LECTURE NOTES ON ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

RENE E. LEONIDA

Department of Mathematics
College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics
Mindanao State University General Santos City

September 2020
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS i

1 INTRODUCTION TO QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES 1

1.1 Intervals and Interval Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Bounded Intervals.................................................................................. 3
1.1.2 Unbounded Intervals............................................................................3
1.2 Inequalities..................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Linear Inequalities in One Variable......................................................................5
1.4 Quadratic Inequalities in One Variable...............................................................8
1.5 Exercises....................................................................................................................... 14
FUNCTIONS........................................................................................................................ 18
2.1 Definition of a Function.......................................................................................... 18
2.2 Examples of Functions............................................................................................ 20
2.3 The Real Function..................................................................................................... 20
2.4 Linear Function.......................................................................................................... 21
2.5 Quadratic Function................................................................................................... 21
2.6 Exercises....................................................................................................................... 24
2.7 Rational Function...................................................................................................... 24
2.8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions..........................................................28
2.9 Trigonometric Functions........................................................................................ 32
2.10 Inverse Trigonometric Functions.......................................................................35
 `CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES

1.1 Intervals and Interval Notations

In Chapter 2, recall that the real number line represents the one-dimensional coordinate system.
This system is the correspondence betweeen a point and areal number. Consider the number line below
with the points a and b on it, where a < b.

| |a b

The points a and b divide the number line into the so called intervals. These intervals are classified
as bounded intervals and unbounded intervals. Their graphs are given as they are defined below.

1.1.1 Bounded Intervals

1. The open interval from a to b, denoted by (a,b), is given by

(a,b) = {x ∈R : a < x < b}.

( )| |a b

2. The closed interval from a to b, denoted by [a,b], is given by

[a,b] = {x ∈R : a ≤ x ≤ b}.

[ ]| |a b

3. The half-open interval on the right from a to b, denoted by [a,b), is given by

 2

[ )| | a
b

[a,b) = {x ∈R : a ≤ x < b}.

4. The half-open interval on the left from a to b, denoted by (a,b], is given by

(a,b] = {x ∈R : a < x ≤ b}.

( ]| | a
b

Example 1.1.1 The following are some bounded intervals with their graphs.

1. (1,6) = {x ∈R : 1 < x < 6}

( )| |
1 6

2. [−3,4] = {x ∈R : −3 ≤ x ≤ 4}

[ ]
| |
−3 4

3. [0,7/3) = {x ∈R : 0 ≤ x < 7/3}

[ )| |
0 7/3

4. (−5,−2] = {x ∈R : −5 < x ≤−2}

( ]
 3

| |
−5 −2
1.1.2 Unbounded Intervals
The symbol −∞ and +∞ are called negative infinity and positive infinity,
respectively.

1. The open interval from a to positive infinity, denoted by (a,+∞), is given by

(a,+∞) = {x ∈R : x > a}.

2. The open interval from negative infinity to b, denoted by (−∞,b), is given by

(−∞,b) = {x ∈R : x < b}

. )
|
b

3. The half-closed interval on the left from a to positive infinity, denoted by

[a,+∞), is given by

[a,+∞) = {x ∈R : x ≥ a}

4. The half-closed interval on the right from negative infinity to b, denoted by

(−∞,b], is given by
 4

. ]
|
b

(−∞,b] = {x ∈R : x ≤ b}

5. The open interval from negative infinity to positive infinity, denoted by

(−∞,+∞), is given by

(−∞,+∞) = {x : x ∈R} = R.

Example 1.1.2 Write the following sets in interval form and its equivalent set
description.

1. The set of real numbers x less than or equal to -3.

2. The set of real numbers x greater than 7 / 3.

3. The set of real numbers x greater than 4 or less than or equal to -3 / 5.

4. The set of real numbers x less than 11 and greater than or equal to -1.

1.2 Inequalities

Definition 1.2.1 A number a is said to be greater than b, written as a > b, if

a−b is positive. We say a is less than b, and write a < b, if a−b is negative. We
write a ≥ b to mean that either a > b or a = b. Similarly, we write a ≤ b to mean
that either a < b or a = b.
 5

Theorem 1.2.2 (Properties of Inequalities) Let a,b,c ∈ R. Then the following

hold:

1. If a > b and b > c, then a > c.

2. If a > b, then a + c > b + c.

3. If a > b and c > 0, then ac > bc.

4. If a > b and c < 0, then ac < bc.

5. If a > 0, then .

6. If a < 0, then .

Since a < b is equivalent to b > a, equivalent versions of properties (1)

to (4) for < (and for ≤ and ≥) also hold. Property (1) is referred to as the
transitive property of inequality.

1.3 Linear Inequalities in One Variable

Definition 1.3.1 Any inequality in variable x is called linear if it can be reduced

into any of the following forms:

ax + b > 0, ax + b < 0, ax + b ≥ 0, ax + b ≤ 0 ,

where a,b ∈R and a 6= 0.

Procedure for Solving Linear Inequalities in One Variable

1. Reduce the inequality into one of the forms

ax + b > 0, ax + b < 0, ax + b ≥ 0, ax + b ≤ 0.

2. Separate the constant term from the nonconstant term.

 6

3. If necessary, apply properties (3) and (5) or properties (4) and (6)
simultaneously.

Example 1.3.2 Find the solution set of the inequality 3x + 10 > 4.

Solution:
3x + 10 > 4

3x + 6 > 0

3x > −6

Therefore, SS = (−2,+∞).

Example 1.3.3 Find the solution set of the inequality .

Solution:

6x ≥ 10

Therefore, .
 7

Example 1.3.4 Find the solution set of the inequality .

Solution:

6x + 4 − 12x + 15 ≥ 31

−6x ≥ 12

Therefore, SS = (−∞,−2).

Sample Problems: Find the solution set of the following inequalities.

1. x2 − 5x + 7 < (x − 2)2.

2. 2(x − 2) − 3x + 5 ≥ 0.

3. 5x + 6 − 4(x + 2) ≤ 0.

4.
5.
 8

1.4 Quadratic Inequalities in One Variable

Definition 1.4.1 Any inequality in variable x is considered quadratic if it can be
reduced into any of the following forms:

ax2 + bx + c > 0, ax2 + bx + c < 0, ax2 + bx + c ≥ 0, ax2 + bx + c ≤ 0 , where a,b,c ∈R

and a 6= 0.

Procedure for Solving Quadratic Inequalities

1. Express the inequality in the general form

ax2 + bx + c > 0, ax2 + bx + c < 0, ax2 + bx + c ≥ 0, ax2 + bx + c ≤ 0 ,

2. Solve the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. The real solutions are the boundary points.

3. Locate these boundary points on a number line, thereby dividing the number
line into subintervals.

4. Choose one point (test point) within each subinterval and check if this point
satisfies the given inequality. If it does, then the subinterval belong to the
solution set. Otherwise, the subinterval do not belong to the solution set. Also,
check if the boundary points are part of the solution set.

5. Finally, the collection of subintervals and the boundary points satisfying the
inequality is the solution set.

Example 1.4.2 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 − 7x + 10 < 0.

Solution:

Let x2 − 7x + 10 = 0.

(x − 2)(x − 5) = 0.

x−2=0 or x − 5 = 0.
 9

The boundary points are x = 2 and x = 5.

The subintervals are (−∞,2), (2,5), and (5,+∞).

Boundary Table:

Interval Test Point x−2 x−5 Product

(−∞,2) x=0 − − +
(2,5) x=3 + − −
(5,+∞) x=6 + + +
Therefore, SS = (2,5).

Example 1.4.3 Find the solution set of the inequality 2x2 + 3 > −7x.

Solution:

2x2 + 7x + 3 > 0

Let 2x2 + 7x + 3 = 0.

(x + 3)(2x + 1) = 0.

x+3=0 or 2x + 1 = 0.

The boundary points are x = −3 and x = −1/2.

The subintervals are (−∞,−3), (−3,−1/2), and (−1/2,+∞).

Boundary Table:

Interva Test Point x+3 2x + 1 Product

l
(−∞,−3) x = −4 − − +
(−3,−1/2) x = −1 + − −
(−1/2,+∞) x=0 + + +
 10

Therefore, SS = (−∞,−3) ∪ (−1/2,+∞).

Example 1.4.4 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 − 5 ≤ 4x.

Solution:

x2 − 4x − 5 ≤ 0 Let x2

− 4x − 5 = 0.

(x + 1)(x − 5) = 0.
x+1=0 or x − 5 = 0.

The boundary points are x = −1 and x = 5.

The subintervals are (−∞,−1], [−1,5], and [5,+∞).

Boundary Table:

Interva Test Point x+1 x−5 Product

l
(−∞,−1] x = −2 − − +
[−1,5] x=0 + − −
[5,+∞) x=6 + + +
Therefore, SS = [−1,5].

Example 1.4.5 Find the solution set of the inequality 2x2 − x − 6 ≥ 0.

Solution:

2x2 − x − 6 ≥ 0 Let

2x2 − x − 6 = 0.
 11

(2x + 3)(x − 2) = 0.

2x + 3 = 0 or x − 2 = 0.

The boundary points are x = −3/2 and x = 2.

The subintervals are (−∞,−3/2], [−3/2,2], and [2,+∞).

Boundary Table:

Interva Test Point 2x + 3 x − 2 Product

l
(−∞,−3/2] x = −2 − − +
[−3/2,2] x=0 + − −
[2,+∞) x=3 + + +
Therefore, SS = (−∞,−3/2] ∪ [2,+∞).
Proposition 1.4.6 Suppose that ax2+bx+c = 0 with a > 0 has two real roots
and is given by r1 and r2 such that r1 < r2. Then the following correspondence
hold:

Inequality Solution Set

2
ax + bx + c > 0 (−∞,r1) ∪ (r2,+∞)
ax + bx + c ≥ 0
2
(−∞,r1] ∪ [r2,+∞)
2
ax + bx + c < 0 (r1,r2)
ax + bx + c ≤ 0
2
[r1,r2]
Examples: Find the solution set of the following inequalities.

1. x2 − 7x + 10 < 0 SS = (2,5)

2. x2 − x − 6 ≤ 0 SS = [−2,3]

3. x2 − 9 > 0 SS = (−∞,−3) ∪ (3,+∞)

4. 2x2 − x − 1 ≥ 0
 12

Proposition 1.4.7 Suppose that ax2 + bx + c = 0 has only one root and is given by
r. Then the following correspondence hold:

Inequality Solution Set

ax + bx + c > 0
2
(−∞,r) ∪ (r,+∞)
2
ax + bx + c ≥ 0 R
ax + bx + c < 0
2
∅
2
ax + bx + c ≤ 0 {r}
Example 1.4.8 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 + 2x + 1 > 0.

Solution:

Let x2 + 2x + 1 = 0.

(x + 1)(x + 1) = 0.
x+1=0

The boundary point is x = −1.

Therefore, SS = (−∞,−1) ∪ (−1,+∞).

Example 1.4.9 Find the solution set of the inequality 4x2 − 4x + 1 ≤ 0.

Solution:

Let 4x2 − 4x + 1 = 0.

(2x − 1)(2x − 1) = 0. 2x −

1=0

The boundary point is x = 1/2.

Therefore, SS = {1/2}.
 13

Sample Problems: Find the solution set of the following inequalities.

1. 25x2 − 30x + 9 ≥ 0

2. 9x2 + 6x ≤−1

3. x2 − 8x + 16 < 0.

Proposition 1.4.10 Suppose that ax2 + bx + c = 0 has no real roots. Then the
following correspondence hold:

Inequality Solution Set

ax + bx + c > 0
2
R
2
ax + bx + c ≥ 0 R
ax + bx + c < 0
2
∅
2
ax + bx + c ≤ 0 ∅
Example 1.4.11 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 + x + 1 > 0.

Solution: Let x2 + x + 1 = 0.

.
Therefore, SS = R.

Example 1.4.12 Find the solution set of the inequality x2 − x + 4 ≤ 0.

Solution:

Let x2 − x + 4 = 0.

.
Therefore, SS = ∅.
 14

Sample Problems: Find the solution set of the following inequalities.

1. 5x2 − 5x + 2 > 0

2. 2x2 − x + 2 ≤ 0

3. x2 + x + 3 < 0

4. x2 + x + 5 ≥ 0

1.5 Exercises
Find the solution set of the following inequalities:

1. 2(x − 4) < 6

2. 5y − 3 > 2y + 9

3. 3(x − 1) ≥ 2(2x − 3)
4. x2 − 5x + 6 ≤ 0

5. 4x2 − 2x + 3 > 3x2 + 2

6. x2 + 8x + 16 > 0

7. x2 − 3x + 9 > 0

Theorem 1.5.1 Let , then either

(i) a > 0 and b > 0 or (ii) a
< 0 and b < 0.

Example 1.5.2 Find the solution set of

Solution: By Theorem 1.5.1 ,

 15

SS = {x ∈R : x − 2 > 0 and x − 5 > 0}∪{x ∈R : x − 2 < 0 and x − 5 < 0}

= {x ∈R : x > 2 and x > 5}∪{x ∈R : x < 2 and x < 5}
= {x ∈R : x > 5}∪{x ∈R : x < 2}
= (−∞,2) ∪ (5,+∞).

Theorem 1.5.3 Let , then either

(i) a ≥ 0 and b > 0 or (ii) a
≤ 0 and b < 0.

Example 1.5.4 Find the solution set of

Solution: We have

By Theorem 1.5.3 ,

SS = {x ∈R : x − 4 ≥ 0 and x + 3 > 0}∪{x ∈R : x − 4 ≤ 0 and x + 3 < 0}

= {x ∈R : x ≥ 4 and x > −3}∪{x ∈R : x ≤ 4 and x < −3}
= {x ∈R : x ≥ 4}∪{x ∈R : x < −3}
= (−∞,−3) ∪ [4,+∞).

Theorem 1.5.5 Let , then either

(i) a > 0 and b < 0 or (ii) a
< 0 and b > 0.

Example 1.5.6 Find the solution set of

 16

Solution: We have

By Theorem 1.5.5 ,

SS = {x ∈R : x − 4 > 0 and x + 2 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x − 4 < 0 and x + 2 > 0}

= {x ∈R : x > 4 and x < −2}∪{x ∈R : x < 4 and x > −2}
= ∅∪{x ∈R : −2 < x < 4}
= {x ∈R : −2 < x < 4}
= (−2,4).

Theorem 1.5.7 Let 0, then either (i)

a ≥ 0 and b < 0 or (ii) a ≤ 0 and b > 0.

Example 1.5.8 Find the solution set of

Solution: We have

By Theorem 1.5.7 ,

SS = {x ∈R : x + 1 ≥ 0 and x + 2 < 0}∪{x ∈R : x + 1 ≤ 0 and x + 2 > 0}

= {x ∈R : x ≥−1 and x < −2}∪{x ∈R : x ≤−1 and x > −2}
= ∅∪{x ∈R : −2 < x ≤−1}
= {x ∈R : −2 < x ≤−1}
 17

= (−2,−1].

Example 1.5.9 Find the solution set of .

Solution: We have

, by Theorem 1.2.2(6)
 CHAPTER 2

FUNCTIONS

2.1 Definition of a Function

Definition 2.1.1 Let A and B be sets. A function from A to B is a set f of

ordered pairs in A × B such that for each a ∈ A there exists a unique b ∈ B
with (a,b) ∈ f; that is, if (a,b) ∈ f and (a,b0) ∈ f, then b = b0. The set A of
elements that occur as first elements of f is called the domain of f, and is
sometimes denoted by D(f). The set of all elements in B that occur as second
members of elements of f is called the range of f and is sometimes denoted by
R(f).

Example 2.1.2 Let A = {a,b,c} and B = {1,2,3}. Consider the following subsets
of A × B. f = {(a,1),(b,1),(c,1)}. g = {(a,1),(b,2),(c,3)}. h = {(a,1),(a,2),(b,3),(c,3)}.
F = {(a,1),(b,2)}.
G = {(a,1),(b,2),(c,3),(a,1),(b,2)}.
H = {(a,1),(a,2),(a,3),(b,1),(b,2),(b,3),(c,1),(c,2),(c,3)}.

f,g,G are functions.

h is not a function since (a,1),(a,2) ∈ f3 but 1 6= 2.
F is not a function since there exists c ∈ A but (c,y) ∈/ f4 for all y ∈ B. H is
not a function.

The notation f : A → B indicates that f is a function from A to B; we shall

often say that f is a mapping of A into B or that f maps A into B.

If (a,b) is an element of f , it is customary to write b = f(a) instead of

(a,b) ∈ f. We often refer to b as the value of f at the point a, or the image of the
point a under f.

Using the above notations, the functions f and g in Example 3.1.2 can be
defined as follows:
 19

Let A = {a,b,c} and B = {1,2,3}. Define f : A → B by f(a) = 1,f(b) = 1, and f(c)

= 1.

Let A = {a,b,c} and B = {1,2,3}. Define g : A → B by g(a) =

1,g(b) = 2, and g(c) = 3.

There are four ways of defining a function:

(1) by definition,
(2) by writing the image of each element of the domain,
(3) by diagram, and
(4) by formula.

Example 2.1.3 (1) Let A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {2,3,4,5,6}. Define f : A → B by f =

{(1,2),(2,3),(3,4),(4,5)}.

(2) Let A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {2,3,4,5,6}. Define f : A → B by f(1) = 2,f(2)

= 3, f(3) = 4, and f(4) = 5.

(3) Let A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {2,3,4,5,6}. Define f : A → B by

A f B
1 −→ 2
2 −→ 3
3 −→ 4
4 −→ 5
6

(4) Let A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {2,3,4,5,6}. Define f : A → B by f(x) = x + 1.

Example 2.1.4 (1) Let A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {1,2,3,4,6,7}. Define f : A → B by f =

{(1,1),(2,3),(3,5),(4,7)}.

(2) Let A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7}. Define f : A → B by f(1) =

1,f(2) = 3, f(3) = 5, and f(4) = 7.

(3) Let A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7}. Define f : A → B by

 20

A f B
1 −→ 1
2
2 −→ 3
4
3 −→ 5
6
4 −→ 7

(4) Let A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7}. Define f : A → B by f(x) =

2x − 1.

2.2 Examples of Functions

Example 2.2.1 Let A and B be sets and let b0 ∈ B. Define f : A → B by f(x) = b0 for
all x ∈ A. Then f is called a constant function.

Example 2.2.2 Let A be any set. Define g : A → A by g(x) = x for all x ∈ A. Then g is
called an identity function.

Example 2.2.3 Let A = Z and B = Z. Define h : Z→Z by h(x) = 2x for all x ∈ A = Z.

Then h is a function.

Example 2.2.4 Define f1 : R→R by F(x) = x2 for all x ∈R. Then F is a function.

Example 2.2.5 Define G : R→R+ by G(x) = ex. Then G is a function.

√ Example 2.2.6
Define H : R + ∪{0}→R by f3(x) = x. Then f3 is a function.
 21

2.3 The Real Function

Definition 2.3.1 Let A ⊆R. The f : A →R is called a real function.

Example 2.3.2 Let A ⊆R and b ∈R. Define f : A →R by f(x) = b for all x ∈ A. The f is
a real function.

Example 2.3.3 Define g : R→R by g(x) = x for all x ∈R. Then g is a real function.

Example 2.3.4 Let A = Z and B = Z. Define h : Z→Z by h(x) = 2x for all x ∈ A = Z.

Then h is not real function since B 6= R.

Example 2.3.5 Define F : R→R by F(x) = x2 for all x ∈R. Then F is a real function.

Example 2.3.6 Define G : R→R+ by G(x) = ex. Then G is not a real function since B
6= R.

+
∪{0}→R by H(x) = √ x. Then H is real

Example 2.3.7 Define H : R function.

2.4 Linear Function

Definition 2.4.1 Let A ⊆R. A function f : A →R defined by f(x) = ax+b, where a,b
∈R and a 6= 0 is called a linear function.

Theorem 2.4.2 Let A ⊆R and define f : A →R by f(x) = ax + b, where a,b ∈R and a

6= 0. Then
(i) D(f) = R and R(f) = R.
(ii) Locus = {(x,y) : y = ax + b}.
 22

2.5 Quadratic Function

Definition 2.5.1 Let A ⊆ R. A function f : A → R defined by f(x) = ax2 + bx + c,

where a,b,c ∈R and a 6= 0 is called a quadratic function.

Theorem 2.5.2 Let A ⊆R and define f : A →R by f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where

a 6= 0. Then

and ,
if a < 0.
(iv) Locus = {(x,y) : y = ax2 + bx + c}.
(iv) the graph is a parabola opening upward if a > 0 and the graph is a
parabola opening downward if a < 0.

Example 2.5.3 Let f be a quadratic function. Find the vertex V , D(f) , R(f), Locus,
and skecth a graph.Sketch the graph of the equation y = x2−2x.

Solution: Let a = 1, b = −2, and c = 0. Since a > 0, the parabola is opening

downward. Then

= 1 and

Hence, V = (1,−1), D(f) = R, R(f) = [−1,+∞), and Locus = {(x,y) : y = x2 − 2x}.

We may construct a table of values:

x 0 1 2
y = f (x ) 0 -1 0

Using these three points, we sketch the graph of the parabola.

 23

Example 2.5.4 Let f be a quadratic function defined by f(x) = −x2+2x+2.

Find the vertex V , D(f), R(f), Locus, and skecth a graph.

. .

. .............. .............. .............. ............................ .............. .

.............. V (1,−1)
..............

..............

..............

Solution: Let a = −1, b = 2, and c = 2. Since a < 0, the parabola is opening

downward. Then

= 1 and
Hence, V = (1,3), D(f) = R, R(f) = (−∞,3], and Locus = {(x,y) : y =
−x2 + 2x + 2}.

Construct a table of values.

x 0 1 2
y 2 3 2

Using these three points, we sketch the graph of the parabola.

.
 24

..............

. .............. .............. .............. .............. .

..

..............

..............

2.6 Exercises

1. Let f be a quadratic function. Find the vertex V , D(f), R(f), Locus, and skecth a
graph.
(1) f(x) = x2 − 2x + 3. (2)
f(x) = x2 + 4x + 5.
(3) f(x) = −x2 − 2x − 3.
(4) f(x) = −2x2 + 4x − 5.

2.7 Rational Function

Definition 2.7.1 Let A ⊆R. A function f : A →R defined by , where

p(x) and q(x) are polynomial functions and q(x) 6= 0, is called a rational
function.

Theorem 2.7.2 Let A ⊆R and define f : A →R by , where p(x) and q(x)

are polynomial functions and q(x) 6= 0. Then (i) D(f) = {x ∈R : q(x) 6= 0}.
(ii) Locus = .
 25

Definition 2.7.3 The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function f

if f(x) increases or decreases without bounds as x approaches a.

Theorem 2.7.4 Let A ⊆R and define , where p(x) and

q(x) have no common factors. If a is a zero of q(x). Then x = a is a vertical
asymptote of the graph of f.

Definition 2.7.5 The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of a

function f if f(x) approaches b as x increases or decreases without bounds.

Theorem 2.7.6 Let f be a rational function given by

, where an 6= 0 and bm 6= 0.
(i) If n < m, then the line y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote of the graph of f.
(ii) If n = m, then the line is the horizontal asymptote of the graph of f.
(iii) if n > m, then the graph of f has no horizontal asymptote.

Example 2.7.7 Let f be a rational function defined by . Find the

D(f), R(f), Locus, vertical and horizontal asymptotes, if any and skecth a graph.

Solution:

= {x ∈R : x 6= 1};

= {y ∈R : y 6= 2};
 26

Locus = ;
the vertical asymptote is the line x = 1 ; and

the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 2.

We may construct a table of values:

1
x -2 -1 0 2 2 3 4
4 8
y = f (x ) 3 1 0 -1 4 3 3

Using these points, we sketch the graph of f.

Example 2.7.8 Let f be a rational function defined by . Find the

D(f), R(f), Locus, vertical and horizontal asymptotes, if any and skecth a
graph.

Solution:

= (−∞0] ∪ (3,+∞) ;
 27

Locus = ;
the vertical asymptotes are the lines x = −2 and x = 2 ; and

the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 3.

We may construct a table of values:

x -4 -3 -1 0 1 3 4
27 27
y = f (x ) 5 -1 -1 0 -1 5 4

Using these points, we sketch the graph of f.

Example 2.7.9 Let f be a rational function defined by . Find the

D(f), R(f), Locus, vertical and horizontal asymptotes, if any, and skecth a
graph. Solution:

but from the original equatiion = 0, then y = 0. Hence,

R(f) = R.

Locus = .
 28

The vertical asymptotes are the lines x = −3 and x = 3.

The horizontal asymptote is y = 0.

We may construct a table of values:

x -5 -4 -1 0 1 4 5
5 4 1 1 4 5
y = f (x ) − 16 − 7 8 0 − 8 7 16

Using these points, we sketch the graph of f.

Exercises

I. Given the following rational functions, find the D(f), R(f), Locus, vertical and
horizontal asymptotes, if any, and skecth a graph.

1. 2.
3.4.

5.

2.8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Definition 2.8.1 Let A ⊆R. A function f : A →R defined by f(x) = bx, where b > 0
and b 6= 1, is called an exponential function.

Theorem 2.8.2 Let f be an exponential function defined by f(x) = bu(x),

where b > 0 and b 6= 1. Then
(i) D(f) = R and R(f) = R+.
(ii) Locus = {(x,y) : y = bu(x)}.
 29

Example 2.8.3 Let f be an exponential function defined by f(x) = 2x. Find the D(f),
R(f), and Locus. Sketch the graph.
Solution:
D(f) = R and R(f) = R+

Locus = {(x,y) : y = 2x}.

We may construct a table of values:

x -2 -1 0 1 2
1 1
y = f (x ) 4 2 1 2 4

Using these points, we sketch the graph of f.

Example 2.8.4 Let f be an exponential function defined by f(x) = ex−1. Find the
D(f), R(f), and Locus. Sketch the graph.

Solution:
D(f) = R and R(f) = R+

Locus = {(x,y) : y = ex−1}.

We may construct a table of values:

x -2 -1 0 1 2 3
1 1 1
y = f (x ) e3 e2 e 1 e e2

Using these points, we sketch the graph of f.

Example 2.8.5 Let f be an exponential function defined by f(x) = 31−x. Find the
D(f), R(f), and Locus. Sketch the graph.

Definition 2.8.6 Let A ⊆R. A function f : A →R defined by f(x) = logb x, where b > 0
and b 6= 1, is called a logarithmic function.
 30

Remark 2.8.7 For x > 0 and b > 0, b 6= 1, y = logb x is equivalent to x = by.

Remark 2.8.8 For x > 0, y = loge x is equivalent to y = lnx.

Theorem 2.8.9 Let f be a logarithmic function defined by f(x) = logb u(x),
where b > 0 and b 6= 1. Then
(i) D(f) = {x ∈R : u(x) > 0}.
(ii) Locus = {(x,y) : y = logb u(x)}.

Example 2.8.10 Let f be a logarithmic function defined by f(x) = log3 x. Find

the D(f), R(f), Locus, and vertical and horizontal asymptote, if any. Sketch the
graph.

Solution:
D(f) = {x ∈R : x > 0} = R+.

R(f) = {y ∈R : x = 3y} = {y ∈R : y ∈R} = R.

Locus = {(x,y) : y = log3 x}.

The equation x = 0 is the vertical asymptote.

The graph of f has no horizontal asymptote.

We may construct a table of values using the relation

y = log3 x ⇔ x = 3y.

1 1
x 9 3 1 3 9
y = f (x ) -2 -1 0 1 2

Using these points, we sketch the graph of f.

 31

Example 2.8.11 Let f be a logarithmic function defined by f(x) = ln(2x−1).

Find the D(f), R(f), Locus, and vertical and horizontal asymptote, if any.
Sketch the graph.

Solution:

D .

Locus = {(x,y) : y = ln(2x − 1)}.

The equation is the vertical asymptote.

The graph of f has no horizontal asymptote.

We may construct a table of values

3
x 4 1 2 3
3
y = f (x ) ln 4 0 ln3 ln5

Using these points, we sketch the graph of f.

Example 2.8.12 Let f be a logarithmic function defined by .

Find the D(f), R(f), Locus, and vertical and horizontal asymptote, if any. Sketch
the graph.

Solution:
 32

Locus = .
The equations x = −1 and x = 1 are vertical asymptotes.

The equation y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote.

We may construct a table of values

x -3 -2 −32 32 2 3 y = f(x) −ln2 −ln3 −ln5 ln5 ln3 ln2

Using these points, we sketch the graph of f.

2.9 Trigonometric Functions

Definition 2.9.1 Let A ⊆R. A function f : A →R defined by f(x) = sinx is called a

sine function.

Theorem 2.9.2 Let f be a sine function defined by f(x) = sinx. Then (i)
D(f) = R and R(f) = [−1,1]. (ii) Locus = {(x,y) : y = sinx}.
 33

Example 2.9.3 Let f be a sine function defined by f(x) = sin2x. Find the D(f), R(f),
and Locus. Sketch the graph.

Solution:
D(f) = R and R(f) = [−1,1].

Locus = {(x,y) : y = sin2x}.

Definition 2.9.4 Let A ⊆R. A function f : A →R defined by f(x) = cosx is called a

cosine function.
Theorem 2.9.5 Let f be a cosine function defined by f(x) = cosx. Then (i)
D(f) = R and R(f) = [−1,1]. (ii) Locus = {(x,y) : y = cosx}.

Example 2.9.6 Let f be a cosine function defined by f(x) = cos2x. Find the D(f),
R(f), and Locus. Sketch the graph.

Solution:
D(f) = R and R(f) = [−1,1].

Locus = {(x,y) : y = cos2x}.

Definition 2.9.7 Let A ⊆R. A function f : A →R defined by f(x) = tanx is called a

tangent function.

Theorem 2.9.8 Let f be a tangent function defined by f(x) = tanx. Then

n o
.

(iii) Locus = {(x,y) : y = tanx}.

(iv) The lines are the vertical asymptotes of

the graph of f.
 34

Example 2.9.9 Let f be a tangent function defined by f(x) = tan2x. Find the D(f),
R(f), Locus, and vertical asymptotes. Sketch the graph.

Solution:

(iii) Locus = {(x,y) : y = tan2x}.

(iv) The lines are the vertical asymptotes of

the graph of f.
Definition 2.9.10 Let A ⊆R. A function f : A →R defined by f(x) = cotx is called a
cotangent function.

Theorem 2.9.11 Let f be a cotangent function defined by f(x) = cotx. Then (i) D(f)
= {x ∈R : x 6= πk, k ∈Z}.
(ii) R(f) = R.
(iii) Locus = {(x,y) : y = cotx}.
(iv) The lines x = πk, k ∈Z are the vertical asymptotes of the
graph of f.

Definition 2.9.12 Let A ⊆R. A function f : A →R defined by f(x) = secx is called a

secant function.

Theorem 2.9.13 Let f be a secant function defined by f(x) = secx. Then

n π o
.
 35

(iii) Locus = {(x,y) : y = secx}.

(iv) The lines are the vertical asymptotes of

the graph of f.

Definition 2.9.14 Let A ⊆R. A function f : A →R defined by f(x) = cscx is called a

cosecant function.

Theorem 2.9.15 Let f be a cosecant function defined by f(x) = cscx. Then (i) D(f)
= {x ∈R : x 6= πk, k ∈Z}.
(ii) R(f) = (−∞,−1] ∪ [1,+∞).
(iii) Locus = {(x,y) : y = cscx}.
(iv) The lines x = πk, k ∈Z are the vertical asymptotes of the
graph of f.
2.10 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Definition 2.10.1 Let A ⊆R. A function f : A →R defined by f(x) = arcsinx is called

the inverse sine function.

Definition 2.10.2 The inverse sine function is the inverse of the restricted sine
function

.
Thus,

y = arcsinx ⇔ x = siny and .

Theorem 2.10.3 Let f be the inverse sine function defined by f(x) = arcsinx. Then

(i) D(f) = [−1,1] and .

(ii) Locus = {(x,y) : y = arcsinx}.
 36

Definition 2.10.4 Let A ⊆R. A function f : A →R defined by f(x) = arccosx is called

the inverse cosine function.

Definition 2.10.5 The inverse cosine function is the inverse of the restricted
cosine function

y = cosx,0 ≤ x ≤ π.

Thus,

y = arccosx ⇔ x = cosy and 0 ≤ y ≤ π.

Theorem 2.10.6 Let f be the inverse cosine function defined by f(x) = arccosx.
Then
(i) D(f) = [−1,1] and R(f) = [0,π].
(ii) Locus = {(x,y) : y = arccosx}.
Definition 2.10.7 Let A ⊆R. A function f : A →R defined by f(x) = arctanx is called
the inverse tangent function.

Definition 2.10.8 The inverse tangent function is the inverse of the restricted
tangent function

.
Thus,

y = arctanx ⇔ x = tany and .

Theorem 2.10.9 Let f be the inverse tangent function defined by f(x) = arctanx.
Then

.
22
 37

(iii) Locus = .
(iv) The lines y = and y = − are the horizontal asymptotes of the

22
graph of f.

Definition 2.10.10 Let A ⊆R. A function f : A →R defined by f(x) = cot−1 x is called

the inverse cotangent function.

Definition 2.10.11 The inverse cotangent function is the inverse of the

restricted cotangent function

y = cotx,0 < x < π.

Thus,

y = cot−1 x ⇔ x = coty and 0 < y < π.

Theorem 2.10.12 Let f be the inverse cotangent function defined by f(x) = cot−1 x.
Then
(i) D(f) = R.
(ii) R(f) = (0,π).
(iii) Locus = {(x,y) : y = cot−1 x}.
(iv) The lines y = 0 and y = π are the horizontal asymptotes of the
graph of f.

Definition 2.10.13 Let A ⊆R. A function f : A →R defined by f(x) = sec−1 x is called

the inverse secant function.

Definition 2.10.14 The inverse secant function is the inverse of the restricted
secant function
 38

.
Thus,

y = sec−1 x ⇔ x = secy and 0 .

Theorem 2.10.15 Let f be the inverse secant function defined by f(x) = sec−1 x.
Then

.
22
(iii) Locus = .
(iv) The lines y = and y = − are the horizontal asymptotes of the

22
graph of f.

Definition 2.10.16 Let A ⊆R. A function f : A →R defined by f(x) = csc−1 x is called

the inverse cosecant function.

Definition 2.10.17 The inverse cosecant function is the inverse of the

restricted cosecant function

.
Thus,

y = csc−1 x ⇔ x = cscy and 0 or .

Theorem 2.10.18 Let f be the inverse cosecant function defined by f(x) = csc−1 x.
Then
 39

.
2 2
(iii) Locus = {(x,y) : y = csc−1 x}.
(iv) The lines y = 0 and y = −π are the horizontal asymptotes of
the graph of f.