or essential.
Solution:
(i) If x = 2, then f(2) = 1. (ii)
Evaluate lim f(x).
x→2
If x < 2, then f(x) = 4 − x2. Thus,
If 2 < x, then f(x) = 4 − x2. Thus,
Hence, lim f(x) = 0.

x→2
115
Therefore, f is discontinuous at x = 2. The discontinuity is removable.

Sample Problem 4.6.7 Determine if the given function is continuous at an
indicated number a. If it is discontinuous, determine if the discontinuity is
removable or essential.
(
1. f( ) = ; at x = 4.
2, if x = 4
, if x < 1
2.; at x = 1.
if 1 ≤ x
3. ; at x = −3.
4. ; at x = 1.
5. ; at x = −3.
6. ; at x = 5.
4.7 Continuity of a Function on an Open Interval
Theorem 4.7.1 A polynomial function is continuous at every real number.
Example 4.7.2 The following polynomial functions are continuous at every

real number.
1. Let f(x) = x+4 2. f(x) = x3 −3x+1 3. f(x) = x3 −3x2 +1.
Theorem 4.7.3 A rational function is continuous at every real number in its domain.
Example 4.7.4 Let . Determine the real numbers at which the

function is continuous.
Solution: is a rational function. Thus, f is continuous on its

domain
116
Therefore, f is continuous on the set (−∞,−2) ∪ (−2,+∞).
Example 4.7.5 Let . Determine the real numbers at which the


domain
Therefore, f is continuous on the set (−∞,−2) ∪ (−2,+∞).

√
Theorem 4.7.6 If n is a positive integer and f(x) = n x, then (i) if n is
odd, then f is continuous at every real number.
(ii) if n is even, then f is continuous at every positive real number.
√
Example 4.7.7√ 1. If f(x) = x, then f is continuous at every real number.
3
(2) If f(x) = x, then f is continuous at every positive real number.
Theorem 4.7.8 (Continuity of a Composite Function) Let f and g be functions

such that g is continuous at a real number a and f is continuous at g(a). Then the
composite function f ◦ g is continuous at a.
√
Example 4.7.9 Let f(x) = 2x − 6. Determine the real numbers at which the
117
√
Solution: f(x) = 2x − 6 is continuous on the set
S = {x ∈ R : 2x − 6 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : 2x > 6}
= {x ∈ R : x > 3}
= (3,+∞).
√
Therefore, f(x) = 2x − 6 is continuous on the set (3,+∞).
√
Example 4.7.10 Let f(x) = x + 4. Determine the real numbers at which the
√
Solution: f(x) = x + 4 is continuous on the set
S = {x ∈ R : x + 4 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : x > −4}
= (−4,+∞).
√
Therefore, f(x) = x + 4 is continuous on the set (−4,+∞).
Definition 4.7.11 A function is said to be continuous on an open interval if it

is continuous at every real number in the open interval.
Example 4.7.12 Let f(x) = x2 − 3x + 5. Determine the open interval for which
the function is continuous.
Solution: f(x) = x2 −3x+5 is a polynomial function. Thus, f is continuous at every

real numbers. Therefore f is continuous on the open interval (−∞,+∞).
Example 4.7.13 Let . Determine the open interval for which the
118

domain
Therefore, f is continuous on the open interval (−∞,4) ∪ (4,+∞).
Example 4.7.14 Let . Determine the open interval for which the

domain
Therefore, is continuous on the open interval (−∞,−3) ∪

(−3,+∞).
√
Example 4.7.15 Let f(x) = 1 − x. Determine the open interval for which the
√
Solution: f(x) = 1 − x is continuous on the set
S = {x ∈ R : 1 − x > 0}
= {x ∈ R : 1 > x}
= {x ∈ R : x < 1}
= (−∞,1).
√
Therefore, f(x) = 1 − x is continuous on the open interval (−∞,1).
119
√
Example 4.7.16 Let f(x) = x + 2. Determine the open interval for which the
√
Solution: f(x) = x + 2 is continuous on the set
S = {x ∈ R : x + 2 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : x > −2}
= (−2,+∞).
√
Therefore, f(x) = x + 2 is continuous on the open interval (−2,+∞).
Sample Problem 4.7.17 Determine the open interval for which the following
1..
4.
Example 4.7.18 Let . Determine whether or not the function is

continuous on the indicated open interval.
1. (3,+∞) 2. (−∞,3) 3. (0,+∞).
Solution: is continuous on the set
S = {x ∈ R : x − 3 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 3}
= (−∞,3) ∪ (3,+∞).
Hence, f is continuous on the open interval (−∞,3) ∪ (3,+∞).
1. (3,+∞) ⊆ (−∞,3) ∪ (3,+∞). Therefore, f is continuous on the open

interval (3,+∞).
120
2. (−∞,3) ⊆ (−∞,3) ∪ (3,+∞). Therefore, f is continuous on the open

interval (−∞,3).
3. (0,+∞) * (−∞,3) ∪ (3,+∞). Therefore, f is discontinuous on the open

interval (0,+∞).
√
Example 4.7.19 Let f(x) = x − 4. Determine whether or not the function is
continuous on the indicated open interval:
1. (4,10), 2. (6,+∞), 3. (0,+∞).
√
Solution: The function f(x) = x − 4 is continuous on the set
S = {x ∈ R : x − 4 > 0}
= {x ∈ R : x > 4}
= (4,+∞).
Hence, f is continuous on the open interval (4,+∞).
1. (0,4) * (4,+∞). Therefore, f is discontinuous on the open interval (0,4).
2. (6,+∞) ⊆ (4,+∞). Therefore, f is continuous on the open interval (6,+∞).
3. (0,+∞) 6⊆ (4,+∞). Therefore, f is discontinuous on the open interval

(0,+∞).
√
Example 4.7.20 Let f(x) = 9 − x. Determine whether or not the function is
continuous on the indicated open interval:
1. (−∞,3), 2. (−3,10), 3. (0,9).
√
Solution: The function f(x) = 9 − x is continuous on the set
S = {x ∈ R : 9 − x > 0}
= {x ∈ R : 9 > x}
= {x ∈ R : x < 9}
= (−∞,9).
121
Hence, f is continuous on the open interval (−∞,9).

1. (−∞,3) ⊆ (−∞,9).Therefore, f is continuous on the open interval
(−∞,3).
2. (−3,10) 6⊆ (−∞,9).Therefore, f is continuous on the open interval
(−3,10).
3. (0,9) ⊆ (−∞,9). Therefore, f is discontinuous on the open interval (0,9).
Sample Problem 4.7.21 Determine whether or not the following functions

are continuous on the indicated intervals.
1. f(x) = x2 − 4x + 5; (a) (0,+∞), (b) (−∞,0) (c) (−1,1)
2.
3.
√
4. f(x) = 16 − x; (a) (0,+∞), (b) (−∞,0), (c) (0,16)
√
5. f(x) = x − 6; (a) (0,+∞), (b) (8,+∞), (c) (−∞,6)
CHAPTER 5
DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

1. find the derivative of a function using the definition.
2. find the derivative of a function applying the theorems on differentiation.
3. find the derivative of the trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential
functions.
4. find the derivatives of higher order of a function.
5.1 Definition of the Derivative
Definition 5.1.1 Let f be a function of an independent variable x. Then the

derivative of f at x0, denoted by f0(x0), is given by
,
if the limit exists. If f0(x0) exists, then f is said to be differentiable at x0. The
function f is said to be differentiable if it is differentiable at each real number
in the domain.
From the definition of the derivative of a function, we can formulate

method for finding the derivative of a function at every real number x. This is
called the three-step rule.
The Three-Step Rule
Step 1. Simplify f(x + h) − f(x).
Step 2. Simplify , , for h 6= 0.
Step 3. Evaluate lim .

123
If the limit exists, then .

Example 5.1.2 Find the derivative of f(x) = 3x + 4 using the three-step rule.
Solution:
1. f(x + h) − f(x) = [3(x + h) + 4] − [3x + 4] = 3x + 3h + 4 − 3x − 4 = 3h.
2. For
3.
Therefore, f0(x) = 3.
Example 5.1.3 Find the derivative of f(x) = x2+1 using the three-step rule.
Solution:
1. f(x+h)−f(x) = [(x+h)2+1]−[x2+1] = x2+2xh+h2+1−x2−1 = 2xh+h2.
2. For .
3. .
Therefore, f0(x) = 2x.
Example 5.1.4 Find the derivative of f(x) = x2 −2x+4 using the three-step rule.
Solution:
1. f(x + h) − f(x) = [(x + h)2 − 2(x + h) + 4] − [x2 − 2x + 4] = x2 + 2xh + h2 −

2x − 2h + 4 − x2 + 2x − 4 = 2xh − 2h + h2.
2. For
3.
Therefore, f0(x) = 2x − 2.
124
Example 5.1.5 Find the derivative of using the three-step rule.

Solution:
1 1 x+4−x−h−4 −h
1. f(x+h)−f(x) = − = = .
x+h+4 x+4 (x + h + 4)(x + 4) (x + h + 4)(x + 4)
2. For .
3. .
Therefore, .
Solution:
2. For .
3. .
Therefore, .

Solution:
125
Therefore, .
Sample Problem 5.1.8 Using the Three-Step Rule, find the derivative of the
following
functions. 1.
4.
5.2 Theorems on Differentiation

The process of finding the derivative of a function from the definition
(or the three-step rule) is usually lenghty and complicated. To avoid such a
technique, we will discuss some theorems on differentiation. These thereoms
are useful in finding the derivative of some functions.
Definition 5.2.1 The process of finding the derivative of a function is called

differentiation.
126
Notations. If the function f is defined y = f(x), the derivative of f at x can

be denoted by
Theorem 5.2.2 (Derivative of the Constant Function) Let c be a real number. If

f(x) = c for all x, then f0(x) = 0.
Example 5.2.3 1. If f(x) = 6, then f0(x) = 0.

, then f0(x) = 0.
√
3. If f(x) = 5, then f0(x) = 0.
Theorem 5.2.4 Let r be a rational number. If f(x) = xr, then f0(x) = rxr−1.
Example 5.2.5 1. If f(x) = x5, then f0(x) = 5x5−1 = 5x4.

2. If f(x) = x−4, then f0(x) = −4x−4−1 = −4x−5.
, then .
Theorem 5.2.6 Let g be a differentiable function at x and c a constant. If f(x) = c ·

g(x), then f is differentiable at x and f0(x) = c · g0(x).
Example 5.2.7 1. If f(x) = 4 x5. Then f0(x) = 4(5x4) = 20x4.
, then .
, then .
Theorem 5.2.8 (Derivative of the Polynomial Function) Let c0,c1,...,cn−1,cn be

constants. If f(x) = cnxn + cn−1xn−1+...+c1x + c0, then f(x) = cnnxn−1 + cn−1(n − 1)xn−2 + ... + c1.
Example 5.2.9 .
1. If f(x) = 4x3+6x2−4x+2, then f0(x) = 4(3x2)+6(2x)−4 = 12x2+12x−4. 2. If f(x) =
x5+7x4−2x3, then f0(x) = 5x4+7(4x3)−2(3x2) = 5x4+28x3−6x2.
, then .
127
Theorem 5.2.10 (Derivative of the Sum) Let g and h be differentiable functions at

x. If f(x) = g(x) + h(x), then f is differentiable at x and
f0(x) = g0(x) + h0(x).

Example 5.2.11 Find the derivative of f(x) = (5x3 +4x2 −7)+(3x5 +3x3 −
6x).
Solution: Let g(x) = 5x3 + 4x2 − 7 and h(x) = 3x5 + 3x3 − 6x. Then
g0(x) = 15x2 + 8x and h0(x) = 15x4 + 9x2 − 6.
Therefore,
f0(x) = g0(x) + h0(x)

= (15x2 + 8x) + (15x4 + 9x2 − 6)
= 15x4 + 24x2 + 8x − 6.
Example 5.2.12 Find the derivative of f(x) = (5x3 +4x2 −7)−(3x5 +3x3 −
6x).
Solution: Let g(x) = 5x3 + 4x2 − 7 and h(x) = 3x5 + 3x3 − 6x. Then
g0(x) = 15x2 + 8x and h0(x) = 15x4 + 9x2 − 6.
Therefore,
f0(x) = g0(x) − h0(x)

= (15x2 + 8x) − (15x4 + 9x2 − 6)
= −15x4 + 6x2 + 8x + 6.
Theorem 5.2.13 (Derivative of the Product) Let g and h be differentiable functions

at x. If f(x) = g(x) · h(x), then f is differentiable at x and
f0(x) = g0(x) · h(x) + g(x) · h0(x).
Example 5.2.14 Find the derivative of f(x) = (5x3+4x2−7)(3x5+3x3−6x).
Solution: Let g = 5x3 + 4x2 − 7 and h = 3x5 + 3x3 − 6x. Then

128
g0 = 15x2 + 8x and h0 = 15x4 + 9x2 − 6.
Therefore,
f0(x) = g0 · h + g · h0
= (15x2 + 8x)(3x5 + 3x3 − 6x) + (5x3 + 4x2 − 7)(15x4 + 9x2 − 6).
Example 5.2.15 Find the derivative of f(x) = (4x3 + 3x2 − 4x + 6)(2x5 + 3x3 − 7x).
Solution: Let g = 4x3 + 3x2 − 4x + 6 and h = 2x5 + 3x3 − 7x. Then
g0 = 12x2 + 6x − 4 and h0 = 10x4 + 9x2 − 7.
Therefore,
f0(x) = g0 · h + g · h0
= (12x2 + 6x − 4)(2x5 + 3x3 − 7x) + (4x3 + 3x2 − 4x + 6)(10x4 + 9x2 − 7). Theorem
5.2.16 (Derivative of the Quotient) Let g and h be differentiable
functions at with h(x) 6= 0 for all x, then f is differentiable at x

and
Example 5.2.17 Find the derivative of .

Solution: Let g = x2 + 1 and h = x2 − 1. Then
g0 = 2x and h0 = 2x.
Therefore,

129
Solution: Let g = 2x3 + 4x2 + 9 and h = 3x4 − 7x2. Then

g0 = 6x2 + 8x and h0 = 12x3 − 14x.
Therefore,
.
Theorem 5.2.19 (The Chain Rule) Let g and h be differentiable functions at x. If
f(x) = g(h(x)), then f is differentiable at x and
f0(x) = g0(h(x)) · h0(x).
Corollary 5.2.20 Let r be a rational number. If f(x) = [g(x)]r for all x, then f is
differentiable at x and
f0(x) = r[g(x)]r−1 · g0(x).
Example 5.2.21 Find the derivative of f(x) = (5x2 − 4x + 1)4.
Solution: Let g = 5x2 − 4x + 1. Then g0 = 10x − 4.
Therefore,
f0(x) = r(g)r−1 · g0
= 4(5x2 − 4x + 1)3(10x − 4)
= (40x − 16)(5x2 − 4x + 1)3.
Example 5.2.22 Find the derivative of f(x) = (2x4 − 7x2 + 5x)−5.
Solution: Let g = 2x4 − 7x2 + 5x. Then g0 = 8x3 − 14x + 5.
Therefore,
f0(x) = r(g)r−1 · g0
130
= 4(5x2 − 4x + 1)3(10x − 4)
= (40x − 16)(5x2 − 4x + 1)3.
Example 5.2.23 Find the derivative of f(x) = p3 (6x2 − 3x + 1)2.
Solution: .
Let g = 6x2 − 3x + 1. Then g0 = 12x − 3.

131
Solution: .
Let g = 5x3 − 4x. Then g0 = 15x2 − 4.
Therefore,
Solution: Let . To find g0, we let
u = 3x2 + 5 and v = 4x + 7.
Then
u0 = 6x and v0 = 4.
132
Therefore,
Thus,
.
Therefore,
Solution: .
Let . To find g0, we let

u = x2 + 1 and v = x2 − 1.
Then
u0 = 2x and v0 = 2x.
Thus,
.
133
Sample Problem 5.2.27 Find the

derivative and simplify.
1.
+ 5)
2.
3.
5. 6 6.
7.
134
Therefore,
9.
5.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Theorem 5.3.1 The following are the derivarives of the trigonometric functions.
(i) If f(x) = sinx, then f0(x) = cosx.
(ii) If f(x) = cosx, then f0(x) = −sinx.
(iii) If f(x) = tanx, then f0(x) = sec2 x.
(iv) If f(x) = cotx, then f0(x) = −csc2 x.
(v) If f(x) = secx, then f0(x) = secxtanx.
(vi) If f(x) = cscx, then f0(x) = −cscxcotx).
Example 5.3.2 Find the derivative of f(x) = sinx + cosx.
Solution: f0(x) = cosx − sinx.
Example 5.3.3 Find the derivative of f(x) = sinxtanx.
Solution: Apply the derivative of the product.

Let g = sinx and h = tanx. Then g0 = cosx and h0 = sec2 x.
Therefore,
= sinx(1 + sec2 x).
Example 5.3.4 Find the derivative of f(x) = 4x2 cotx.

Let g = 4x2 and h = cotx. Then g0 = 8x and h0 = −csc2 x.
135
Therefore,
f0(x) = g0h + gh0

= 8xcotx + 4x2(−csc2 x)
= 4x(2xcotx − xcsc2 x).
Solution: Apply the derivative of the quotient.

Let g = sinx and h = cosx − 1. Then g0 = cosx and h0 = −sinx.
Example 5.3.6 Find the derivative of f(x) = cotxcscx.

Let g = cotx and h = cscx. Then g0 = −csc2 x and h0 = −cscxcotx.
Therefore,
f0(x) = g0h + gh0

= −csc2 xcscx + cotx(−cscxcotx)
= −cscx(csc2 x + cot2 x).
Example 5.3.7 Find the derivative of f(x) = sec4 x.

136
Therefore,
Solution: f(x) = sec4 x = (secx)4. Apply the chain rule. Let g =
secx. Then g0 = secxtanx.
Therefore,
f0(x) = n(g)n−1 · g0
= 4(secx)4−1 · secxtanx
= 4(secx)3 · secxtanx
= 4(secx)4 tanx
= 4sec4 xtanx.
√
Example 5.3.8 Find the derivative of f(x) = cscx.3
Solution: . Apply the chain rule.

Let g = cscx. Then g = −cscxcotx.
0
Therefore,
cotx

Solution: Apply the derivative of the quotient.
Let g = sinx − 1 and h = cosx + 1. Then g0 = cosx and h0 = −sinx.
Therefore,
137
Sample Problem 5.3.10 Find the derivative and simplify.

3 cotx
1. f(x) = cosxcotx 2. f(x) = 5x
cscx 3. f(x) =
4. f(x) = tan6 x 5.
7. f(x) = sec−6 x 8.
138
Theorem 5.3.11 Let u be a differentiable function of x. Then (i) If
f(x) = sinu, then f0(x) = u0 cosu.
(ii) If f(x) = cosu, then f0(x) = u0(−sinu).
(iii) If f(x) = tanu, then f0(x) = u0 sec2 u.
(iv) If f(x) = cotu, then f0(x) = u0(−csc2 u). (v) If f(x) = secu, then f0(x)
= u0 secutanu.
(vi) If f(x) = cscu, then f0(x) = u0(−cscucotu).
Example 5.3.12 Find the derivative of f(x) = sin(x2 − 2).
Solution: Let u = x2 − 2. Then, u0 = 2x.
Therefore,
f0(x) = u0 cosu = 2xcos(x2 − 2).
Solution: Let . Then
.
Therefore,
.
√
Example 5.3.14 Find the derivative of f(x) = tan 1 − x2.
√
Solution: Let u = 1 − x2 = (1 − x2)1/2. Then
139
.
Therefore,
Solution: Let . Then
.
Therefore,
.
Example 5.3.16 Find the derivative of f(x) = cot(x2 + 5)4.
Solution: Let u = (x2 + 5)4. Then
u0 = 4(x2 + 5)3(2x) = 8x(x2 + 5)3.
Therefore,
f0(x) = u0(−cscucotu)
= 8x(x2 + 5)3[−sec2(x2 + 5)4]
= −8x(x2 + 5)3[−sec2(x2 + 5)4].
Sample Problem 5.3.17 Find the derivative and simplify the result.
140
1. 1 2.
3.4.
5. + 1) 6.
5. 5) 6.
5.4 Derivative of the Natural Logarithmic Function
Let us recall some important properties of logarithm.
Theorem 5.4.1 Let a and b be any positive real numbers. Then
1.
2.
3. lnar = r lna, where r is a rational numnber.
Theorem 5.4.2 Let u be a differentiable function of x and u > 0. If f(x) =
lnu, then .
Example 5.4.3 Find the derivative of f(x) = ln(3x3 − 4x2 + 7).
Solution: Let u = 3x3 − 4x2 + 7. Then u0 = 9x2 − 8x.
Therefore,
Example 5.4.4 Find the derivative of f(x) = ln[(4x2 + 3)(2x − 1)].

141
Solution: Let u = (4x2 + 3)(2x − 1). Then u0 = 8x(2x − 1) + (4x2 + 3)2.
Therefore,
Example 5.4.5 Find the derivative of f(x) = ln[(4x2 + 3)(2x − 1)].
Solution: Apply Theorem 5.4.1:

f(x) = ln[(4x2 + 3)(2x − 1)] = ln(4x2 + 3) + ln(2x − 1).
Let u = (4x2 + 3) and v = (2x − 1). Then u0 = 8x and v0 = 2.

Therefore,
Example 5.4.6 Find the derivative of f(x) = ln(2x − 1)4.
Solution: Apply Theorem 5.4.1: f(x) =

ln(2x − 1)4 = 4ln(2x − 1).
Let u = 2x − 1. Then u0 = 2.
Therefore,
.
√
Example 5.4.7 Find the derivative of f(x) = ln x2 − 4.
142
Let u = x2 − 4. Then u0 = 2x.
Therefore,

.
Let u = x2 − 1 and v = x2 + 1. Then u0 = 2x and v0 = 2x.
Therefore,
143
Example 5.4.9 Find the derivative of f(x) = ln(sec2x + tan2x).

Solution: Let u = sec2x + tan2x. Then u0 = 2sec2xtan2x + 2sec2 2x.
Therefore,
= 2sec2x.
√
Example 5.4.10 Find the derivative of f(x) = ln tanx.
Let u = tanx. Then u0 = sec2 x.
Therefore,
.
144
Sample Problem 5.4.11 Find the derivative and simplify:

1.
5.
Theorem 5.4.12 Let u be a differentiable function of x. If f(u) = ln|u|, then
Example 5.4.13 Find the derivative of f(x) = (x − 1)4(x + 1)5.
Solution:
|f(x)| = |(x − 1)4(x + 1)5|
= |(x − 1)4||(x + 1)5|.
Apply Theorem 5.4.1:

145
Differentiating on both sides, we obtain
Therefore,
= (x − 1)3(x + 1)4(9x − 1).
Solution: Write
.
Then
.
Thus,
146
Therefore,

Solution:
.
Apply Theorem 5.4.1
.
147
Therefore,

derivative and simplify the result.
1. f(x) = (x − 3)4(x + 7)3
3.
5.6.
5.5 Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function
Theorem 5.5.1 Let u be a differentiable function of x. If f(x) = eu, then f0(x) = u0

· eu.
148

Example 5.5.2 Find the derivative of f(x) = ex3+3x2−1.
Solution: Let u = x3 + 3x2 − 1. Then u0 = 3x2 + 6x.

Therefore,
f0(x) = u0 · eu = (3x2 + 6x)ex3+3x2−1.

149
Example 5.5.3 Find the derivative of f(x) = e2sin3x.
Solution: Let u = 2sin3x. Then u0 = 2(3cos3x) = 6cos3x.

Therefore,
f0(x) = u0 · eu = (6cos3x)e2sin3x.
Example 5.5.4 Find the derivative of f(x) = etan3x.
Solution: Let u = tan3x. Then u0 = (3sec2 3x).
Therefore,
f0(x) = u0 · eu = (3sec2 3x)etan3x.
Example 5.5.5 Find the derivative of f(x) = e−3ln3x.
Solution: Let u = −3ln3x. Then .

Therefore,
.
√ Example
5.5.6 Find the derivative of f(x) = e 2x+4.
Solution: Let .
Then .
Therefore,
.
150

derivative and simplify the
result. 1. f(x) = e3x2−5x+4
3. f(x) = e2sin3x 4.
5. f(x) = e2cotx + e2cscx

5.6 Derivatives of Other Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Theorem 5.6.1 Let u be a differentiable function of x and a a positive real

number. If f(x) = au, then f0(x) = (lna)u0au.
Example 5.6.2 Find the derivative of f(x) = 3x3+3x2−1.
Solution: Let u = x3 + 3x2 − 1. Then u0 = 3x2 + 6x.
Therefore,
f0(x) = (lna) u0 au
= (ln3)(3x2 + 6x)3x3+3x2−1
= ln3(3x2 + 6x)3x3+3x2−1.
Example 5.6.3 Find the derivative of f(x) = 2csc3x.
Solution: Let u = csc3x. Then u0 = 3(−csc3xcot3x) = −3csc3xcot3x.

Therefore,
f0(x) = (lna) u0 au
= (ln2)(−3csc3xcot3x)2csc3x =
−3ln2(csc3xcot3x)2csc3x.
√ Example
5.6.4 Find the derivative of f(x) = 10 x+1.
√
Solution: Let u = x + 1 = (x + 1)1/2. Then.
Therefore,
151
Theorem 5.6.5 Let u be a differentiable function of x and a a positive real
number. If f(x) = loga u, then .

Example 5.6.6 Find the derivative of f(x) = log10(3x2 − 1).
Solution: Let u = 3x2 − 1. Then u0 = 6x.
Therefore,
Solution: Let . Then .

Therefore,
Example 5.6.8 Find the derivative of f(x) = log2(cscx).
Solution: Let u = cscx. Then u0 = −cscxcotx.
Therefore,
cotx.
152
Sample Problem 5.6.9 Find the derivative and simplify the result.
1. f(x) = 4sin3x
3. f(x) = 10cot5x
5. f(x) = log4 secx 6.
7. f(x) = log3(x2 + 5) 8.
5.7 Geometric Interpretation of a Derivative
Let a curve be given by a function y = f(x), and let P0(x0,y0) and P(x0 +
h,y0 + h), where h is a real number. Then P0 is the point (x0,f(x0)) and P is the
point P(x0 + h,f(x0 + h)). Draw a secant line Lh through P0 and P. The slope of Lh
is
.
As h tends to zero, we see that the point P slides along the curve and tends to
the point P0 and the secant line Lh rotates about the point P0. Intuitively, as h
tends to zero, the secant line Lh tends to a limiting line called the tangent line
to the curve at the point P0. If the function f is differentiable at x0, then
This means that the slope mLh of the line Lh tend to the limiting slope which is
f0(x0). The limiting position of Lh is the tangent line to the curve at P0. Hence,
f0(x0) is the slope of the tangent line to the curve at the point P0.
Definition 5.7.1 Let f be a function such that f0(x0) exists. The tangent line to
the curve y = f(x) at the point P0(x0,y0) is the line through P0 having slope mT =
f0(x0).
Definition 5.7.2 Let f be a function such that f0(x0) exists. The normal line to
the curve y = f(x) at the point P0(x0,y0) is the line through P0 perpendicular to
the tangent line to the curve at P0 and having slope mN = , where mT 6= 0.

153
Example 5.7.3 Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal line to the
curve y = f(x) = x2 − 3x + 4 at the point P0(3,4).
Solution: f0(x) = 2x − 3. Then
mT = 2x0 − 3 and .
Substitute x0 = 3 to solve for the slopes.
mT = 2(3) − 3 = 3 and .
Use the point-slope form with x0 = 3 and y0 = 4.
y − y0 = mT (x − x0) ⇒ y − 4 = 3(x − 3) ⇒ 3x − y − 5 = 0
and
Therefore, the equation of the tangent line is 3x−y −5 = 0 and the equation of
the normal line is x + 3y − 15 = 0.
curve at the point where x0 = 1.
Solution: If x0 = 1, then
. Then . Thus,
and .
3 and .
Use the point-slope form with x0 = 1 and y0 = 3.
y − y0 = mT (x − x0). ⇒ y − 1 = −3(x − 3). ⇒ 3x + y − 10 = 0.
and
154
Therefore, the equation of the tangent line is 3x+y−10 = 0 and the equation of
the normal line is x − 3y = 0.
Example 5.7.5 Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal line to
the curve y = f(x) = 2cosx at the point where . Solution: If , then
f0(x) = 2(−sinx) = −2sinx. Then
mT = −2sinx0 and .
Substitute to solve for the slopes.
2 and .
Use the point-slope form with and y0 = 2.
and
Therefore, the equation of the tangent line is 2x + y − 2 − π = 0 and the equation

of the normal line is
curve y = f(x) = ln(x − 1) at the point where x0 = 2.
Solution: If x0 = 2, then y0 = f(2) = ln(2 − 1) = ln1 = 0.
. Then
and .
= 1 and
Use the point-slope form with x0 = 2 and y0 = 0. y − y0 = mT (x − x0). ⇒ y
− 0 = 1(x − 2). ⇒ x − y − 2 = 0.
and y − y0 = mN(x − x0) ⇒ y − 0 = −1(x − 2) ⇒ x + y − 2 = 0.
155
Therefore, the equation of the tangent line is x − y − 2 = 0 and the equation of

the normal line is x + y − 2 = 0.
Sample Problem 5.7.7 Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal
line at the point corresponding to the value
of x0.
1. =1
2.
3. 1
4.
5. =3 6.
7. =0 8.
5.8 Derivatives of Higher Order
If the function f is differentiable, then its derivative f0 is called the first

derivative of f. If the function f0 is differentiable, then its derivative f00 is called
the second derivative of f. If the fu8nction f00 is differentiable, then its
derivative f000 is called the third derivative of f. The nth derivative of the
function f, denoted by f(n), is the derivative of the (n-1)st derivative of f,
provided it exist.
Notations: Given y = f(x).
Example 5.8.1 Find all the derivatives of the function f(x) = 2x3 + 4x2 − 3x + 5.
Solution:
f0(x) = 6x2 + 4x − 3 f00(x)
= 12x + 4 f000(x) = 12
156
f(4)(x) = 0 f(5)(x) = 0
f(n)(x) = 0 for n ≥ 4.
√
Example 5.8.2 Find f000(x) if f(x) = x + 3.
Solution√: 1
Therefore, .
Example 5.8.3 Find .
Solution:
Dx(f) = 3cosx − 4sinx − 6x
Dx2(f) = −3sinx − 4cosx − 6
Therefore, .
Example 5.8.4 Find .

Solution:
1(x + 1) − (x − 1)1
2
Therefore, .
Sample Problem 5.8.5 1. Find all the derivatives if f(x) = 2x4 + 3x3 + 4.
2. Find Dx3(f) if f(x) = (x + 1)5.
3. Find Dx3(f) if f(x) = cos2x + sin2x.
157
4. Find f000(x) if f(x) = lnx.

5. Find .
6. Find .

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TEACHER’S GUIDE IN CALCULUS WITH ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

LEO RENE A. LEONIDA

Mindanao State University

3.4 Functions of the Form f(x) = pg(x) ..................................................................... 64

3.5 Functions of the Form f(x) = p3 g(x) ................................................................... 66

3.6 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions .......................................................... 70

INEQUALITIES IN ONE VARIABLE

Learning Outcomes of the Lesson

1.1 Intervals and Interval Notations

1. The open interval from a to b is (a,b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}.

2. The closed interval from a to b is [a,b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}.

3. The half-open interval on the left from a to b is (a,b] = {x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b}.

4. The half-open interval on the right from a to b is [a,b) = {x ∈R : a ≤ x < b}.

1. The set of real numbers x greater than −4 and less than 1.

1. (a,+∞) = {x ∈R : x > a}.

1. The set of real numbers x greater than −1.

2. The set of real numbers x less than 3.

1.2 Properties of Inequalities

Definition 1.2.1 A number a is said to be greater than b, written as a > b, if a−b is

Since a < b is equivalent to b > a, equivalent versions of properties (1) to (4)

Example 1.2.3 Apply the properties of inequalities to solve for x:

8. Given: . Apply property 4, that is, multiply to both sides of the

Sample Problem 1.2.4 Apply the properties of inequalities to solve for x:

1.3 Linear Inequalities in One Variable

where a,b ∈R and a 6= 0.

1.4 Quadratic Inequalities in One Variable

ax2 + bx + c > 0, ax2 + bx + c < 0, ax2 + bx + c ≥ 0, ax2 + bx + c ≤ 0,

where a,b,c ∈R and a 6= 0.

Example 1.4.2 The following are examples of quadratic inequalities:

The theorem is valid if the symbol ”>” is replaced by ”≥”.

= {x ∈R : x < 2 and x < 4}∪{x ∈R : x > 2 and x > 4}

= {x ∈R : x − 1 < 0 and x − 1 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x − 1 > 0 and x − 1 > 0}

The theorem is valid if the symbol ”<” is replaced by ”≤”.

= {x ∈R : −5 ≤ x and x ≤−1}∪{x ∈R : x ≤−5 and − 1 ≤ x}

is a negative real number, then the following correspondence hold:

b2 − 4ac = (2)2 − 4(1)(2) = 4 − 8 = −8.

Therefore, by Proposition 1.4.21, SS = {x ∈R : x2 + 2x + 2 > 0} = R.

Example 1.4.23 Find the solution set of the inequality 3x2 − x + 1 ≥ 0.

b2 − 4ac = (−1)2 − 4(3)(1) = 1 − 12 = −11.

Therefore, by 1.4.21, SS = {x ∈R : 3x2 − x + 1 ≤ 0} = R.

b2 − 4ac = (1)2 − 4(2)(2) = 1 − 16 = −15.

Therefore, by 1.4.21, SS = {x ∈R : 2x2 + x + 2 < 0} = {}.

Example 1.4.25 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 − 2x + 4 ≤ 0.

b2 − 4ac = (−2)2 − 4(1)(4) = 4 − 16 = −12.

Therefore, by 1.4.21, {x ∈R : x2 − 2x + 4 ≤ 0} = {}.

4. 4x2 − 5x + 2 ≤ 0. 5. x2 + 4 < 3x. 6. x2 + 5 ≤ 3x.

Theorem 1.5.1 Let , then either

= {x ∈R : x − 3 < 0 and x − 4 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x − 3 > 0 and x − 4 > 0}

= {x ∈R : x − 2 < 0 and x + 3 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x − 2 > 0 and x + 3 > 0}

= {x ∈R : x < 2 and x < −3}∪{x ∈R : x > 2 and x > −3}

= {x ∈R : x + 3 < 0 and x + 4 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x + 3 > 0 and x + 4 > 0} = {x ∈R : x < −3

= {x ∈R : x − 3 > 0 and x − 1 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x − 3 < 0 and x − 1 > 0}

= {}∪{x ∈R : 1 < x < 3}

= {x ∈R : x + 3 > 0 and x − 3 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x + 3 < 0 and x − 3 > 0}

= {x ∈R : x + 2 > 0 and x + 4 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x + 2 < 0 and x + 4 > 0}

= {x ∈R : −4 < x < −2}

= {x ∈R : x − 1 ≤ 0 and x − 3 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x − 1 ≥ 0 and x − 3 > 0}

= {x ∈R : x + 4 ≤ 0 and x + 3 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x + 4 ≥ 0 and x + 3 > 0} = {x ∈R : x ≤−4

= {x ∈R : x − 4 ≤ 0 and x + 3 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x − 4 ≥ 0 and x + 3 > 0}

Theorem 1.5.16 Let a,b ∈R. If ab ≤ 0, then either

= {x ∈R : x + 1 ≥ 0 and x + 2 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x + 1 ≤ 0 and x + 2 > 0}

= {x ∈R : x + 2 ≥ 0 and x − 1 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x + 2 ≤ 0 and x − 1 > 0}

= {x ∈R : x − 6 ≥ 0 and x − 4 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x − 6 ≤ 0 and x − 4 > 0}