Effects of Nonuniform Tire Contact Stresses

on Pavement Response
Dae-Wook Park1; Amy Epps Martin, A.M.ASCE2; and Eyad Masad, A.M.ASCE3
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Abstract: Since the 1960s, a uniform circular vertical contact stress has been used to model the tire/pavement interface in asphalt
pavements. Recent experimental measurements show that this assumption cannot be used to model the actual interaction. This study
investigated the influence of nonuniform contact stress distribution on the stress distribution and permanent deformation profile in asphalt
pavements. A previous study measured the tire contact stresses between the pavement surface and moving pneumatic tires. Material
properties of a hot mix asphalt mixture used at WesTrack were obtained from compressive strength tests within the framework of an
elastic-viscoplastic constitutive model. A three-dimensional finite element 共FE兲 analysis was performed based on boundary conditions and
measured vertical stresses at WesTrack. The tire pressure distribution was dependent on the tire load and significantly influenced the
pavement response. The FE analysis based on the elastic-viscoplastic model was able to simulate the measured permanent deformation
profiles.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0733-947X共2005兲131:11共873兲
CE Database subject headings: Finite elements; Asphalt pavements; Contact pressure; Viscoplasticity; Deformation.

Introduction using a creep model implemented in ABAQUS. They used

Advances in computing power and experimental characterization
techniques have led to more utilization of viscoelastic and/or
viscoplastic constitutive models to realistically predict hot mix
asphalt 共HMA兲 mixture performance under different load magni-
tudes, loading rates, and temperatures. These models are often
implemented in finite element 共FE兲 simulation to solve boundary
value problems in pavement engineering under realistic boundary
conditions.
Long 共2001兲 conducted FE simulation of rutting under full-
scale heavy vehicle simulator 共HVS兲 using viscoelastic material
properties for the HMA layer. She applied the contact forces
measured using the vehicle-road surface pressure transducer array
共VRSPTA兲 as nodal forces. Although localized effects existed
due to the coarseness of the VRSPTA data, the simulation of the
average rut profile was more reasonable away from the immediate
location where load was applied. Hua and White 共2002兲 con-
ducted FE simulation of an accelerated pavement tester 共APT兲,
developed for the Indiana Department of Transportation, and
PURWheel, a laboratory APT, to investigate the effect of fine
aggregate angularity on the rutting resistance of HMA mixtures
1
Pavement Engineer, Quality Engineering Solutions, Inc., 2323 W.
Joppa Rd., Lutherville, MD 21093. E-mail: dpark@sha.state.md.us
2
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Texas A&M Univ., College
Station, TX 77843-3136. E-mail: a-eppsmartin@tamu.edu
3
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Texas A&M Univ.,
College Station, TX 77843-3136. E-mail: emasad@civil.tamu.edu
Note. Discussion open until April 1, 2006. Separate discussions must
be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by one
month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing Editor.
The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible
publication on June 11, 2004; approved on December 27, 2004. This
paper is part of the Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol. 131,
No. 11, November 1, 2005. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-947X/2005/11-873–879/
$25.00.
nonuniform tire contact pressure measured by VRSPTA. The
predicted shape of the deformed slab surface and the magnitude
of the rut depth showed good agreement with measured values.
Blab and Harvey 共2002兲 conducted FE simulation of pavement
performance under the HVS using a linear viscoelastic model,
with the nodal forces in the longitudinal, transverse, and vertical
directions measured by VRSPTA to provide more realistic loading
rather than an assumed circular uniform stress. They concluded
that their approach could be used to evaluate strains and stresses
under different loading conditions and to provide adequate rank-
ing of different mixtures. Novak et al. 共2003兲 conducted analysis
of the pavement response under the measured radial tire contact
stresses using the FE code ADINA. The measured tire contact
stresses were applied as nodal forces in a 3D FE model. The
predicted results showed that radial tire contact stresses resulted
in a larger magnitude and more concentrated stress distribution in
the HMA layer compared to the results obtained from uniform
vertical stresses. They linked the nonuniform stress distribution to
rutting near the surface of an HMA layer.
This paper developed and used a 3D FE model of asphalt
pavements to investigate the influence of different tire pressure
distributions on the development of permanent deformation. The
HMA layer was represented by an elastic-viscoplastic constitutive
model, and the numerical results were compared to experimental
field measurements of permanent deformation profiles. The next
section describes the constitutive relation followed by presenta-
tion of the model parameters, measurement of tire contact stress,
FE simulation, conclusions, and recommendations.
Constitutive Relation
The concepts of the elastic-viscoplastic model described in this
section are based on Perzyna 共1966兲, a model that represents a
modification of the classical plasticity theory by introducing a
time-dependent rule that incorporates the yield function from

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J. Transp. Eng., 2005, 131(11): 873-879

 classical theory. The viscoplasticity formulation proposed by
Perzyna 共1966兲 has been utilized frequently because it is an
extension of the commonly available rate-independent models,
the general nature of the time-dependent flow rule allows
simulation of behavior under a wide range of loading, and it is
suitable for implementation in numerical procedures 共Desai and
Zhang 1986兲.
For an elastic-viscoplastic body, the strain tensor can be
represented as the sum of an elastic strain component ␧eij and a
viscoplastic strain component ␧ijvp as follows:
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J3⫽third invariant of deviatoric stress 共9 / 2 sijs jkski兲; and
␣ and ␬⫽material constants.
When the ␻ value equals 1, in which case the yield stresses in
triaxial tension and compression are the same, the classical
Drucker-Prager yield function is obtained. To ensure that the yield
surface remains convex, the ␻ value should be between 0.78 and
1.0 共ABAQUS 2002兲.
The hardening parameters in the loading function should
be related to the general stress-strain form. For isotropic work
hardening, the static yield criteria can be described as follows:

␧ij = ␧eij + ␧ijvp 共1兲 ¯ v p兲

¯ ,␧
f共␴
¯ ,␧
F共␴ ¯ vp兲兲 =
¯ vp,␬共␧ −1 共8兲
In the same manner, the total strain rate tensor is expressed as ␬共␧
¯ v p兲
␧˙ ij = ␧˙ eij + ␧˙ ijvp 共2兲 where the function f共␴¯ , ¯␧vp兲 depends on the effective stress ¯␴ and
effective viscoplastic strain␧ ¯ vp. The hardening parameter ␬ is a
where the over-dot denotes the time derivative. The linear elastic
function of the effective viscoplastic strain and is defined by the
constitutive equation for strain rate is
following expression in this study 共Park 2004兲:
1 1
␧˙ eij = ṡij + ␴˙ ii 共3兲 b
2␮ 3K ␬ = a␧
¯ vp 共9兲
where ␮⫽shear modulus; K⫽bulk modulus; ṡij⫽deviatoric stress where a and b⫽material constants.
rate tensor; and ␴˙ ii⫽volumetric stress rate tensor. The associated The most popular form of the flow function that represents
constitutive equation for viscoplastic strain rate is the relationship between the dynamic yield function and the
static yield function, ⌽共F兲, is the power law function described as
⳵F follows 共Perzyna 1966兲:
␧˙ ijvp = ␥具关⌽共F兲兴n典 共4兲
⳵ ␴ij
⌽共F兲 = Fn 共10兲
where ␥ and n⫽material parameters; 具⌽共F兲典⫽viscous flow
function; F denotes the general yield criterion; ⳵F / ⳵␴ij⫽current where n⫽material parameter.
direction of viscoplastic strain rate; and ␴ij⫽stress tensor. The The viscoplastic constitutive relation can be expressed in
Macauley brackets 具 典 indicate Eq. 共11兲 for uniaxial conditions:

具⌽共F兲典 = 再 ⌽共F兲 for F ⬎ 0

0 for F 艋 0
冎 共5兲 ␧˙ v11p = ␥ 冉 ␴11
v pb
a␧11
−1 冊 n
共11兲

In this study, a Drucker-Prager yield function modified to

By substituting Eqs. 共3兲 and 共11兲 into Eq. 共2兲, the 1D total strain
account for the difference between tensile and compressive yield
rate is obtained as follows:
stresses is used to describe the yielding function F of HMA

冉 冊
mixtures. The selection of the Drucker-Prager yield function is
motivated by experimental measurements as well as numerical ␴˙ 11 ␴11 n
␧˙ 11 = +␥ b −1 共12兲
simulations, which have shown that rutting in asphalt pavement E a␧v11p
takes place very close to the surface where the stress path has a
high shear stress to confinement stress ratio 共Sousa and Weissman
1994; Park 2004兲. The linear Drucker-Prager yield function is
appropriate to capture yielding due to this stress path. In addition, Model Parameters
the Drucker-Prager yield function accounts for confinement
dependency, dilation, friction, and cohesive and adhesive proper- The same materials used in designing and constructing the
ties that are important characteristics of HMA mixtures 共Masad WesTrack replacement sections were utilized in fabricating
et al. 2003; Tashman et al. 2005兲. According to Seibi et al. 共1991兲 test specimens for this study. Specimens were fabricated in
and Tan et al. 共1994兲, the Drucker-Prager yield function can be the laboratory to simulate one of the replacement sections
used to predict the behavior of HMA mixtures up to the failure 共Section 39兲 at WesTrack, with average field air void and asphalt
load. A noncircular yield surface is used to match different contents of 6.2 and 5.9%, respectively.
yield values in triaxial tension and compression in the linear A series of uniaxial compressive strength tests at seven differ-
Drucker-Prager model. The parameter 共␻兲 is used to reflect the ent strain rates 共0.0001, 0.002, 0.0041, 0.0062, 0.0167, 0.0337,
ratio of yield stress in triaxial tension to the yield stress in triaxial and 0.0701 s−1兲 and triaxial compressive strength tests at four
compression 共ABAQUS 2002兲 different confining pressures 共0, 68.9, 137.8, and 206.7 kPa 兲 and
at one strain rate 共0.0001 s−1兲 were conducted. The test tempera-
F = t − ␣I1 − k 共6兲 ture for the strength tests was controlled at approximately 60°C

冋 冉 冊冉 冑冑 冊 册
based on the critical temperature for permanent deformation at a
3 3
depth of 25 mm during the 4-day period when many of the
t=
1
冑J2 1 + 1 − 1 − 1 J3
共7兲 replacement sections at WesTrack failed 共Epps et al. 2000兲.
2 ␻ ␻ J2
The elastic material properties 共elastic modulus E and
where J2⫽ second invariant of the deviatoric stress tensor Poisson’s ratio ␯兲 were determined based on the analysis of the
共=3 / 2 sijsij兲; I1⫽ first invariant of the stress tensor 共=␴ii / 3兲; uniaxial compression strength test results. The modulus E was

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J. Transp. Eng., 2005, 131(11): 873-879

 Table 1. Material Properties for Elastic-Viscoplastic Constitutive Model Table 2. Summary of Contact Stress Measured Using VRSPTA
Layer Material property Contact stress of each Tread 共kPa兲
Load
HMA mixture Elastic modulus 共MPa兲 150 共kN兲 Tread 1 Tread 2 Tread 3 Tread 4 Tread 5
Poisson’s ratio 0.36
4.45 457.7 703.7 481.8 475.0 496.9
␣ 0.18
22.5a 822.1 821.6 818.1 711.0 807.8
␥, n 0.0089, 1.3952
25 862.5 857.3 876.3 758.7 819.5
31 1,017.7 864.0 976.7 815.6 988.7
Base Elastic modulus 共MPa兲 96.5 a
Poisson’s ratio 0.40 Interpolated values.
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Subgrade Elastic modulus 共MPa兲 75.8

Poisson’s ratio 0.45
determined from the linear part of the axial stress-axial
strain curve, and ␯ was determined from axial and radial strain
measurements.
The hardening parameter ␬ was obtained based on the assump-
tion that the lowest strain rate 共0.0001 s−1兲, which is small
compared to the other strain rates, can be assumed to be zero in
Eq. 共11兲. Consequently, Eq. 共9兲 becomes equal to ␴11 from the
uniaxial test. Once the ␬ function is obtained, Eq. 共11兲 is fitted to
the uniaxial compressive tests at the remaining strain rates to find
the ␥ and n parameters.
The material properties of the Drucker-Prager yield function
共␣ and k兲 were obtained by fitting Eqs. 共9兲 and 共10兲 to the results
of the triaxial compressive strength tests at 0.0001 s−1 strain rate.
The material properties of the base and subgrade at WesTrack
were obtained from the research of Epps et al. 共2000兲. Table 1
summarizes the material properties for the elastic-viscoplastic
constitutive model.
Measurement of Tire Contact Stress
A nonuniform circular vertical contact stress for modeling the
tire/pavement interface stress condition on both flexible and rigid
pavements has been general practice since the 1960s. There is a
wealth of information showing that the vertical stress components
at the moving tire/pavement interface are not uniformly distrib-
uted 共DeBeer 1996兲. There are also some shear stresses present,
both in the transverse direction and in the longitudinal direction.
However, it has been difficult to accurately quantify these shear
stresses under moving truck tires.
The VRSPTA is used to measure the 3D tire contact stresses
occurring between the pavement suface and the relatively slow-
moving pneumatic tires. The VRPSTA is set within a steel pan
embedded in the pavement such that the VRSPTA surface is flush
with the pavement surface. The VRSPTA system consists of 1,041
flat-topped, cone-shaped hollow steel pins mounted in 51 rows on
a 50 mm steel base plate. Twenty pins in the center row are
instrumented with strain gauges, thus forming 20 small individual
triaxial load cells transversely distributed across the base plate.
The measured voltages from the strain gauges are transformed to
load values using regression coefficients. A typical sample
frequency is 150 Hz, and a total of 256 samples are used for each
direction during the test. An effective diamond-shaped area
共250.28 mm2兲 is applied during postprocessing to convert the
various measured load components in the three main directions
共x, y, and z兲 to the respective average contact stress components
over that area. Although the measurements are not an exact mea-
sure of the contact stresses due to some limitations in the physical
configuration of the device, the results aid in the quantification of
the effect of overloaded wheels, under- and overinflated tires, and
different tire types 共DeBeer 1997兲.
A Goodyear 295/ 75R22.5 tire with five treads was used to
measure the contact stress distribution using the VRSPTA in a
previous study 共DeBeer 1997兲. The vehicle speed was approxi-
mately 18.4 m / s, which is equivalent to 66.2 km/ h. When one
of the single axles with dual tires is considered, each tire is
loaded with 22.25 kN with a tire pressure of 690 kPa. However,
measurements of contact stresses from a previous study were
only available for 4.45, 25, and 31 kN loads with a tire pressure
of 690 kPa. The contact stress distribution for a 22.25 kN load
with 690 kPa tire pressure was obtained by interpolation based on
the measured contact stresses.
The contact stress of each tread measured using the VRSPTA
is summarized in Table 2. With a 4.45 kN load, the maximum
contact stress is not at the edge treads of the tire, and with a
25 kN load and 690 kPa tire pressure, five treads of the tire
showed an approximately uniform contact stress distribution. As
the load increased to 31 kN, the contact stress distribution became
less uniform, with more stress concentrated at the tire edges.
The tire contact area is needed to analyze the interactions
between the tire load and the pavement. The tire print can be
measured using paint or carbon paper and is different depending
on loading and tire inflation pressures. For the same tire inflation
pressure, the load shape becomes closer to the rectangular shape
as the load increases. The tire print of the Goodyear 295/ 75R22.5
from the National Automotive Testing Center 共NATC兲 was used.
Fig. 1. Simplified loading shape based on footprint and VRSPTA at
25 kN load and 690 kPa tire inflation pressure 共unit: kPa for pressure,
mm for length兲

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J. Transp. Eng., 2005, 131(11): 873-879

 Fig. 3. Projection of finite element model of pavement structure
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of the pavement section. To determine the dimension of the

model in the longitudinal direction, the strain at the edge of the
model when the load was applied at the center of the model was
examined. A minimum of 3 m in the longitudinal direction was
Fig. 2. Top view of track 共unit: m, x⫽transverse, y⫽longitudinal, chosen because the strain at the edge of the model was negligible
and z⫽depth兲 compared to strain at the center of the model.
The bottom of the model was fixed in all directions to repre-
sent the bedrock under the pavement. The WesTrack sections
The contact area and tire contact stresses were used to calcu- were intentionally designed to preclude deformation in the under-
late the stress distribution for each tire tread. Fig. 1 shows the lying layers, and actual performance where permanent deforma-
simplified loading shape based on the tire footprint dimension and tion occurred in only the top 75 mm of the HMA surface layer
the contact stress of VRSTA when the load is 25 kN and the tire justified the assumption that deformation is confined to the upper
inflation pressure is 690 kPa. The loading shape shown in Fig. 1 layer 共Huber and Scherocman 1999兲. The edge portion or end of
was used to investigate the pavement responses under the differ- the HMA shoulder of the model was also fixed in all directions
ent loads of 31, 22.5, and 4.75 kN, with the same tire inflation because the deformation of the model at the shoulder edge is
pressure of 690 kPa. negligible. The symmetry line in the longitudinal direction was
fixed in the y direction, and the symmetry line in the transverse
direction was fixed in the x direction.
Finite Element Simulation Loads were applied using simplified loading conditions of
nonuniform stress distribution, as shown in Fig. 1. Half of a
Model Description single axle with dual tires was applied. The pressure load was
applied in the loading path with a much finer mesh size. The step
All WesTrack test sections were constructed on the straight tan- load function was applied, and the cumulative loading time ap-
gents between the turnarounds. The tangent sections are 10.4 m proach was used. In this method, loading time for each wheel pass
wide, consisting of two 3.7 m lanes and a 1.2 m HMA shoulder was summed to produce a total cumulative loading time for the
outside of the test lane. A 1.2 m gravel shoulder is on the outside elements. Thus, only a single load step was applied instead of a
of the track and a 0.6 m gravel shoulder on the inside of the track, large number of applications 共Hua and White 2002兲. For rutting
as shown in Fig. 2. The outside lane served as the test lane, while
the inside lane served as both a shoulder and a trial lane. The
pavement structural cross section consists of 150 mm of HMA
placed over 300 mm of aggregate base and 450 mm of compacted
fill subgrade. The pavement loading was accomplished using four
triple trailer vehicle combinations. A lead single-axle semitrailer
was followed by two single-axle trailers, providing a total of 10.5
equivalent single axial loads 共ESALs, at 80 kN each兲 per truck
pass. The truck was equipped with 295/ 75R22.5 Goodyear tires.
Each axle of the vehicle train was loaded to 89 kN, and the test
speed around the track was 64 km/ h 共Mitchell 1996兲.
A finer mesh was used in the HMA surface layer because
permanent deformation in this layer was of primary interest. The
mesh became coarser from the top of the HMA layer to the
bottom of the subgrade layer. The computation time was reduced
with this biased mesh generation, compared to simulation with
a uniform mesh generation. Eight-node hexahedron reduced
integration elements 共C3D8R兲 were used to generate elements.
A total of 32,116 nodes and 28,470 elements were created for this
particular geometry.
The applied boundary conditions are shown in Figs. 3 and 4.
Due to symmetry in the transverse direction, the FE model
simulated half the outside HMA test lane and the outside
shoulder with a model length in the transverse direction of
3.05 m. Symmetry was also used in the longitudinal direction Fig. 4. Illustration of boundary conditions

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J. Transp. Eng., 2005, 131(11): 873-879

 profile simulations, the single load step was based on the traffic
wandering data at WesTrack, and superposition was applied to the
area where the two wheels overlapped 共Hua and White 2002;
Huang et al. 2001; Tsai et al. 2002兲.

Traffic Loads
The temperature conversion factor 共TCF兲 for permanent deforma-
tion was applied to convert ESALs at the field temperatures
to ESALS at the standard temperature 共60°C兲 that was used in
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material property tests. The concept of the TCF is discussed by

Sousa et al. 共1994兲 and Deacon et al. 共1994兲. The TCF was
calculated using the results of repeated load triaxial tests at three
temperatures 共30, 40, and 50°C兲 and layered strain procedures
based on field temperature distribution with depth.
The WesTrack replacement sections were constructed in June
1997, and loading was applied after June 17, 1997. During load
applications, five temperature sensors that measured temperature
data every hour were installed within the HMA surface layer.
Hourly temperature data from five temperature sensors were
obtained from the WesTrack database 共FHWA 2000兲, and data
from June 17 to June 29 that correspond to approximately
100,000 ESALs were used to calculate the TCF. The TCF for
60°C was 0.664. In this study, 61,752 load applications were
simulated to compare with the measured rutting profiles at 93,000
load applications in the field. The calculation procedure for the
TCF of this specific case is described in detail by Park 共2004兲.

Pavement Response and Rutting Profiles

The distribution of maximum shear stresses for three different
loads is shown in Fig. 5. The same scale was used to represent
the results to facilitate comparison between the responses. As
expected, the magnitude of the maximum shear stresses was
lower for the 4.45 kN load compared to those for the 22.5 and
31 kN loads. The maximum shear stresses under the 4.45 kN load
were concentrated in the HMA layer under the middle of the tire.
However, for the 22.5 kN load, the maximum shear stresses were
concentrated at the edge of the tire and showed higher stress
concentration at the surface of the HMA layer. For the 31 kN
load, the trend was similar to that with the 22.5 kN load but with
an even more significant stress concentration in the HMA surface
layer near the edge of the tire.
This was also the same for the distribution of vertical perma-
nent strains at approximately 100 load repetitions as shown in
Fig. 6. The vertical permanent strains were concentrated below
the middle of the tire for the 4.45 kN load and at the edge of the
tire and the surface of the HMA layer for the 22.5 and 31 kN
loads. These results indicate that the response of the pavement Fig. 5. 共Color兲 Maximum shear stress distribution at tire loads of
structure is significantly affected by the distribution of contact 共a兲 4.45 kN; 共b兲 22.5 kN; and 共c兲 31 kN 共ovals indicate tire locations兲
stress. The nonuniformity of the contact stresses becomes more
evident with an increase in load, and consequently, more localized
strain develops at the edge of the tire. the rutting profile at the edge of the tires increased as the load
The simulated transverse deformation profiles at the last load magnitude increased, mainly due to the high concentration of
application 共61,752 load repetitions兲 under different loads are contact stresses.
shown in Fig. 7. The location of the midpoint of the dual tires was Fig. 8 shows the measured rutting profiles and simulated
set as 0. The downward rut depth was observed beneath the load, rutting profiles under a 22.5 kN load with two different ␻ values
and upward shoving was observed at both sides of the load. The of 1 and 0.78. The greater rut depth was found when the ␻ value
effect of tire treads is clearly shown. In the case of the 4.45 kN was 0.78 due to the reduction in the tensile yield stress. The FE
load, deformation was deeper in the center of the tire treads. For simulation results with an ␻ value of 0.78 were closer to field
the 22.5 and 31 kN loads, the deformation was deeper at the edge rutting profile measurements than the FE simulation results with
of the tire treads. It is also interesting to note that the slope of an ␻ value of 1.0. However, the profile of upward shoving was

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Fig. 6. 共Color兲 Vertical permanent strain distribution at
approximately 100 load repetitions for tire loads of 共a兲 4.45 kN;
共b兲 22.5 kN; and 共c兲 31 kN 共ovals indicate tire locations兲
spread horizontally to a greater extent in the simulation results
compared with abrupt changes in upward shoving as shown in
field measurements. The simulation model applies only to vertical
forces and does not capture the associated shear stresses that
result from friction at the tire/pavement interface. The more
extreme shoving may be attributed to shear stresses that are
highly localized at the edge of the tire.
Conclusions and Recommendations
An FE simulation of a WesTrack pavement section was conducted
to investigate the influence of nonuniform contact stresses on
pavement response and permanent deformation profiles. The
HMA mixture was represented using an elastic-viscoplastic
constitutive relationship. Material properties for the constitutive
relationship were obtained from compressive strength tests under
various strain rates and confinement stresses.
Contact stress distribution between the tire and the pavement
was measured for different loads using the VRSPTA. The FE
results showed that shear and vertical permanent strains became
more concentrated at the edge of the tire as load, and conse-
quently the nonuniformity of stress distribution increased. These
results indicate that the nonuniform contact stress distribution
causes highly localized strains that could initiate rutting at the
asphalt pavement surface.
Fig. 7. Simulated rutting profiles at different tire load magnitudes
878 / JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING © ASCE / NOVEMBER 2005
J. Transp. Eng., 2005, 131(11): 873-879
Fig. 8. Comparison between measured rutting profiles and simulated
rutting profiles
The rutting profiles from the simulation have demonstrated
the importance of accounting for the nonuniform contact stress
distribution in predicting rutting profiles. Higher slopes in the
rutting profiles were detected with an increase in load magnitude.
The comparison between the FE simulation rutting profiles
and field measurements showed that the elastic-viscoplastic
constitutive relationship proposed for the HMA layer along
with the testing protocol to determine the model parameters could
be a valuable methodology to predict permanent deformation in
asphalt pavements.
References
ABAQUS. 共2002兲. ABAQUS user’s manual: Version 6.2, Hibbit, Karlsson,
and Sorenson, Pawtucket, R.I.
Blab, R., and Harvey, J. T. 共2002兲. “Modeling measured 3D tire contact
stresses in a viscoelastic FE pavement model.” Int. J. Geomech., 2共3兲,
271–290.
Deacon, J. A., Coplantz, J. S., Tayebali, A. A., and Monismith, C. L.
共1994兲. “Temperature considerations in asphalt-aggregate mixture
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