Finite-Element Simulation of Instrumented Asphalt

Pavement Response under Moving Vehicular Load

Ogoubi Cyriaque Assogba 1; Zhiqi Sun 2; Yiqiu Tan 3; Lushinga Nonde 4; and Zheng Bin 5

Abstract: Understanding the structural behavior of layered asphalt pavements subjected to dynamic moving wheel loads is a crucial require-
ment for the future design of more-durable pavement structures. Therefore, to accurately evaluate the dynamic response of an instrumented
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semi-rigid base asphalt pavement under full-scale moving heavy vehicular loading, this study established a full-scale three-dimensional
viscoelastic finite element model. Sinotruck HOWO A7 6 × 4 dump truck moving wheel loads and associated contact stresses effect on
the pavement structure were implemented in the implicit dynamic analysis. The dynamic properties of the asphalt concrete were incorporated
in Abaqus through a Prony–Dirichlet series. The rationality and validity of the developed model were successfully verified by field data
collected from a Rizhan–LanKao highway pavement test section in Shandong province, China. The pavement dynamic response computed at
different depths under the truck dual tires and at a different lateral position in the mid-depth of asphalt concrete middle course were analyzed.
Results indicated that both tensile and compressive three-directional dynamic strain, stress coexist in the pavement structure. In addition, an
alternating change was found between negative and positive dynamic shear stress and strain in the structure. Finally, this study revealed that
the peak value of the dynamic strain–stress in vertical, transverse, and longitudinal directions, as well as the shearing strain–stress response of
the pavement structure, are affected not only by the lateral distribution of the analysis points but also according to depth. DOI: 10.1061/
(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0001616. © 2020 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Semi-rigid base asphalt pavement; Dynamic response; Viscoelastic material; Finite-element simulation; Field
measurement.

Introduction
In China, more than 90% of the highway pavements are constructed
with a semi-rigid road base (Sun et al. 2018). Semi-rigid base as-
phalt pavement is a complex multilayered system consisting of as-
phalt mixtures as a surface layer, cement-treated road base and
subbase, cement-stabilized subgrade, and natural soil. Unfortu-
nately, in recent years, severe pavement distress and premature fail-
ure have occurred in semi-rigid base asphalt pavement. The
mechanical response analysis of a multilayered pavement system
is the appropriate method to explain the pavement distresses and
its failure mechanism. The constitutive models of pavement system
1
Ph.D. Candidate, School of Transportation Science and Engineering,
Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, People’s Republic of China
(corresponding author). ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1581-5187.
Email: assocyr@hotmail.fr; assocyr@stu.hit.edu.cn
2
Ph.D. Candidate, School of Transportation Science and Engineering,
Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, People’s Republic of
China. Email: 17S132062@hit.edu.cn
3
Professor, School of Transportation Science and Engineering, State Key
Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of
Technology, Harbin 150090, People’s Republic of China. Email: tanyiqiu@
hit.edu.cn
4
Ph.D. Candidate, School of Transportation Science and Engineering,
Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, People’s Republic of
China. Email: nonde.lushinga@gmail.com
5
Graduate Student, School of Transportation Science and Engineering,
Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, People’s Republic of
China. Email: 14b932006@hit.edu.cn
Note. This manuscript was submitted on November 6, 2018; approved
on August 29, 2019; published online on January 3, 2020. Discussion per-
iod open until June 3, 2020; separate discussions must be submitted
for individual papers. This paper is part of the International Journal of
Geomechanics, © ASCE, ISSN 1532-3641.
materials and the vehicle wheel loading are the most important part
of the pavement structural mechanical response analysis. The cur-
rent mechanistic analysis and design method for asphalt pavement
in China is based on the multilayer elastic theory and the static re-
sponse analysis. In this approach, the pavement structure is modeled
as layered systems with linear elastic behavior and is assumed to be
subjected to a stationary vehicular loading. This includes the pave-
ment dynamic response predictions or analysis; the asphalt concrete
(AC) mixture is characterized as a linear elastic material without any
other energy dissipation source when computing the stress–strain
response induced by the moving traffic load on the asphalt pavement
structure. In addition, the existing pavement inspection method can
explain only the degree of damage from the phenomenological point
of view, and cannot obtain the work information within the asphalt
pavement structure. It is unable to realize the timely perception of
pavement damage, the diagnosis of damage causes, or the mastery
of damage evolution law.
Therefore, several types of research in recent years have focused
on the analysis of flexible-pavement dynamic response subjected to
moving vehicular load. To accurately predict the mechanical re-
sponse of the pavement and identifying the causes of its distress
and failure, some researchers have used various intelligent sensors
to monitor the internal information of asphalt pavement structure
(Alqadi et al. 2008; Doyle et al. 2014; Chen et al. 2015; Li et al.
2015; Lu et al. 2016; Sha et al. 2016), whereas others have used
numerical simulation methods, mainly finite-element (FE) methods
(Howard and Warren 2009; Kim et al. 2009; Sun and Duan 2013;
Assogba et al. 2019). These studies have demonstrated that the as-
sumptions made in the actual mechanistic analysis and design
method for asphalt concrete pavement are inconsistent with the dy-
namic properties of the asphalt concrete (viscoelastic behavior) and
the realistic loading conditions. Therefore, they cannot achieve ac-
curate pavement response evaluations and performance predictions.

© ASCE 04020006-1 Int. J. Geomech.

Int. J. Geomech., 2020, 20(3): 04020006

 This study used the powerful commercial FE analysis software
Abaqus (version 2017) to develop a full-scale three-dimensional
(3D) FE model to accurately quantify the critical stress–strain re-
sponse of an instrumented asphalt pavement with a semi-rigid base
under dynamic moving traffic loads. This analysis modeled the in-
strumented road test section of the Rizhan–LanKao G1511 high-
way pavement in Shandong province, China.
The main objective of this study was to develop a 3D nonlinear,
dynamic FE model that integrates the viscoelastic behavior of the
asphalt concrete material to simulate the instrumented highway
pavement test section in order to accurately predict the dynamic
responses of the semi-rigid base asphalt pavement structure accord-
ing to the analysis point distribution in term of depth and lateral
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position.
Pavement Dynamic Analysis by Finite-Element
Modeling
Basic Equations and Concepts of Pavement Dynamics
The wheel loads of a moving vehicle, which are applied to the pave-
ment system at various moving speeds along the road, are undeni-
ably dynamic. As a such, the contact stress and position of the wheel
loads are time-dependent and may be considered equal to the sum
of the static load and a continuously altering load. Various factors
such as pavement surface irregularity, vehicle speed, weight, and
suspension system can affect the constantly changing dynamic load.
Oscillatory movement of the vehicle due to the vehicle suspension
system causes the dynamic wheel loads to vary about their mean
amplitudes when the vehicle is in motion. The dynamic character-
istic of the materials considered as isotropic elastic and linear
according to the principle of virtual work applied to a domain Ω
(Tautou et al. 2017) can be expressed as
→ →
→
div σ þf ¼ ργ
→ The critical ξ damping rate for a given i order can be expressed
where σ = Cauchy stress tensor; f = denote the applied force;
→
ρ = density; and γ = acceleration vector.
Using the traditional Hooke’s law, the Cauchy stress factor
can be obtained
σ ¼ λ∇U · I þ μð∇U þ ∇U Þ T
where U = displacement vector; I = identity matrix; and λ and
μ = Lamé’s coefficients.
According to the standard FE procedure (Bathe 1982; Lee et al.
1999), the governing equation of a nonconservative dynamic sys-
tem including material damping can be represented by Eq. (3). This
mathematical statement can be solved using the implicit or the
explicit integration method in Abaqus. This study used the implicit
direct integration method because it is more efficient for the level of
the frequencies observed in pavement structure simulations (Gungor
et al. 2016)
½Mfüg þ ½Cfu̇g þ ½Kfug ¼ FðtÞ
where ½M = mass matrix; ½C = damping matrix; ½K = stiffness
matrix; fu̇g = velocity vector; füg = acceleration related to nodes;
fug = displacement vector; and FðtÞ = external force vector related
to structure dynamic system.
Material Damping
The damping mechanism is one of the factors that seriously affects
the materials dynamic response. It is related to the structure itself,
© ASCE
Int. J. Geomech., 2020, 20(3): 04020006
the viscosity of the surrounding environment, the energy dissipa-
tion of the soil foundation, and so forth. Because of its complexity,
it is very difficult to accurately determine the damping matrix in FE
analysis. The calculation methods of damping often use a stress-
energy factor method, modal damping method, stiffness factor
method, and Rayleigh damping method. This FE analysis used
the Rayleigh damping method, which assumes that the damping
matrix is a linear combination of the mass matrix and stiffness-
proportional damping. The corresponding equation is
C ¼ α½M þ β½K ð4Þ
where α = mass damping coefficient; and β = stiffness damping
coefficient.
Using the orthogonality condition, coefficients α and β can be
calculated by the vibration’s modes and the corresponding modal
damping ratio. Their distinctive equations are expressed in the fol-
lowing form:
2 3

 wj −wi

α wi wj 6 7 ξi
¼2 4 1 1 5 ð5Þ
β w2j
− w2i − ξj
wj wj
where wi and wk = vibration frequencies of order i and mode; the
corresponding damping ratios ξ i and ξ k of order i and order k
mode can be measured by the resonant column test or cyclic tri-
axial test (Zhong et al. 2002). The damping ratio can be approxi-
mated as a constant within a certain frequency range by assuming
that the damping coefficients α and β have the same critical damp-
ing ratio ξ, and therefore Eq. (5) can be simplified as follows
(Bathe 1982):



α 2ξ wi wj
¼ ð6Þ
β wi þ wj 1
ð1Þ
as a function of mass proportional damping α and stiffness-
proportional damping β as follows:
α βw
ξ¼ þ ð7Þ
2w 2
ð2Þ
The pavement structure’s smallest natural frequency and the
highest loading frequency frequently are taken as critical frequen-
cies. The fraction of critical damping of the pavement structure ex-
perimentally is between 0.02 and 0.05 (Zhong et al. 2002; Alqadi
et al. 2008). Therefore, the pavement materials, from the road base
to natural soil were characterized as elastic with no other source of
energy dissipation. The most extreme critical damping rate (5%)
was used for the layers.
Pavement Structure Finite-Element Modeling
ð3Þ
Pavement Model Geometry and Element Mesh
Using Abaqus 2017, a full-scale 3D FE model was established
to simulate the Rizhan–LanKao G1511 highway pavement test
section (mile stake K313 þ 600 − K314 þ 500) in Shandong prov-
ince, China. The real pavement structure system extends horizontally
and vertically into infinity. Modeling such a road system in a 3D FE
model will undoubtedly lead to computational or edge-effect errors.
To considerably reduce such errors, the model domain should
be larger. However, a larger model requires smaller elements, and
04020006-2 Int. J. Geomech.
 Layer Pavement Structure Thickness and Material
Asphalt surface Course
35 mm SMA 13
Asphalt Middle Course 130 mm SBS-AC20
Asphalt Bottom Course 20 mm HE-AC5
Semi-rigid Base 180 mm Cement Treated
Bound material (CTB)
-
Semi-rigid Subbase 170 mm Cement Treated
Bound material (CTB)
Cement-stabilized 180 mm Cement stabilized
Soil (CS)
Subgrade
Natural Soil Infinite In-place Soil
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Fig. 1. Pavement structure sketch, layer thickness, and material.
therefore the computation will take a long time because it requires
more resources to reach the required accuracy level.
The full-size FE model dimensions ðx; y; zÞ were carefully
chosen to be 25 × 20 × 70 m, based on the results from in situ
measurement of the instrumented road test section and after at-
tempting to use various combinations of length, width, and depth
of the model. In addition, existing 3D FE models in the literature
were considered as references (Beskou et al. 2016; Lu et al. 2016).
The thickness and the material of the layers of the pavement struc-
ture are illustrated in Fig. 1. The in-plane loading area of each dual
tire wheel path was about 0.508 × 60 m (width × length) with a
fine mesh element to balance the cost of the calculation and accu-
racy [Figs. 2(a and b)]
In FE analysis, the consistency of the mesh size has a certain
influence on the result of the analysis. The mesh must be made in
such a way that it provides the most accurate results. Several re-
searchers investigated the size of the mesh that is adequate for a
dynamic model (Gungor et al. 2016; Taherkhani and Jalali 2018).
Yoo and Al-Qadi (2008) suggested that in the loading area, 20 mm
can be adopted as the mesh length in the traffic direction and be-
tween 15 and 18 mm should be used in the lateral direction. In the
present study, the FE model meshing was performed in a way to
increase the accuracy of the model. Along the wheel path, a rela-
tively fine mesh size was used because the stresses and the displace-
ment were high. A dense mesh size was adopted near the loading
area, whereas a relatively coarse mesh size was used far away from
the loading area [Fig. 2(a)]. To avoid errors and warnings related to
the mesh during the analysis, the depth of the 3D mesh in the stone
mastic asphalt (SMA13) and high-elasticity and high-viscosity
(HE-AC5) layers was taken as half their respective thicknesses,
and that of the styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS-AC20) layer was
one-third of its thickness. Similarly, the depth of the 3D mesh in
the base layer, the subbase, and the subgrade was taken equal to
one-quarter of their respective thicknesses, and that of the natural
soil was equal to one-eighth of its thickness. A continuum 3D
eight-node reduced integration element (C3D8R) was used in the
finite-element domain to enhance the convergence rate, whereas a
continuum infinite 3D eight-node integration element (CIN3D8R)
was selected to define infinite boundaries on each side of the pave-
ment model [Fig. 2(a)] (Tarefder and Ahmed 2014; Hernandez
et al. 2016; Reynaud et al. 2016).
Boundary Conditions
The erected boundary conditions had some effect on the accuracy
of the results from the FE analysis, so it was essential to adopt an
© ASCE
Int. J. Geomech., 2020, 20(3): 04020006
appropriate and adequate boundary conditions. The boundary of a
FE model usually is artificial; the wave generated when a vehicle
is in motion can propagate in the structure domain until it is re-
flected in the artificial boundary and eventually pollutes the wave
propagation within the domain. Therefore, previous studies have
recommended the erection of nonreflective or absorbing bounda-
ries (Hatzigeorgiou and Beskos 2010; Li et al. 2015; Chango
et al. 2019). Therefore, an infinite element was selected to eliminate
the boundary effect of the pavement model, to absorb the wave en-
ergy and reduce the degree of freedom in the far field. Such ele-
ments are known to create a silent boundary without significant loss
of precision for dynamic analysis (Li et al. 2015). It is clear that
when the trucks were moving on the pavement structure, there was
no response recorded at infinity. In addition, and according to the
principle of Saint-Venant (Breuer and Roseman 1977), (1) It was
assumed that at the bottom of the pavement model there was no
displacement in the vertical and horizontal direction, thus the bot-
tom of the natural soil was constrained to zero along the x-, y-, and
z-directions (Taherkhani and Jalali 2018); and (2) the four lateral
sides of the pavement model were restrained from any perpen-
dicular displacement to the side of the model [Fig. 2(b)]. Thus, the
x-axis displacements of two longitudinal sides of the FE model
were constrained to be zero, and the y-axis displacement of two
transverse sides of the FE model also was constrained to be zero
(Liao and Sargand 2011; Wang et al. 2011; Assogba et al. 2020).
Modeling of Moving Truck Loads
The controlled-load truck multiaxle wheel loads were modeled as
a transient local dynamic load. The user subroutine interface in
ABAQUS was used to define the nonuniform distributed loads
(DLOAD), which allows users to specify the variation of the dis-
tributed load magnitude (F) as a function of time (TIME*), in the
specific coordinate (COORDS*) system with the domain element
number and applied load integration point number. The dynamic
load and its contact stress effect on the asphalt concrete pavement
was incorporated into the implicit dynamic analysis using a devel-
oped Fortran code (Hibbit, Karlsson, and Sorensen 2007).
Truck Wheel Load Configurations, Tire-Pavement
Contact Area, and Associated Stress
Wheel load configurations, tire–pavement contact area, and asso-
ciated stress of the controlled-load truck used during the field tests
are required parameters for modeling the transient dynamic load
of the vehicle. This allows accurately investigating the dynamic
response of the instrumented semi-rigid base asphalt pavement sub-
jected to full-scale vehicular moving loading. Fig. 3 illustrates the
axle configuration of the Sinotruck HOWO A7 6 × 4 (China
National Heavy-Duty Truck Group, Shandong Province, China)
controlled-load truck, which included a single steering axle and
a tandem driving axle.
The contact areas between the tire and pavement surface consid-
ered in the FE model were generated from actual measurements
(Table 1) from 11.00=22.5-11 and 11.00=R22.5-13 radial tires
for the front axle and rear axle, respectively. The shape of each
tire footprint measured on the field was similar to an ellipse
[Figs. 4(a and b)]. This was converted into a combination of two
semicircles and a rectangle having a length L and a width 0.6L
[Figs. 4(a and b)] (Portland Cement Association 1966; Yoder and
Witczak 1975). The tire–pavement contact area Ac and the length
were determined using (Hadi and Bodhinayake 2003; Huang 2003)
Ac ¼ πð0.3LÞ2 þ ð0.4LÞð0.6LÞ ¼ 0.5227L2 ð8Þ
04020006-3 Int. J. Geomech.
 rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Ac pffiffiffiffiffi
L¼ ¼ 1.3832 Ac
0.5227
In this study, the tire–pavement contact area with each wheel load
was assumed to be rectangular. The real tire footprint was converted
into a rectangle with an equivalent area (Fig. 4). The length and the
width of the converted rectangle were 0.8712L and 0.6L, respec-
tively. The tire–pavement contact area varied from one wheel tire
to another due to the load distribution (Table 1). For numerical mod-
eling purposes and to simplify the subroutine source code, the truck
tires were assumed to have the same tire–pavement contact surface.
The equivalent length and the width of each tire footprint was 28
and 20 cm.
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In this FE model, the influence of each isolated wheel load
ð9Þ
under the truck axles was taken into account. However, only
the vertical contact pressure was considered to simulate the dy-
namic contact forces generated by the controlled-load truck in
motion. This was due to the complexity of measuring the
three-directional stress state of the actual tire–pavement contact
forces, and to the difficulty of expressing the contact forces in
mathematical form to be implemented in the DLOAD subroutine.
The vertical contact pressure of each tire was assumed to be uni-
formly distributed over the contact area, and therefore easily was
determined by dividing the wheel load by the tire–pavement
equivalent contact area.

U(z)=0
U(x)=0 UR(x)=UR(y)=0
UR(y)=UR(z)=0

20 m

U(x)=0
UR(y)=UR(z)=0

Displacement
U(x)
Direction

Rotation
UR(x)
Direction
U(x)=U(y)=U(z)=0
UR(x)=UR(y)=UR(y)=0

U(z)=0
UR(x)=UR(y)=0

(a)

Fine Mesh Size along Coarse Mesh Size far Dense Size Mesh
the wheel path away from loading area near loading area
5

Infinite Element
5

Infinite Element
Infinite Element
5

15
5

Finite Element

Infinite Element
5

5 60 5
(b)

Fig. 2. Finite-element mesh of the pavement structure: (a) 3D view of the selected domain (including finite and infinite elements) and boundary
conditions; and (b) in-plane geometry and mesh size.

© ASCE 04020006-4 Int. J. Geomech.

Int. J. Geomech., 2020, 20(3): 04020006

 3825 1350

1830
2022

350
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Front Drive Rear Drive

Steering axle
Tandem Axle Tandem Axle

Front Axle
Rear Axles

Fig. 3. Controlled-load truck configuration (unit: millimeter).

0.87 L
Table 1. Controlled truck axle weight and measured tire-contact area
Second- Third-
First-axle axle axle
Parameter wheel wheel wheel
Wheel configuration Single Dual
0.6L
Axle weight (kN) 71 187
Measured tire contact surface, Ac (cm2 ) 556.618 545.920 534.695
Length of actual area, L (cm) 32.632 32.317 31.983
Length of equivalent area, 0.87L (cm) 28.429 28.155 27.864
Diameter of semicircle or width of 19.579 19.390 19.190
equivalent area, 0.6L (cm) L
Average length of equivalent area, 28.149
0.87L (cm) Equivalent Contact Area
Average width of equivalent area, 19.386 Actual Contact Area
0.6L (cm)
(a)

Pavement Model Assumptions and Simplification 0.87 L

As in all research works using a finite-element model, some

assumptions were made in this study to establish a large-scale
3D viscoelastic multilayered system of the pavement structure.
The assumptions made to simplify the real road system and focus
0.6L
on the key factors were as follows:
1. Each pavement structure layer’s materials were assumed to be
homogeneous and isotropic. The materials of the road base, sub-
base, cement-stabilized subgrade, and natural soil were assumed
to respond linearly and elastically to the applied dynamic loads.
Asphalt layers were modeled as viscoelastic with a simple linear
relationship.
2. The interface between adjacent layers was assumed to be com-
pletely continuous, because the road test section was newly built.
3. When the vehicle was in motion, the stress and strain generated 0.6L
as well as the displacement of the pavement structure at an in-
finite distance from the vehicular loading was zero.
4. Tires and pavement were considered as uncoupled, and there-
fore were established as a one-solid model with known contact
L
stress (field measured contact stress). In addition, the surface of
the pavement model was a horizontal plane, and the slope and (b)
longitudinal unevenness of the road surface were neglected;
Fig. 4. Actual and equivalent contact areas: (a) single tire; and (b) dual
In addition, the pavement structure initial stress condition was
tires.
neglected.

© ASCE 04020006-5 Int. J. Geomech.

Int. J. Geomech., 2020, 20(3): 04020006

 Pavement Material Characterization and Parameters
In FE analysis, the material characteristics are needed as input
parameters for pavement system modeling. Furthermore, accurate
mechanistic analysis of the layered pavement system requires the
adoption of an ideal constitutive model for each layer (Ali et al.
2009; Li et al. 2017). Therefore, it is necessary to select an ideal
constitutive model that will be used to characterize the behavior and
the material properties of each layer. This section includes a brief
description of the materials of each layer of the road system as well
as the characterization of their relative properties.
Bonding Layers and Natural Soil Material Properties
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1.2Fr
E¼ ð10Þ
πD2 ε3
where E = elastic modulus (MPa); Fr = maximum applied load (N);
D = sample diameter (mm); and ε3 = compressive strain of specimen
when loading reaches 0.3Fr .
Previous studies revealed that cement-treated bound material in
the field is susceptible to cracking. In addition, the modulus of a
cracked CTB is different from the modulus of the uncracked CTB
measured in the laboratory (Freeme et al. 1987). Therefore, the
samples were tested as soon as the construction of the pavement
test section was completed to ensure that the CTB layer was not yet
cracked. Thus, the module tests were performed on the uncracked

CTB. Table 3 summarizes the calculated elastic modulus and other

Characterization
The subgrade layer consisted of 1.5% cement-stabilized soil (CS),
whereas the natural soil consisted of soil materials in place. The
top of the natural soil was improved by compaction without
the addition of stabilizer (hydraulic binder, cement, and so forth).
The semi-rigid base and subbase layers consisted of 4% cement-
treated bound materials (CTBs). The composition of the CTBs
in the mixture is listed in Table 2.
In this study, the materials from the road base to the natural soil
were assumed to be isotropic linear elastic. The cement-stabilized
subgrade soil and the natural soil Young’s moduli were obtained
from back-calculation after falling-weight deflectometer tests were
performed on the constructed road test section, and their values
are summarized in Table 3. The parameters of the CTBs were ob-
tained from laboratory-conducted uniaxial compression modulus
test. This, according to the Chinese test method J051-T0845 in the
current JTG D50 (Chinese Standards 2017). The CTB samples were
core drilled from the field and cut to a size of 150 × 150 mm
(diameter × height). After being immersed in the water for 24 h,
the samples were uniformly loaded with a universal testing machine
at the loading speed of 1 mm=min until failure. The applied load and
the strain data were recorded to determine a reliable and accurate
mechanical modulus of each simple by the following relationship:
Table 2. Composition of CTB in mix design
Composition Weight ratio (%)
20–30 mm 28
10–20 mm 26
5–10 mm 18
Sand 28
material parameters.
Asphalt Concrete Layers’ Material Property
Characterization
It is clearly stated in the literature that the basic performance of the
binder, the aggregate gradation, and the design properties of the
mixture have a great influence on the asphalt mixture mechanical
properties. These mechanical properties directly influence the dy-
namic properties of the asphalt mixture. Therefore it is appropriate
to briefly describe these.
The flexible layer of the instrumented road test section consisted
of three distinct asphalt mixtures. Stone mastic asphalt with stan-
dard asphalt binder was applied as the AC surface course. Styrene-
butadiene-styrene–modified asphalt (SBS-AC20) was applied in
the AC middle course. The last asphalt layer was a mixture of high-
elasticity and high-viscosity and SBS-modified compound. The
maximum nominal sizes of the aggregates constituting the SMA13,
SBS-AC20, and HE-AC5 mixtures were, respectively, 19.5, 19, and
4.75 mm. The basic performance of each binder applied in each type
of asphalt mixture is listed in Table 4, and the aggregate gradation of
each mixture is illustrated in Fig. 5. The basic volumetric design
properties of each mixture are provided in Table 5. More details
were given by Tan et al. (2017) and Sun et al. (2018).
The literature clearly states that the behavior of the asphalt
concrete is not only time or frequency dependent but also temper-
ature dependent. In addition, asphalt concrete is characterized as
viscoelastic material whose stiffness depends on time, tempera-
ture, and the frequency of the applied load (Li et al. 2015;
Gungor et al. 2016). Asphalt layers from the instrumented pave-
ment structure were assumed to be isotropic and to behave as a
linear viscoelastic material. For isotropic viscoelasticity, there are
many constitutive models: the Kelvin–Voigt model, the Burgers

Table 3. Material parameters of pavement structure

Parameter
Damping ratio,
ζ ¼ 0.05
Unit weight Elastic modulus Poisson’s
No. Layer Material (kg=m3 ) (MPa) ratio α β
1 AC surface course SMA13 2,400 Viscoelastica 0.30 0.342 0.0069
2 AC middle course SBS-AC20 2,400 Viscoelastica 0.30 0.342 0.0069
3 AC bottom course HE-AC5 2,300 Viscoelastica 0.35 0.342 0.0069
4 Semi-rigid base CTB 2,100 14,000 0.25 0.342 0.0069
5 Semi-rigid subbase CTB 2,100 14,000 0.25 0.342 0.0069
6 Cement-stabilized subgrade CS 1,900 6,000 0.35 0.342 0.0069
7 Natural soil In-place soil 1,800 120 0.40 0.342 0.0069
Note: ζ = critical damping ratio; α = Rayleigh damping mass proportional; and β = Rayleigh damping stiffness proportional.
a
Elastic modulus for viscoelasticity (moduli time scale is instantaneous) (Table 6).

© ASCE 04020006-6 Int. J. Geomech.

Int. J. Geomech., 2020, 20(3): 04020006

 Table 4. Basic performance of binder applied in each mixture Al-Qadi 2008). The dynamic complex modulus tests were con-
Asphalt mixture ducted as per ASTM-D3497 (ASTM 1995). Haversine loading
was applied to the specimen without impact and at loads varying
SMA13 SBS-AC20 HE-AC5
between 0 and 241 kPa for each load application for a minimum of
Asphalt cement type 30 s (not exceeding 45 s) at temperatures of −10°C, 4.4°C, 21.1°C,
Asphalt Compound modified 37.8°C, and 54.4°C at loading frequencies of 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, 10, and
Performance binder with SBS Test method 25 Hz for each temperature. Figs. 6(a–d) depict the changes in the
complex modulus with the temperature for each loading fre-
Penetration, 25°C, 70 89 T0604-2011
100G, 5 S (0.1 mm) quency on each asphalt concrete mixture. These were used to pro-
Softening point (°C) 77 86 T0606-2011 duce a master curve and to capture the asphalt concrete material
Ductility, 5 cm=min, 42 62 T0605-2011 time, temperature, and loading frequency dependency. For any tar-
5°C (cm) geted temperature, such as the pavement in situ measured field tem-
Viscosity, 135°C (Pa · s) 1.048 1.622 T0625-2011 perature, the master curves can be shifted to obtain the shear
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relaxation modulus and the bulk relaxation modulus of the asphalt

mixture.

Asphalt Concrete Material Time Dependency and

100 HE-AC5 Prony–Dirichlet Series
SMA-13
The time dependency of the asphalt mixture at each layer can be
Percent passing (%)

80 SBS-AC20
represented by a Prony–Dirichlet series in the form of shear and
60 bulk modulus (Hibbit, Karlsson, and Sorensen 2007)

X
N 
40
GðtÞ ¼ G0 1 − Gi ð1 − eð−t=τ i Þ Þ ð12Þ
i¼1
20

X
N 
0
0.075 0.15 0.3 0.6 1.18 2.36 4.75 9.5 13.2 16 19 26.5
KðtÞ ¼ K 0 1 − K i ð1 − eð−t=τ i Þ Þ ð13Þ
i¼1
Sieve size (mm)

Fig. 5. Aggregate gradation of each mixture. where N = number of Prony–Dirichlet series terms; G0 =
instantaneous shear modulus; K 0 = instantaneous bulk modulus;
and Gi , K i , and τ i = Prony–Dirichlet series coefficients.
A constant Poisson’s ratio (μ) of 0.30 was assumed for SMA13
and SBS-AC20, whereas 0.35 was selected for HE-AC5. The shear
Table 5. Volumetric design properties of each mixtures and bulk moduli of each asphalt layer were determined from the
Mixture VTM VFA VMA AC Pbe Gmm Gse Pba relaxation modulus EðtÞ using the following relationship:
SMA13 4.10 76.80 17.80 6.10 5.8 2.504 2.765 0.4 EðtÞ
SBS-AC20 4.17 69.90 13.67 3.92 3.6 2.794 3.007 0.3 GðtÞ ¼ ð14Þ
2ð1 þ μÞ
HE-AC5 1.84 91.71 21.68 8.73 8.1 2.538 2.960 0.7
Note: VTM = air void in compacted mix; VFA = void filled with asphalt EðtÞ
volume; VMA = void mineral aggregate; AC = asphalt cement contents; KðtÞ ¼ ð15Þ
3ð1 − 2μÞ
Pbe = effective asphalt binder; Gmm = maximum theoretical specific
gravity of mix; Gse = aggregate effective specific gravity; and Pba =
asphalt absorption (by aggregate). By normalizing the shear modulus by the instantaneous shear
modulus G0 , Eq. (15) can be simplified into a ratio and expressed
as follows:
GðtÞ
model, the generalized Maxwell model, and so forth. This paper gðtÞ ¼ ð16Þ
used the generalized Maxwell solid model [Eqs. (13) and (14)] to G0
characterize the viscoelastic behavior of the asphalt layers and to
simulate the dynamic behavior. The basic hereditary integral for- X
N
gðtÞ ¼ 1 − Gi ð1 − eð−t=τ i Þ Þ ð17Þ
mulation of an isotropic viscoelastic material can be expressed as i¼1
(Blab 2002; Hibbit, Karlsson, and Sorensen 2007; Hu et al. 2017)
Z Z where Gi = material constants; τ i = retardation time; and t =
t de t dðtr½εÞ reduced relaxation time.
σðtÞ ¼ 2Gðt − τ Þ dτ þ I Kðt − τ Þ dτ ð11Þ
0 dτ 0 dτ The Abaqus nonlinear curve-fitting utility was used to deter-
mine the Prony–Dirichlet series parameters. Then the RMS error
where GðtÞ and KðtÞ = shear and bulk relaxation function; e and (RMSE) function in Eq. (18) was used to accurately fit the mea-
tr½ε = deviatoric and volumetric parts of strain tensor; t = reduced ~
sured shear modulus gðtÞ to the calculated shear modulus gðtÞ
relaxation time; and I = tensor unit. (Hibbit, Karlsson, and Sorensen 2007)
Dynamic complex modulus tests were performed on each vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u N
mixture to obtain the relaxation modulus that was used to u1 X
determine the shear relaxation modulus and the bulk (volumetric) RMSE ¼ t ½g ðtÞ − g~ i ðtÞ2 ð18Þ
N i¼1 i
relaxation modulus (Alqadi and Elseifi 2006; Yoo and

© ASCE 04020006-7 Int. J. Geomech.

Int. J. Geomech., 2020, 20(3): 04020006

 (a)
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(c)
Fig. 6. Dynamic modulus versus temperature for each loading frequency: (a) SMA13; (b) SBS-AC20; and (c) HE-AC5.
Asphalt Concrete Material Temperature Dependence and
WLF Equation
The properties and behavior of the asphalt concrete materials used in
the flexible layer of the semi-rigid pavement structure are highly
influenced by the temperature. Therefore, in addition to the need
to take into account the time dependence of the asphalt material,
the temperature-dependent behavior also must be modeled using a
seasonal time–temperature shift factor. This makes it possible to
convert the master curve from the test temperature to the reference
temperature, thus modifying the initial time (t) in a reduced time (tr)
using Eqs. (20) and (21). Several relationships have been proposed to
model the time–temperature superposition of the asphalt concrete
(Pellinen et al. 2004; Chailleux et al. 2011). This paper used the
Williams–Landel–Ferry function (WLF) (Williams et al. 1955;
Hibbit, Karlsson, and Sorensen 2007)
−C1 ðT − T ref Þ
logðαTÞ ¼ ð19Þ
C2 þ ðT − T ref Þ
where αT = time–temperature shift factor; C1 and C2 = regression
coefficients; T = analysis temperature; and T ref = reference
temperature.
A sigmoidal function introduced in the AASHOTO pavement
design guide (AASHTO 2004) was used to fit the relaxation modu-
lus data and obtain the regression coefficients. This function is
described by the following expressions:
α
logðEðtr ÞÞ ¼ δ þ ð20Þ
1 þ expðβ þ γ logðtr ÞÞ
t different packaging materials developed by Harbin University of
αT ¼ ð21Þ
tr
© ASCE 04020006-8
Int. J. Geomech., 2020, 20(3): 04020006
(b)
where α, β, γ, and δ = regression coefficients; t = time before con-
version under temperature test; and tr = time after conversion under
reference temperature.
According to Eqs. (12)–(21), the WLF equation constant and
Prony–Dirichlet series were calculated at the reference temperature
of 10°C for each asphalt mixture (Table 6). Similarly, at any target
temperature, the asphalt material parameters can be obtained by
fitting the aforementioned equations. The asphalt reference temper-
ature used in the analysis was taken equal to the mean value re-
corded through the thickness of asphalt layers during the field
measurement.
Full-Scale Field Testing and Finite-Element Model
Validations
Pavement Section Instrumentation and Field Testing
The instrumented semi-rigid asphalt pavement modeled in this FE
analysis is a part of a project that focuses on the dynamic behavior
of a typical pavement, designed to eliminate reflective cracks and
bottom-up fatigue cracking. Thus, a typical high-elasticity and
high-viscosity mixture, HE-AC5, was applied as a stress-absorbing
layer to resist fatigue cracking. Then SMA13 and SBS-AC20 were
used to enhance tire wear, permanent deformation resistance, and
durability.
The test field is located in Shandong province, China. The
Rizhan–LanKao test road is an important section of the national
highway network, G1511. Following a comprehensive instrumen-
tation layout [Figs. 7(a–d)], fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors with
Technology were adopted for the road test instrumentation during
Int. J. Geomech.
 Table 6. Inputs parameters for defining viscoelastic behavior of each asphaltic layer at 10°C
SMA13 SBS-AC20 HE-AC5
τi Gi τi Gi τi Gi
No. Prony–Dirichlet series for generalized Maxwell model
−5 −1
1 1.947 × 10 1.593 × 10 1.003 × 10−4 1.519 × 10−1 2.921 × 10−5 2.019 × 10−1
2 7.661 × 10−4 1.681 × 10−1 3.440 × 10−3 1.326 × 10−1 9.227 × 10−4 2.113 × 10−1
3 3.968 × 10−2 2.089 × 10−1 1.651 × 10−1 1.884 × 10−1 3.689 × 10−2 1.775 × 10−1
4 1.004 × 100 2.022 × 10−1 2.472 × 100 2.603 × 10−1 1.248 × 100 1.797 × 10−1
5 2.267 × 101 1.776 × 10−1 4.009 × 101 1.789 × 10−1 6.323 × 101 1.499 × 10−1
6 1.279 × 103 8.091 × 102 2.857 × 103 6.813 × 10−2 3.399 × 103 7.165 × 10−2
Elastic modulus for viscoelasticity (moduli time scale is instantaneous)
10,000 15,000 6,500
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Williams–Landel–Ferry equation constants

C1 23.74 27.061 25.44
C2 177.80 222.90 198.80
RMSE 0.11 0.02 0.07
Note: No. = number of Prony–Series; τ = relaxation time; and G = dimensionless relaxation modulus.

Median Strip

Overtaking Lane

Wheel path
Carriageway Strain Sensor zone
Traffic Direction

Wheel path

Emergency Lane K313+800 K314+000 K314+400

Longitudinal Strain sensors Vertical Strain sensors

Transversal Strain sensors Temperature and humidity sensors

(a)

0.32 0.32 0.50 0.32 0.50

Marking line between carriageway

Marking line between carriageway

Marking line between carriageway

34# 33# 22# 21# 10# 9# V3

and emergency lane

and emergency lane

and emergency lane

1.90

1.90

1.90

36# 35# 24# 23# V7 12# 11# V4

0.88

0.88

0.88

W2#

(b) (c) (d)

Fig. 7. Instrumentation layout of the experimental pavement structure and disposition details at mile stake K314 þ 400: (a) plan view of structural
instrumentation; (b) sensor layout details at the bottom of the SM13; (c) sensor layout details at the middepth of the SBS-AC20; and (d) sensor layout
details at the top of the HE-AC5.

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Int. J. Geomech., 2020, 20(3): 04020006

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Fig. 8. FBG sensors used at Rizhan–LanKao test road section: (a) SFRP-FGB sensor; (b) LFRP-FGB sensor; and (c) TS-FGB sensor.
construction. To quantify the pavement dynamic response at three
different depths: 3.5 cm, on the bottom of the SMA13; 10.25 cm,
on the middepth of the SBS-AC20; and 18.50 cm, on the top of the
HE-AC5. The road test pavement was instrumented on three dis-
tinctive sections located at miles K313 þ 800, K314 þ 000, and
K314 þ 400. A total of 36 short fiber-reinforced polymer (SFRP)
FBG sensors [Fig. 8(a)] were installed in the wheel path to measure
the pavement dynamic strain response in both transverse and
longitudinal directions, whereas 7 long fiber-reinforced polymer
(LFRP) FBG sensors [Fig. 8(b)] were installed to collect the ver-
tical dynamic strain. Four FBG temperature sensors (TS) [Fig. 8(c)]
were embedded outside the wheel path to monitor the in situ
temperature. All sensors were carefully embedded in the structure
during the construction period, and their positions were marked on
the road surface to facilitate their identification during the field
test. Figs. 9(a–d) display the installation of the various FBG sensors
within the asphalt layer, the data monitoring system, and the
controlled-load test.
A series of controlled wheel loading tests were carried out on the
test road section with the objective to investigate the dynamic re-
sponse of the pavement under a moving heavy vehicle load while
exposed to environmental conditions. During the experiments, a
Sinotruck HOWO A7 6 × 4 dump truck with a single steering axle
and tandem driving axles was used to conduct the load tests. Test
truck loads were set at 149, 258, and 362 kN, with an axle calibra-
tion error range controlled at 1 kN. The detailed parameters of the
controlled-load truck used in this paper are listed in Tables 1 and 2.
For each load configuration, the truck was driven directly over
the top of the sensors at targeted moving speeds of 20, 40, and
60 km=h. Data collected from the FBG sensors were recorded
and analyzed for all the tests.
In this study, only the strain signal collected in Section K314 þ
400 with the truck loaded at 258 kN and moving at 20 km=h sub-
sequently were used to compare the dynamic response obtain from
the field test with that obtain by FE simulation in order to validate
the developed full-scale 3D viscoelastic FE model.
© ASCE 04020006-10
Int. J. Geomech., 2020, 20(3): 04020006
Field-Measured Dynamic Strain Response
During the experiment, for each passage of the controlled-load truck
over the instrument area, data were measured and recorded by the
data acquisition system at a rate of 2,000 Hz. The recorded high-
frequency signal provided a complete register of the instrument’s
response to each successive passage of the front and rear axles
of the test truck. Figs. 10(a–c) show a typical three-directional strain
signal obtained from the sensors integrated into the SBS-AC20 mid-
depth when the steering and driving axles of the test truck loaded at
258 kN passed over the instrument pavement at 20 km=h. For in-
stance, the longitudinal dynamic strain in Fig. 10(c), clearly shows
that the first peak strain values, at about 4.10 s, depict the passing of
the truck front axle over the sensor. The following two peaks values,
at approximately 5.08 and 5.33 s, correspond to the dual tandem
drive wheels of the truck passing over the sensor.
The original strain signals recorded as the test truck axles load
passed over the instruments were polluted by noise [Figs. 10(a–c),
unfiltered signals]. The presence of this unwanted signal noise can
be related to the sensors themselves, to the surrounding materials,
and especially to the dynamic behavior of the pavement structure.
As indicated in the literature, the structural dynamic response de-
pends on the ratio of the external loading frequency to the road
system natural frequency (Uddin 2003; Darestani et al. 2006). The
range of natural frequency was found to be 6–14 Hz for flexible
pavements and 20–58 Hz for rigid pavements, whereas the truck
loading frequency was about 6.5 Hz at 82 km=h and approximately
4.6 Hz and 58 km=h (Gillespie 1993). Thus, the true amplitudes of
the original signal obtained from sensors integrated within the
pavement structure can fluctuate greatly. Therefore, it is important
to reduce the signal noise by removing these unwanted peaks
before analyzing the response.
Signal processing tools such as the wavelet transform, smooth-
ing, and Fourier filter often are employed to improve the signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR) of the original signal. However, peak clipping is
unavoidable when the original signals are processed by digital fil-
tering or smoothing. In this study, the FFT filtering tool available in
Int. J. Geomech.
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Fig. 9. Installation of FBG strain sensors and field strain measurements in Shandong Expressway: (a) sensor positioning at the top of the HE-AC5;
(b) installation and mechanical paving; (c) controlled-load test in progress; and (d) data acquisition system.

Origin-Pro 2017 software was used to filtered the original strain
signals. The peak values of the filtered signal were less than those
of the unfiltered original signal [Figs. 10(a–c), filtered signals].
Comparative Analysis of FE Simulation Result and
Field-Measured Data
The results of the 3D FE analysis and the field-recorded dy-
namic strains under the controlled-load truck at a moving speed
of 20 km=h are depicted Figs. 11(a–f). The time histories of the
dynamic strain were measured at the same analysis point in the ac-
tual pavement and FE Model. However, the time histories of the
dynamic strain of the FE simulation in Figs. 11(a–f) were taken
at Analysis points a, b and d in Fig. 12. In addition, the dynamic
strain histories of the field tests were those recorded by the sensors
installed at the bottom of the SMA13, the middepth of the SBS-
AC20, and the top of the HE-AC (Fig. 7).
The time histories of the dynamic strain predicted by the estab-
lished FE model and the dynamic response recorded from the field
testing were in a good agreement. Furthermore, the trend of change
over time and the peak values were very close to each other, but
there was a certain difference in the residual strain and response
time.
Explicitly in the case of transverse strain [Figs. 11(a and b)],
both predicted and measured responses had the same shape of
the curve (strain versus time). However, in terms of time history, the
field measured load duration was shorter than the calculated load
duration. The transverse dynamic strain taken at the bottom of the
SMA13, in the middepth of the SBS-AC20, and at the bottom of
the HE-AC5 respectively indicated a difference of about 2%, 7%,
and 4% between the predicted and calculated maximum strains.
For vertical deformation [Figs. 11(c and d)], the response of the
measurement in the field was slower to recover and the loading time
was longer. In addition, the vertical deformation predicted at the
middepth of the SBS-AC20 and at the bottom of the HE-AC5 had
an error range of less than 10%. Regarding the longitudinal strain
[Figs. 11(e and f)], the peak values of the field-measured longitu-
dinal strain were slightly lower than the predicted values, whereas
the strains in compression were relatively high. A difference of less
than 5% was observed between the maximum values of the pre-
dicted longitudinal strain and those measured at the bottom of
the SMA13, in the middepth of the SBS-AC20, and at the bottom
of the HE-AC5.
An in-depth investigation of the comparative study of the result
of the FE simulation and measurements obtained from the field in-
dicated certain differences. The reasons for the differences are
1. During the full-scale field testing, it was difficult to accurately
control the speed of the controlled-load truck and the wheels’
load position, which ideally should be applied symmetrically in
the wheel path and directly below the center of dual tires.
2. The dynamic responses recorded by the different FBG sen-
sors were influenced by the surrounding material constraints.

© ASCE 04020006-11 Int. J. Geomech.

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Fig. 10. Unfiltered and filtered three-directional strain time histories recorded during the passing of the controlled-load truck loaded at 258 kN and
moving at 20 km=h: (a) transverse dynamic strain; (b) vertical dynamic strain; and (c) longitudinal dynamic strain.

The sensors were subjected to compressive stress not only at the
approach of the controlled-load truck but also after the passage
of the truck.
3. The wheel load was assumed to be uniformly distributed over a
rectangular contact area between each tire and pavement, which
differs from the real contact stresses and pressure induced by the
tires during field testing. Only accurate three-dimensional con-
tact pressure and a nonuniform contact area can simulate with
very good accuracy the real conditions of stress distribution in
the pavement structure.
All in all, the dynamic strains predicted by numerical simulation
at different depths within the pavement structure basically were
consistent with those measured in the field. Therefore, the estab-
lished 3D viscoelastic FE model can be used to accurately predict
the structural behavior of the pavement subjected to full-scale truck
loading in motion.
Correlations Analysis of FE Analysis Result and
Field-Measured Data
As the comparative study between the simulation result and the field
data measurement showed, the established FE model can accurately
predict the pavement dynamic response. Nevertheless, there was a
very slight difference between the curves’ shapes. To analyze the
influence of this margin of error on the accuracy of the prediction
model, a correlation analysis of the FE simulation result and field
measured strain data was performed. The correlation coefficient rxy
between two distinct variables x and y can be obtained from the
following expression: P P
ðxi − x̄Þ ðyi − ȳÞ
rxy ¼ pP ffip P
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð22Þ
ðxi − x̄Þ2 ðyi − ȳÞ2
P P
where x̄ ¼ ð1=nÞ Ni xi = mean of x; and ȳ ¼ ð1=nÞ Ni yi = mean
of y. The Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC) can take on any
value in the range ½−1; 1. There is no linear correlation between
two variables when r ¼ 0. The correlation coefficient magnitude
reveals the relationship strength, whereas its sign shows the direc-
tion of the relationship. As general a guideline for evaluating the
correlation strength (Cohen 1988), if 1 < jrj < 3, there is a small
or weak correlation between variables; if 3 < jrj < 5, there is a
medium or moderate correlation; and if 5 < jrj, this indicates a large
or strong correlation.
Tables 7–9 present the correlation matrix of the three directional
strains from field data and numerical simulations. The value of r
was between 0.694 and 0.990. This proves that the measured and
calculated dynamic responses at different depths had a positive or
strong correlation. Thus, the responses had a statistically significant
relationship at the 0.01 level of significance for a two-tailed test.
Therefore, the margin of error between the simulation result and the
field data had a negligible influence on the accuracy of the predic-
tion model. This clearly reinforces the previous statement that the
predicted dynamic strains were in good agreement with the field
measurements. Consequently, the developed 3D FE model was

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(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Fig. 11. Three-directional dynamic strains from FE simulation and field measurement during the passing of the test truck loaded at 258 kN and
moving at 20 km=h: (a and b) transverse dynamic strain; (c and d) vertical dynamic strain; and (e and f) longitudinal dynamic strain.

used to better understand the structural behavior of layered asphalt
pavements subjected to dynamic moving wheel loads.
Finite-Element Simulation Results Analysis and
Discussion
Typical measurement points in the pavement structure were se-
lected along with the depth mainly under the center of the dual tires
but also at different lateral positions in the middepth of the SBS-
AC20 to ensure a better analysis of the dynamic response of the
asphalt pavement under a moving traffic load. The selected analy-
sis points are shown in Fig. 12; Points a, b, c, d, e, f, and g were
respectively taken at depths of 0.035, 0.100, 0.165, 0.185, 0.275,
0.450, and 0.535 m directly right below the center of the dual tires.
Points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 were selected respectively for lateral
positions 0, 0.050, 0.152, 0.255, 0.475, 0.675, and 0.915 m in the
middle of the SBS-AC20 layer.
Transverse Stress–Strain Analysis
Figs. 13(a and b) and 14(a and b) respectively depict the time his-
tories of transverse strain and transverse stress at different depths
under the center of the dual tires and at different lateral positions in
the middepth of the asphalt concrete middle course before and after
the crossing of the controlled-load truck.

© ASCE 04020006-13 Int. J. Geomech.

Int. J. Geomech., 2020, 20(3): 04020006

 same patterns as the transverse stress with a slight delay. The maxi-
mum value of the transverse stress response was reached when the
load just reached the measurement point, whereas the maximum
value of the transverse dynamic strain response occurred 0.05 s
SMA13 a
b 1 2 3 5 6 7
after the load reached this point.
SBS-AC20 4
HE-AC5 c The analysis of the time histories of the transverse strain mea-
Base d sured at different lateral positions at the mid-depth of the SBS-
e
Subbase f AC20 illustrated the influence of the lateral position of the sensors
Subgrade g in the pavement dynamic response [Figs. 13(b) and 14(b)]. The
maximum value of the dynamic transverse strain and stress re-
Natural Soil
sponse occurred just below the center of the dual tires for the strains
and under the tires for the stresses. The dynamic transverse stress
and strain response generated as the load moved farther from the
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measurement point decreased gradually. Therefore, the position of

the loading path and the embedded point of the sensors need to be
Fig. 12. Analysis points for dynamic response of asphalt pavement. controlled during the test process to ensure that the recorded dy-
namic response accurately reflects the field stress–strain state.

Table 7. Correlation matrix of field transversal strain and numerical Vertical Stress–Strain Analysis
simulations
Figs. 15(a and b) and 16(a and b) respectively display the time his-
Field measurement tories of vertical strain and vertical stress at different analysis points.
Numerical Significance
simulation SMA13 SBS-AC20 HE-AC5 (two-tailed) From the time histories of vertical stress, it can be seen that, before
and after the wheel load passes, a slight vertical compressive stress
SMA13 0.980a — — 0.000
SBS-AC20 — 0.972a — 0.000
occurs first, and then the tensile stress with a larger value appears
HE-AC5 — — 0.950a 0.000 just at the moment that the load is on the point of measurement. The
a
maximum value of the vertical stress occurred just under the wheel
Correlation is significant at 0.01 level (two-tailed). tire, and as the measurement points moved away from the tire, the
vertical stress decreased. The amplitude of the dynamic vertical
stress first increased with depth, reaching the maximum value at
Table 8. Correlation matrix of field vertical strain and numerical a depth of approximately 0.165 m, after which it decreased progres-
simulations sively from the peak value [Fig. 16(a)].
Field measurement The analysis of the vertical strain at different analysis points
Numerical Significance showed that as the measurement point moved away from the wheel
simulation SMA13 SBS-AC20 HE-AC5 (two-tailed)
load, the dynamic vertical strain gradually increased until reaching
SMA13 — — — 0.000 a certain maximum value at a lateral point of 0.695 m, after which
SBS-AC20 — 0.930a — 0.000 the strain started to decrease. From the pavement surface course to
HE-AC5 — — 0.694a 0.000 the base layer, the longitudinal strain responses were in compres-
a sion, and from the pavement base layer to subgrade, they were sub-
Correlation is significant at 0.01 level (two-tailed).
ject to tension. In the compressive zone, the vertical strain responses
decreased as the depth increased, whereas in the tensile zone they
Table 9. Correlation matrix of field longitudinal strain and numerical
increased as the depth increased.
simulations

Numerical
Field measurement
Significance Longitudinal Stress–Strain Analysis
simulation SMA13 SBS-AC20 HE-AC5 (two-tailed) Figs. 17(a and b) and 18(a and b) display respectively the time his-
SMA13 0.965a — — 0.000 tories of the longitudinal strain and longitudinal stress at different
SBS-AC20 — 0.990a — 0.000 depths in the center of the dual tires and at different lateral positions
HE-AC5 — — 0.961a 0.000 in the middepth of the AC middle course under the controlled-load
a
Correlation is significant at 0.01 level (two-tailed). truck.
At the analysis point at depth ¼ 0.100 m (the middepth of
the SBS AC20), as the loads approach the measurement points, the
Before and after the wheel load passed the measurement point, longitudinal dynamic stress response changed from compression to
the dynamic transverse stresses and dynamic transverse strain am- tension. Then it gradually increased to its maximum tensile stress
plitudes first increase, then decreased gradually after reaching the value when the wheel load was directly below the measurement
maximum value, and there was a certain residual strain at the end of point. The tensile stress decreased progressively and finally changed
the cycle (Figs. 13 and 14). The dynamic response analysis of trans- back to compression as the truck load moved farther from the meas-
verse stress recorded at different depths in the center of the dual uring points. Hence, as the truck approached and moved away from
tires [Fig. 14(a)] revealed that from depth ¼ 0.035 to 0.275 m, the measuring points, the longitudinal dynamic stresses response
the transverse strains were subjected to tension; they altered to was subjected to compression, whereas the stresses were tensile
compression after this depth. In the compression zone, as the depth under the wheel load.
increased, the amplitude of the transverse dynamic strain increased, The analysis of the influence of depth on the longitudinal strains
whereas it was attenuated in the tension zone as the depth in- and stresses showed that from the pavement surface to the road base
creased. The transverse strain response [Fig. 13(a)] followed the layer the dynamic longitudinal strain and stress responses were

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(a) (b)

Fig. 13. Time histories of transverse strain at different analysis points during the passing of the test truck loaded at 258 kN and moving at 20 km=h:
(a) points at different depths under the center of the dual tires; and (b) different lateral positions in the middepth of the AC middle course.

(a) (b)

Fig. 14. Time histories of transverse stress at different analysis points during the passing of the test truck loaded at 258 kN and moving at 20 km=h:
(a) points at different depths under the center of the dual tires; and (b) different lateral positions in the middepth of the AC middle course.

(a) (b)

Fig. 15. Time histories of vertical strain at different analysis points during the passing of the test truck loaded at 258 kN and moving at 20 km=h:
(a) points at different depths under the center of the dual tires; and (b) different lateral positions in the middepth of the AC middle course.

tensile under the wheel load, whereas they were subject to compres- behind the wheel load. When the stresses and strains under the
sion in front of and behind the wheel load [Figs. 17(a) and 18(a)]. wheel load were in a compression zone, the dynamic responses in-
From the base layer to the subgrade they were subject to compres- creased as depth increased, whereas when they were in a tension
sion under the wheel load, whereas they were tensile in front of and zone, the dynamic responses decreased as the depth increased.

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(a) (b)

Fig. 16. Time histories of vertical stress at different analysis points during the passing of the test truck loaded at 258 kN and moving at 20 km=h:
(a) points at different depths under the center of the dual tires; and (b) different lateral positions in the middepth of the AC middle course.

(a) (b)

Fig. 17. Time histories of longitudinal strain at different analysis points during the passing of the test truck loaded at 258 kN and moving at 20 km=h:
(a) points at different depths under the center of the dual tires; and (b) different lateral positions in the middepth of the AC middle course.

(a) (b)

Fig. 18. Time histories of longitudinal stress at different analysis points during the passing of the test truck loaded at 258 kN and moving at 20 km=h:
(a) points at different depths under the center of the dual tires; and (b) different lateral positions in the middepth of the AC middle course.

The analysis of the influence of lateral positions of measuring points was just below the contact surface of the wheel load (from
points on the longitudinal dynamic strain and stress revealed that lateral ¼ 0.050 to 0.255 m) [Figs. 17(b) and 18(b)]. The dynamic
the maximum values of the longitudinal strain and the stress re- longitudinal strain and stress responses decreased gradually as the
sponse were reached when the lateral position of the measurement measurement points moved farther from the wheel load.

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(a) (b)

Fig. 19. Time histories of shear strain at different analysis points during the passing of the test truck loaded at 258 kN and moving at 20 km=h:
(a) points at different depths under the center of the dual tires; and (b) different lateral positions in the middepth of the AC middle course.

(a) (b)

Fig. 20. Time histories of shear stress at different analysis points during the passing of the test truck loaded at 258 kN and moving at 20 km=h:
(a) points at different depths under the center of the dual tires; and (b) different lateral positions in the middepth of the AC middle course.

Shear Stress–Strain Analysis
The time histories of shear strain and shear stress measured at dif-
ferent depths in the center of the dual tires and at different lateral
positions in the middepth of the asphalt concrete middle course
under the controlled-load truck are displayed in Figs. 19(a and b)
and 20(a and b). Before and after the passage of each wheel axle,
there was an alternating change between the negatives and the pos-
itives shear stresses in the pavement structure. The absolute value
of the negative shear stresses was very slightly below that of the
positive shear stresses. The shear strain and shear stress dynamic
responses recorded at different depths under the center of the dual
tires [Figs. 19(a) and 20(a)] and at different lateral positions in the
middepth of the SBS-AC20 [Figs. 19(b) and 20(b)] followed the
same pattern. The peak value of shear stress and shear strain at
the middepth of the asphalt surface middle course occurred directly
below the center of the tire, and as the wheel load moved away from
the measuring point, the amplitude of the dynamic responses pro-
gressively decreased.
The amplitudes of the dynamic responses of the shear stress and
shear strain under the wheel load precisely at the center of the dual
tires increased initially with the depth, reaching the maximum value
at a depth of approximately 60 mm for the stress and 50 mm for the
strain, after which they decreased gradually from the peak value. It
can be anticipated that the alternative change between positive and
negative shear stress and strain under the complex action of the
moving vehicular loads could be an important reason for the pre-
mature fatigue of pavement materials and the rutting of roads. Thus,
it is important to fully understand shear stress and shear strain in
semi-rigid types of flexible pavements in order to design more-
sustainable pavement.
Summary and Conclusions
This paper investigated the dynamic response of the semi-rigid type
of flexible pavement structure under full-scale moving heavy
vehicular load. A full-scale 3D FE model of transient dynamic
analysis of the pavement was established to obtain critical strain
and stress responses within the pavement structure. The developed
3D FE model incorporates the viscoelastic behavior of the asphalt
layers and the effect of the transient local dynamic wheel load. The
critical dynamic responses of the pavement structure were analyzed
according to the depth under the center of the dual tires and the
lateral distribution in the middepth of the SBS-AC20 layer. Pave-
ment dynamic response measured at the Rizhan–LanKao G1511

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Int. J. Geomech., 2020, 20(3): 04020006

 highway pavement test section was used to verify the rationality of
the developed viscoelastic 3D FE model. Some of the preliminary
findings from this study are summarized as follows:
1. The pavement responses in terms of three-directional strain at
the bottom of the SMA13, the middepth of the SBS-AC20,
and the top of the HE-AC were calculated, and the results were
consistent with the full-scale field-measured responses. In addi-
tion, the correlation analysis of the developed FE analysis result
and the field-measured data showed that the influence of the
assumptions made in the development of this 3D viscoelastic
FE model on the accuracy of the prediction of the model were
relatively insignificant.
2. Computed and measured dynamic responses indicated that be-
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fore and after the wheel load passes to the measurement point,
the transverse tensile strains and the vertical compressive strain
first increases, and then decreases gradually after reaching the
peak value Furthermore, there is a certain residual strain at the
end of the cycle. The longitudinal strain responses are tensile
under the wheel load, whereas they are subject to compression
in front of and behind the wheel load.
3. The analysis of the three-directional dynamic response of the
pavement showed that the pavement asphaltic layers are sub-
jected to tensile vertical stress and tensile transverse stress; the
semi-rigid base layer is subjected to tensile vertical stress and
compressive transverse stress; and the semi-rigid subbase, sub-
grade, and natural soil are subjected to tensile vertical stress and
compressive transverse stress. An alternating change between
negative shear stress, strain, and positive shear stress occurred
in the pavement structure.
4. The analyses of the pavement dynamic response according to
the depth demonstrated that with the increase of the depth, the
transverse strain in the asphalt layers increases, whereas it is
gradually attenuated in other layers. The dynamic vertical stress
first increased with depth, reaching the maximum value at a
depth of approximately 0.165 m, after which it gradually de-
creased from that maximum value. In the compression zone,
the vertical strain responses decrease as the depth increases,
whereas in the tension zone it increases as the depth increases
The longitudinal stresses and strains under wheel load increase
as depth increases in the compression zone and decrease as the
depth increases in the tension zone.
5. The analysis of the pavement dynamic response at different lat-
eral positions in the middepth of the SBS-AC20 showed that
as the measurement points move away from the wheel load, the
dynamic amplifications decreases. The maximum value of the
transverse strain occurs directly below the center of dual tires,
whereas the maximum value of stress occurs under the tires.
The vertical strain gradually increased until it reached its max-
imum value at a lateral point of 0.695 m, after which the strain
began to decrease. The maximum value of the vertical stress oc-
curs just under the tire. The longitudinal stress and the strain peak
value occur below the wheel load contact area. The peak value of
shear stress and strain occurs directly below the center of the tire.
Limitation and Further Research Direction
As with all research works, this study has some limitations. To
achieve more-accurate pavement response assessment and perfor-
mance predictions, it is recommended that future research consider
a further improvement in pavement mechanical behavior analysis.
Although this study formulated some assumptions in the actual 3D
viscoelastic FE model with reasonable accuracy: (1) that the asphalt
concrete behaves as viscoelastic with a simple linear relationship
© ASCE 04020006-18
Int. J. Geomech., 2020, 20(3): 04020006
may not entirely reflect the actual dynamic properties of the asphalt
concrete; (2) that the behavior of the nonasphaltic layer is linear
and elastic in an isotropic system may not be representative of the
stress-dependent state of these layers at some stage; (3) the tire–
pavement contact stresses that were uniformly distributed on a
rectangular equivalent area may not entirely be indicative of the
three-directional stress state and the nonuniform contact areas rep-
resenting the field real loading condition. The authors recommend
the aforementioned concerns for further investigation in future
studies.
Data Availability Statement
The data supporting the figures and tables in this paper, the numeri-
cal model and subroutine code generated in this study, as well as
other findings of this study are available from the corresponding
author by request.
Acknowledgments
This work was funded by the Chinese Ministry of Science and
Technology under Grant No. 2014BAC07B00 and the Natural
Science Foundation of China under Grant No. 51678207. The
equipment and software were supported by Harbin Institute of
Technology. The authors express their sincere gratitude to all the
people involved in this research project. Finally, the authors thank
the reviewers for useful comments and the editors for improving the
manuscript.
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