Cven 201

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FUNDAMENTALS OF
CVEN 201
STRUCTURAL
ANALYSIS
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Note: This Lecture note may contain errors, if any, please notify the lecturer. Thank you
November,
Page1
2016
1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Prepared by: Engr. Ibrahim Aliyu

Civil Engineering Department
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
Civil engineeringis a broad field of engineering that deals with the planning, construction, and
maintenance of fixed structures, or public works, like roads, bridges, canals, dams, and
buildings.
A structure is a combination of members connected together in such a way to serve a useful

purpose, in Civil engineering; the purpose is to support a load or a combination of loads.
1.1 TYPES OF STRUCTURES
 Rigid Frame. It is the type of structure in which the members are joined together by rigid
joints e.g. welded joints.
Fig1
 Truss (Pin connected joints). A type of structure formed by members in triangular form,
the resulting figure is called a truss. In truss joints are pin connected and loads are applied
at joints. No shear force & bending moment are produced. Only axial compression and
axial tension is to be determined while analyzing a truss.
Fig 2
Note: This Lecture note may contain errors, if any, please notify the lecturer. Thank you Page2
1.2 STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
Those members that are interconnected in such a way so as to constitute a structure are called
structural members.
i. Beam. A beam is a flexure member of the structure. It is subjected to transverse loading

such as vertical loads, and gravity loads. These loads create shear and bending within the
beam.
Fig 3
ii. Columns. A long vertical member mostly subjected to compressive loads is called column,
while a compressive member of a structure is called strut.
Fig 4. A column
iii. Cables and Arches. Cables are usually suspended at their ends and are allowed to sag.
The forces are then pure tension and are directed along the axis of the cable. Arches are
similar to cables except hath they are inverted. They carry compressive loads that are
directed along the axis of the arch.
Fig 5a An Arch
Fig 5bA suspension Cable
1.3 CONCEPT OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Structural analysis is the branch which involves the determination of the behaviour of structures
such as buildings etc or structural elements such as beams etc, the concept of statics (the analysis
of loads (force and moment on physical systems in static equilibrium) provides the basis for
solutions to the structures, computer software are also used for the calculation of forces, bending
moments, stress, strain and deformation or deflection. Basic concepts of applied mechanics are
essential before structural analysis. Structural analysis provides the basis for structural design.
1.3.1 STRUCTURAL LOAD
Structural loads or actions are forces, deformations, or accelerations applied to a structure or its
components.Loads cause stresses, deformations, and displacements in structures
For the analysis of structures, the various loads to be considered are: dead load, live load,
wind load, impact load, etc. These loads are idealized for the purpose of analysis.
1.3.2 TYPES OF STRUCTURAL (OR STRUCTURAL MEMBER) LOADING
i. Concentrated load (point load):A concentrated load is a force applied at a single

point on a beam or structure.
Fig 6
ii. A distributed loading: This is a load applied across a length or an area instead of at one
point.
Example;
a. Uniformly distributed load;
Fig 7
b. Uniformly varying load
Fig 8
i. Applied moment: Applied moment (M) is a force couple that creates a torque, a twisting
force, at a point along the beam.
Fig 9
Exercise: Read on; Regularly varying load, irregularly varying load, system of loads, symmetrical
system of loads, anti-symmetrical system of loads, cyclo-symmetrical system of loads and cyclo-
antisymmetrical system of loads.
1.3.3 REACTIONS
These are forces and moments developed at the point of supports. They are reactive forces
(Inclined or Vertical/horizontal) and moments, the reactive forces are for simplicityrepresented by
two perpendicular components.
1.3.4 TYPES OF SUPPORTS
i. Roller Supports. This support provides one restrain perpendicular to the roller.
Fig 10
ii. Pinned Supports.: Providing two mutually perpendicular restrains.
Fig 11
iii. Fixed Supports.: Providing mutually perpendicular restrains and one moment restrain.
Fig 12
1.3.5 STABILITY AND DETERMINACY OF FRAMEWORKS;
Internally stable structure (Rigid): structure maintains its shape and remains a rigid body
whendetached from the supports.
Fig 13 Examples of internally unstable structures
Internally unstable structure: structure cannot maintain its shape and may undergo large
displacements under small disturbanceswhen not supported externally.
Fig 14 Examples of internally unstable structures
1.4 STATIC DETERMINACY AND INDETERMINACY OF FRAMEWORKS
1.4.1 EQUATIONS OF STATIC EQUILIBRIUM.
A structure is considered to be in equilibrium if, initially at rest, it remains at rest when subjected
to a system of forces and couples. If a structure is in equilibrium, then all its members and parts are
also in equilibrium.
For a plane structure lying in the xy plane and subjected to a coplanar system of forces and
couples, the necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium are:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑ 𝑀𝑍 = 0
These three equations are referred to as the static equations of equilibrium of plane structures.
In statically determinate structures, all internal member forces and external reactant forces can be
evaluated using the three equations of static equilibrium. When there are more unknown member
forces and external reactant forces than there are available equations of equilibrium a structure is
statically indeterminate. In other words:
A structure is Statically Determinate if all itssupport reactions as well as member forces can
bedetermined by solving equationsof equilibrium. And statically indeterminateIf the number of
supportreactions exceeds the number ofavailable equilibrium equations.
External Redundant≡ numberof reactions in excess of thosenecessary for equilibrium,referred to

as the degree ofexternal indeterminacy.
For Several Interconnected Rigid Structures:
R < 3+C Structure is statically unstable externally
R = 3+C Structure may be statically determinate externally
R > 3+C Structure is statically indeterminate externally
C ≡ number equations ofconditions
ID = R - (3 + C)≡ degree of external indeterminacy
For Single Rigid Structure:
R < 3 Structure is statically unstable externally
R = 3 Structure may be statically determinate externally
R > 3 Structure is statically indeterminate externally,
R ≡number of support reactions
EXAMPLES:
Fig 16 Example of Externally Statically Determinate Plane Structures
Fig 17. Example of Externally statically indeterminate plane structures
Fig 18. Example of Plane Structures with Equations of Condition
1.4.2 PIN JOINTED FRAMES (TRUSSES)
Consider the basic three member pinned-frame indicated in Figure 15. There are three nodes and
three members. A triangle is the basis for the development of all pin jointed frames since it is an
inherently stable system, i.e. only one configuration is possible for any given three lengths of the
members.Consider the development of the frame shown.
Fig 19
Initially there are three nodes and three members. If the number of members in the frame is to be
increased then for each node added, two members are required to maintain the triangulation. The
minimum number of members required to create a simple frame can be determined as follows:
𝒎 = 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔 + (𝟐 × 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒋𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒔)
𝒎 = 𝟑 + 𝟐(𝒏 − 𝟑)
𝒎 = 𝟐𝒏 − 𝟑
Where m is the number of members and n number of nodes
e.g in the case above

𝒏 = 𝟓 therefore the minimum number of members m = [(2×5)—3] = 7
Any additional member added to the frame in addition to this number is a redundant member and
make the frame statically indeterminate.
It is also essential to consider the configuration of the members in a frame to ensure that it is
triangulated. The simple frames indicated in the figure beloware unstable.
Fig 20 Unstable Pin Jointed frames (Trusses)
As indicated previously, the minimum number of reactant forces to maintain static equilibrium is
three and consequently when considering a simple, pin-jointed plane-frame and its support
reactions the combined total of members and components of reaction is equal to:
Σ (number of members+support reactions)=(m+r)=(2n−3)+3=2n
i.e𝒎 + 𝒓 = 𝟐𝒏
The degree of indeterminacy ID=(m+r)−2n
Examples:Determine the determinacy or otherwise of the frames shown below.
1.4.3 TWO-DIMENSIONAL RIGID-JOINTED FRAMES
In rigid-jointed frames, the applied load system is transferred to the supports by inducing axial
loads, shear forces and bending moments in the members. Since three components of reaction
are required for static equilibrium the total number of unknowns is equal to: [(𝟑 × 𝒎) + 𝒓]. At
each node there are three equations of equilibrium, i.e.
Σthe vertical forces Fy =0;
Σthe horizontal forces Fx =0;
Σthe moments M = 0,Making 3×n= 3n equations
The degree of indeterminacy 𝑰𝑫 = [(𝟑𝒎) + 𝒓] − 𝟑𝒏
Where m= number of members, n= number of nodes and r = support reactions
Example: Calculate the degree of indeterminacy of the frames below and Comment on their
determinacy.
Note: Releases in the form of Pins or rollers must be accounted for in the determination of the
degree of indeterminacy.
 A pin releases moment capacity (1) while a roller releases moment and axial capacities (2).
E.g a)
b)
𝑰𝑫 = {[(𝟑𝒎) + 𝒓] − 𝟑𝒏} − 𝟐due to the release of the moment and axial load capacity at the
roller ∴ 𝑰𝑫 = {[(𝟑 × 𝟐) + 𝟔] − (𝟑 × 𝟑) − 𝟐 = 𝟏
i.e. Statically indeterminate to degree 1
Consider the same beam AB with a pin added in addition to the roller
𝑰𝑫 = {[(𝟑𝒎) + 𝒓] − 𝟑𝒏} − 𝟑 due to the release of the moment capacity at the position of the pin
and the release of the moment and axial load capacity at the roller 𝑰𝑫 = {[(𝟑 × 𝟐) + 𝟔] − (𝟑 ×
𝟑) − 𝟑 = 𝟎
The structure is statically determinate.
EXERCISES:Comment on both the Internal and External Stability and determinacy of the frames
in Problems (1) to (6)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
1.5 TRUSSES
Trusses are structures composed of a number of bars pin connected at their ends to form a stable
framework. It is generally assumed that loads and reactions are applied to the truss only at the
joints. A truss would typically be composed of triangular elements with the bars on the upper chord
under compression and those along the lower chord under tension. Trusses are extensively used for
bridges, long span roofs, electric tower, and space structures.They are a major type of Pin Jointed
frames that transfer their loads by inducing axial tension orcompressive forces in the individual
members. The magnitude and sense of these forcescan be determined using standard methods of
analysis such as ‘the method ofsections’,‘the method of joint-resolution and Graphical
Methods
Fig Typicall Roof Trusses
Fig Typicall Bridge Trusses
NOTE; For Truss Analysis, it is assumed that
 Bars are pin-connected.

 Joints are frictionless hinges.
 Loads are applied at the joints only.
 Stress in each member is constant along its length.
The objective of truss analysis is to determine the reactions and member forces. The methods used
for carrying out the analysis with the equations of equilibrium and by considering only parts of the
structure through analyzing its free body diagram to solve the unknowns.
1.5.1 METHOD OF SECTIONS FOR TRUSS ANALYSIS
When only a few member forces of a truss are needed, the quickest way to find these forces is by
the method of sections. In this method, an imaginary cutting line called a section is drawn through
a stable and determinate truss. Thus, a section subdivides the truss into two separate parts. Since
the entire truss is in equilibrium, any part of it must also be in equilibrium. Either of the two parts
of the truss can be considered and the three equations of equilibrium Σ Fx = 0, Σ Fy = 0, and Σ M =
0 can be applied to solve for member forces.
The method of sections involves the application of the three equations of staticequilibrium to two-
dimensional plane frames. The sign convention adopted to indicateties (i.e. tension members) and
struts (i.e. compression members) in frames is as shown in below Figure
Fig. A simple Truss
From the above figure we only interested in finding the value of forces for member BC, EC, and
ED.
A virtual cut is introduced through the only required members, which is along member BC, EC,
and ED. Firstly, the support reactions of Ra and Rd should be determined. Again a good judgment
is required to solve this problem where the easiest part would be to consider either the left hand
side or the right hand side. Taking moment at joint E (virtual point) clockwise for the whole RHS
part would be much easier compared to joint C (the LHS part). Then, either joint D or C can be
considered as the point of moment, Note: Each value of the member’s condition should be indicate
clearly as whether it is in tension (+ve) or in compression (-ve) state.
EXAMPLE 1
A pin-jointed truss supported by a pinned support at A and a roller support at G carries three loads
at joints C, D and E as shown in Figure 3.2. Determine the magnitude and sense of the forces
induced in members X, Y and Z as indicated.
Step 1: Evaluate the support reactions. It is not necessary to know any informationregarding the
frame members at this stage other than dimensions as shown in the figure, since only externally
applied loads and reactions are involved.
SIGN CONVENTION: For the purpose of this part of the course.
 Clockwise moments are Positive (+ve) and Anticlockwise moments (-ve)

 All Upward forces are (+ve) and Downward (-ve)
 All forces pointing toward the positive X-axis are +ve, otherwise -ve
Apply the three equations of static equilibrium to the force system:
Step 2: Select a section through which the frame can be considered to be cut and using the same
three equations of equilibrium determine the magnitude and sense of the unknown forces (i.e. the
internal forces in the cut members).
It is convenient to assume all unknown forces to be tensile and hence at the cut section their
direction and lines of action are considered to be pointing away from the joints. If the answer
results in a negative force this means that the assumption of a tie was incorrect and the member is
actually in compression, i.e. a strut. The application of the equations of equilibrium to either part of
the cut frame will enable the forces X(FDE), Y(FEI) and Z(FHI) to be evaluated.
Note: The section considered must not cut through more than three members with unknown
internal forces since only three equations of equilibrium are applicable.
Consider part A:
EXAMPLE 2
Determine the support reactions and the forces in the members of the pin-jointed frame indicated
by the ‘*’ in below problem using the method of sections.
Solution.
1.5.2 METHOD OF JOINTS FOR TRUSS ANALYSIS
The Joint resolution method is an effective method when the forces in all members of a truss are to
bedetermined. In this method we start by assuming that all members are in tension reaction. A
tension member experiences pull forces at both ends of the bar and usually denoted by positive
(+ve) sign. When a member is experiencing a push force at both ends, then the bar is said to be in
compression mode and designated as negative (-ve) sign.
In the joints method, a virtual cut is made around a joint and the cut portion is isolated as a Free
Body Diagram (FBD). Using the equilibrium equations of Σ Fx = 0 and Σ Fy = 0, the unknown
member forces can be solved. It is assumed that all members are joined together in the form of an
ideal pin, and that all forces are in tension (+ve reactions).
1.5.3 SIMPLE GUIDELINES FOR THIS METHOD
 Firstly draw the Free Body Diagram (FBD),

 Solve the reactions of the given structure,
 Select a joint with a minimum number of unknown (not more than 2) and analyze it with Σ
Fx = 0 and Σ Fy = 0, (Assume all Member forces are Tension)
 Proceed to the rest of the joints and again concentrating on joints that have very minimal of
unknowns,
 Tabulate the member forces whether it is in tension (+ve) or compression (-ve) reaction.
The X and Y axes should be oriented such that forces on the Free Body diagram can easily be
resolved into their X and Y components.
Example 1
Considering the same frame used in Example 1 of the method of sections, the magnitude and sense
of the forces induced in members X, Y and Z are to be determined.
In the Figure four sections are shown, each of which isolates a joint in the structure as indicated in
below Figures (Sections are taken which isolate each individual joint in turn in the frame)
Since in each case the forces are coincident, the moment equation is of no value, hence only two
independent equations are available. It is necessary when considering the equilibrium of each joint
to do so in a sequence which ensures that there are no more than two unknown member forces in
the joint under consideration. This can be carried out until all member forces in the structure have
been determined
Consider Joint G:
Consider Joint F:
Substitute for calculated values, i.e. FFG (direction of force is into thejoint)
Consider Joint H: substitute for calculated values, i.e. FGH and FFH
Consider Joint E: substitute for calculated values, i.e. FEF and FEH
EXAMPLE 2; Determine the support reactions and the forces in the members of the pin-jointed
frame indicated below using joint resolution method.
Solution;
Consider Joint A
Consider Joint B
Consider joint C
Consider joint D
Consider joint E
1.5.4 GRAPHICAL METHOD OF TRUSS ANALYSIS (MAXWELL’S DIAGRAM)
The method is based upon the condition that each joint in a truss is in equilibrium so that the forces
acting at a joint may be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a closed polygon.
The directions of the forces must be drawn in the same directions as the corresponding members
and there must be no more than two unknown forces at a particular joint otherwise a polygon of
forces cannot be constructed.
The graphical analysis was developed by force polygons drawn to scale for each joint, and then the
forces in each member were measured from one of these force polygons. The number of lines
which have to be drawn can be greatly reduced, however, if the various force polygons are
superimposed. The resulting diagram of truss is known as the Maxwell’s Diagram.
In order to draw the Maxwell diagram directly, here are the simple guidelines:
i. Solve the reactions at the supports by solving the equations of equilibrium for the entire
truss,
ii. Move clockwise around the outside of the truss; draw the force polygon to scale for the
entire truss,
iii. Take each joint in turn (one-by-one), then draw a force polygon by treating successive
joints acted upon by only two unknown forces,
iv. Measure the magnitude of the force in each member from the diagram,
v. Lastly, note that work proceeded from one end of the truss to another, as this is use for
checking of balance and connection to the other end.
This method is use full particularly when a rapid solution is required, the member forcesin a truss
may be found using a graphical method.
Example 1: Determine the forces in the members of the Warren truss shown in Figure below all
members are 1 m long.
Solution
Figure X
The support reactions were calculated as shown on above figure.
It is convenient in this approach to designate forces in members in terms of the areas between them
rather than referring to the joints at their ends. Thus, in the Figure we number the areas between all
forces, both internal and external; the reason for this will become clear when the force diagram for
the complete structure is constructed.
For the force polygon, wemust start at a joint where there are no more than two unknown forces,
in thisexample either A or D; here we select A. The force polygon for joint A isconstructed by
going round A in, say, a clockwise sense. We must then go roundevery joint in the same sense.
First we draw a vector 12 to represent the support reaction at A of 2.75 kNto aconvenient scale
(see Fig. XX). Note that we are moving clockwise from the region1 to the region 2 so that the
vector 12 is vertically upwards, the direction of thereaction at A (if we had decided to move round
A in an anticlockwise sense thevector would be drawn as 21 vertically upwards). The force in the
member AB at Awill be represented by a vector 26 in the direction AB or BA, depending on
whetherit is tensile or compressive, while the force in the member AEat A is represented bythe
vector 61 in the direction AE or EA depending, again, on whether it is tensile orcompressive. The
point 6 in the force polygon is therefore located by drawing a linethrough the point 2 parallel to the
member AB to intersect, at 6, a line drawn through the point 1 parallel to the member AE.
Thus we see from the force polygon that the direction of the vector 26 is towards A so that the
member AB is in compression while the direction of the vector 61 is away from A indicating that
the member AE is in tension. We now insert arrows on the members AB and AE in Fig.Xto
indicatecompression and tension, respectively.
FigureXX. Force polygon for the truss of Example 1
We next consider joint B where there are now just two unknown member forcessince we have
previously determined the force in the member AB; note that, movingclockwise round B, this force
is represented by the vector 62, which means that it isacting towards B as it must since we have
already established that AB is incompression. Rather than construct a separate force polygon for
the joint B we shallsuperimpose the force polygon on that constructed for joint A since the vector
26 (or62) is common to both; we thereby avoid repetition. Thus, through the point 2, wedraw a
vector 23 vertically downwards to represent the 2 kNload to the same scaleas before. The force in
the member BC is represented by the vector 37 parallel to BC(or CB) while the force in the
member BE is represented by the vector 76 drawn inthe direction of BE (or EB); thus we locate
the point 7 in the force polygon. Hencewe see that the force in BC (vector 37) acts towards B
indicating compression, whilethe force in BE (vector 76) acts away from B indicating tension;
again, arrows areinserted in Fig. X to show the action of the forces.
Now we consider joint C where the unknown member forces are in CD and CE.The force in the
member CB at C is represented in magnitude and direction by thevector 73 in the force polygon.
From the point 3 we draw a vector 34 verticallydownwards to represent the 3 kNload. The vectors
48 and 87 are then drawnparallel to the members CD and CE and represent the forces in the
members CDand CE respectively. Thus we see that the force in CD (vector 48) acts towards C,i.e.
CD is in compression, while the force in CE (vector 87) acts away from Cindicating tension; again
we insert corresponding arrows on the members inFig. X
Finally the vector 45 is drawn vertically upwards to represent the vertical reaction(=3.25 kN) at D
and the vector 58, which must be parallel to the member DE,inserted (since the points 5 and 8 are
already located in the force polygon this is auseful check on the accuracy of construction). From
the direction of the vector 58we deduce that the member DE is in tension.
FA B= -3.18 kN (compression)
FAE, = +1 .59 kN (Tension)
FBE,= +0.87 kN(Tension)
FBC= - 2.03 kN(Compression)
FDC, = - 3.75 kN (Compression),
FDE= +1.88 kN(Tension)
FCE= +0.29 kN (Tension)
Note that in the force polygon the vectors may be read in both directions. Thus thevector 26
represents the force in the member AB acting at A, while the vector 62represents the force in AB
acting at B. It should also be clear why there must beconsistency in the sense in which we move
round each joint; for example, the vector26 represents the direction of the force at A in the member
AB when we move in aclockwise sense round A. However, if we then moved in an anticlockwise
senseround the joint B the vector 26 would represent the magnitude and direction of theforce in AB
at B and would indicate that AB is in tension, which clearly it is not.
EXAMPLE 2: Determine the member forces in the truss shown.
As is seen on the figure above, the reactions at points of support (i.e A and F) are 4kN each and the
areas between the members are lettered A to M while the Joints are numbered 1,2,3..... ( different
from Example 1 where numbers 1, 2 3,...... were used for the areas while the joints carry letters
A,B,C...). Therefore in this example member forces are going to be designated by vector BH, HG
etc.
Also, The truss in this example is symetrical therefore a force polygon of half the truss will satisfy
the complete truss. The forces in members BH, HG, HI,CI etc are equal in sence and magnitude to
forces in Members EM,MG,ML,DL etc respectively
Force polygon for Example 2
From the force polygon
FBH = - 6.7KN (Compression)
FHG = +6.0kN (Tension)
FCI = -5.6kN (Compression)
FIH = - 1.8kN (Compression)
FIK = +1.8kN (Tension)
FKG = +4.0kN (Tension)
1.5.5 CONCURRENT CO-PLANAR FORCES
In physics, concurrent forces are defined as forces that pass through a common point.
In other words, a concurrent force system is a set of two or more forces whose lines of
action intersect at a point at the same time. Similarly, non-concurrent forces are forces
whose lines of action never intersect with each other, meaning that they don't have a
common passing point.
Coplanar forces are forces on a single plane. This means that all points of application
are inside that plane and that all forces are running parallel to that plane.
The concept of concurrent and non-concurrent forces are used to study the effect of various forces
on an object and whether or not an object would be in a state of equilibrium when a specific set
forces is applied on that object.
In order for an object to be in a state of equilibrium, the forces acting on the body must satisfy the
force equilibrium equations. This means that the summation of the components of forces in the x-
direction, y-direction and z-direction must all be equal to zero. For a number of forces acting upon
an object, failure to satisfy these equations produces momentum within that object and throws it
out of its equilibrium state.
Triangle law of forces; States that
i. Parallelogram of Forces (Statesif two forces acting simultaneously on a body at a point are
represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, their
resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram
which passes through the point of intersection of the two sides representing the forces)
ii. Triangle of Forces (which states that three coplanar forces acting at point are in
equilibrium if their vectors joined end-to-end correspond to the sides of a triangle)
iii. Polygon of forces:(States that ‘n coplanar forces acting at a point are in equilibrium if their
vectors joined end-to-end complete an n-sided polygon.
iv. Non Concurrent Co-Planar Forces
1.6 REFERENCE
McKenzie W C (2006) ‘’ Examples in Structural Analysis’’ Taylor & Francis 2 Park Square,
Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Ocholi A (2013) ‘’ Fundamentals of Structural analysis Lecture notes’’ Department of Civil

Engineering, A.B.U Zaria.
Roberts A.P (2003) ’’ Statics and Dynamics with Background Mathematics’’ Cambridge
University Press Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK
2.0 STRESSES IN BEAM AND DEFLECTION
Prepared by: Engr. Idris Ahmed Ja’e

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The beam, or flexural member, is frequently encountered in structures and machines, and its
elementary stress analysis constitutes one of the more interesting facets of mechanics of materials.
A beam is a membER subjected to loads applied transverse to the long dimenson, causing the
member to bend.
Examining the deflection shape of Fig. 1b, it is possible to observe that longitudinal elements of
the beam near the bottom are stretched and those near the top are compressed, thus indicating the
simultaneous existence of both tensile and compressive stresses on transverse planes. These
stresses are designated fiber or flexural stresses.
Fig1. Straight and deformed beam
2.2 BENDING STRESSES IN BEAM
Consider a simply supported beam,
By cutting a section from the bent section, we will have better understand of the deformed section
a shown in figure 2.
Fig 2: Axial stresses in beam

It should be noted that𝝈𝒙 is not uniform through section thickness. It depends on:
 Bending moment
 Geometry of the section
2.3 STRESSES DUE TO BENDING
Fig 2.3 analysis of elemental beam portion
𝑦
Strain in 𝐸𝐹 = 1
𝑅
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝐹
𝐸= 2
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝐹
𝜎
𝐸= 𝑦 3
( 𝑅)
𝜎 𝐸 𝐸
= that is, 𝜎 = 𝑦 4
𝑦 𝑅 𝑅
2.4 DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
Deflection of structures can occur from various sources such as, temperature, fabrication errors, or
settlement. In design, deflections must be limited in order to prevent cracking of attached brittle
materials such as concrete or plaster. Furthermore, a structure must not vibrate or deflect severely
in order to ‘’appear’’ safe for its occupants. More Important, though, deflections at specified points
in a structure must be determined if one is to analyze statically indeterminate structures.
The deflections to be considered throughout this text apply only to structures having linear elastic
material response. Under this condition, a structure subjected to a load will return to its original
undeformed position after the load is removed. The deflection of a structure is caused by its
internal loadings such as normal force, shear force, or bending moment. For beam and frames,
however, greatest deflections are most often caused by internal bending, whereas internal axial
forces cause the deflections of a truss.
Before the slope or displacement of a point on a beam or frame is computed it is often helpful to
sketch the shape of a structure when it is loaded in order to visualize the computed results and
thereby partially check the results. The deflection diagram represents the elastic curve for the
points at the centroid of the cross sectional areas along each of the members. For most cases the
elastic curve can be sketched without much difficulty. When doing so, however, it is necessary to
know the restrictions as to slope or displacement that often occur at a support or a connection.
Supports that resist a force, such as a pin, restrict rotation. Note that if a pin connection is used at
the joint, the members will each have a different slope or rotation at the pin, since the pin cannot
support a moment. Fig below shows some deflected shapes
0
Fig 1. Deflected shape of various type of beams. (a) Simply supported (b) overhang beam (c)
continuous (d) Cantilever
2.5 ELASTIC BEAM THEORY
In this sub section we will develop two important differential equations that relate the internal
moment in a beam: the displacement and slope of its elastic curve. These equations form the
basis for the deflection methods and for this reason the assumptions and limitations used in their
development should be fully understood.
To derive these relationships, we will limit the analysis to the most common case of an initially
straight beam that is elastically deformed by loads applied perpendicular to the beams x axis and
lying in the x-y plane of symmetry for the beams cross sectional area. Due to the loading, the
deformation of the beam is caused by both the internal shear force and bending moment. If the
beam has a length that is much greater than its depth, the greatest will be the cause of bending, and
therefore we will direct our attention to its effects.
When the internal moment M deforms the element of the beam, the angle between the cross
sections becomes𝒅𝜽. The arc 𝒅𝒙 that represents a portion where the elastic curve intersects the
neutral axis for each cross section. The radius of curvature for this arc is define as the distance 𝑅,
which is measured from the center of curvature O to𝒅𝒙. Any arc on the element other than 𝒅𝒙 is
subjected to a normal strain.
For example, the strain in arc𝒅𝒔, located at a position y from the neutral axis is
∆𝐿 𝑑𝑠 𝑖 −𝑑𝑠
𝜀= = 5
𝐿 𝑑𝑠
Comparing deformed and undeformed elements, we have
However, 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑅𝑑𝜃 6
And, 𝑑𝑠 𝑖 = (𝑅 − 𝑦)𝑑𝜃 7
((𝑅−𝑦)𝑑𝜃− 𝑅𝜃)
So, ε= 8
𝑅𝜃
𝑦
𝜀=− 9
𝑅
1 𝜖
=−
𝑅 𝑦
10
If the material is homogenous and behaves in a linear elastic manner, then Hooke’s law applies,𝜺 =
𝝈 𝑴𝒚
𝑬
also, since the flexure formula applies,𝝈 = − 𝑰
Combining these equations and substituting into the above equation, we will have
1 𝑀
= 11
𝑅 𝐸𝐼
Here,
1
𝑹= Radius of curvature at a specific point on the elastic curve (𝑅 is referred to as the curvature)
M= Internal moment in the beam at the point where R is to be determined
E= Materials modulus of elasticity
I= Beams moment of inertia
EI= Flexural rigidity, always a positive quantity
1 𝑑𝜃 𝑀
Since = =
𝑅 𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼
𝑀
Then, 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼
12
If x and y are the coordinates of point O, then
𝑑𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑑𝑥
Since 𝜃 is a very small angle, therefore take 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑2 𝑦 1
Then, 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 2
=𝑅 13
1 𝑀 1
Since 𝑅
= 𝐸𝐼
𝑀 = 𝐸𝐼 𝑅
M = bending moment
𝑑2𝑦
𝑀 = 𝐸𝐼 EI = Flexural rigidity
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦
= Curvature
𝑑𝑥 2
2.6 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RADIUS, SLOPE AND DEFLECTION
P
Y
RA RB
y = deflection
𝑑𝑦
Slope = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2
Bending moment = 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 3
Shearing force = 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 3
𝑑𝑦 4
Rate of loading = 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 4
2.7 METHODS OF FINDING SLOPE AND DEFLECTION
i. Double integration method

ii. Macaulay’s method
iii. Moment area method
iv. Conjugate method
2.7.1 DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD
Double integration method is suitable for a single loading case, while Macaulay’s method is
suitable for several loading case.
2.7.1.1 4.1.1 Procedure for analysis

The following procedure provides a method for determining the slope and deflection of a beam (or
shaft) using the method of double integration. It should be realized that this method is suitable only
for elastic deflections. Additional deflection due to shear generally represents only a few percent of
the bending deflection, and so it is usually neglected in engineering practice.
2.7.1.2 4.1.2 Elastic curve
 Draw an exaggerated view of the beam’s elastic curve. Recall that point of zero slope and
zero displacement occur at a fixed support, and zero displacement occurs at pin and roller
support.
 Establish the x and y coordinate axes. The x axis must be parallel to the undeflected beam
and its origin at the left side of the beam, with a positive direction to the right.
 If several discontinuous loads are present, establish x coordinates that are valid for each
region of the beam between the discontinuities.
 In all cases, the associated positive y axis should be directed upward
2.7.1.3 Load and moment function

 For each region in which there is an x coordinate, express the internal moment M as a
function of x
 Always assume that M act in the positive direction when applying the equation of moment
equilibrium to determine M = f(x).
2.7.1.4 Slope and elastic curve

 Provided EI is constant, apply the moment equation, which requires two integrations.
Constant of integrations are determined using boundary conditions for supports and
continuity conditions that apply to slope and displacement at the point where two functions
meet.
 Once the integration constants are determined and substituted back into the slope and
deflection equations, the slope and displacement at specific points on the elastic curve can
be determined.
 Positive values for slope are counterclockwise and positive displacement is upward.
Example 1
Mo
A
L
Find slope and deflection at A
Solution
As usual, calculate the reaction(s), by drawing the FBD
∑M = 0
If 𝑀𝑜 is the moment at A
𝑑2 𝑦
Recall that, 𝑀 = 𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦
Then, 𝑀𝑜 = 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2
Where Mo is the moment w.r.t x
𝑑2 𝑦
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2 = ∫ 𝑀𝑜 , integrating the equation of moment will result to equation of slope.
𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = ∬ 𝑀𝑜, 2nd integration result to equation of deflection.
𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑀𝑜 𝑥 + 𝐶1 Slope equation
𝑀𝑜𝑥 2
𝑦= + C1x+ 𝐶2 deflection equation
2𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑦
Applying boundary conditions: 𝑑𝑥
= 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0, then C1= 0
Also, at x=0, y=0, then C2 = 0
The concept of boundary conditions can be simplified by drawing the deformed shape of the
structure.
𝑑𝑦 𝑀𝑜𝑥 𝑀0𝑋2
Substituting in the above equations, 𝑑𝑥 = ɵ = 𝐸𝐼
and for deflection, 𝑦= 2𝐸𝐼
Maximum slope and displacement occur at 𝑥 = 𝐿, for which
𝑀𝑂 𝐿
𝜃𝐴 =
𝐸𝐼
𝑀𝑂 𝐿2
𝑦𝐴 =
𝐸𝐼
Example 2
Consider the beam above to have length of 13metres, support a couple moment of 15kNm, and
made of steel having the following properties.𝐸𝑆𝑡=29 𝑋 103 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2,I=16.4𝑚𝑚4
Calculate the maximum values of slope and defection at pint A.
Example 3
W kN/m
A B
𝑙
Find maximum deflection at 𝑥 = 2
Solution
𝒘𝒍
𝑹𝒂 = 𝑹𝒃 = .
𝟐
Consider section x-x
x
M
𝑴𝒙
A
x x
𝒙
𝑴𝑿 = 𝑹𝒂 𝒙 − 𝒘𝒙 ( )
𝟐
𝑤𝑙𝑥 𝑤𝑥 2
Therefore, 𝑀𝑥 = 2
− 2
𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 = ∫ 𝑀𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦 𝑤𝑙𝑥 𝑤𝑥 2
𝐸𝐼 =∫ ( − ).
𝑑𝑥 2 2 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑙𝑥 2 wx3
𝐸𝐼 = − + C1 .
𝑑𝑥 4 6
𝑙 𝑑𝑦
Applying boundary condition, at 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑑𝑥 = 0 (slope is zero at the point of maximum deflection)
Substituting L/2 for x in the above equation
𝑤𝑙 3
Then,𝐶1 = −
24
𝑑2 𝑦
For deflection, 𝐸𝐼𝑦 = 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2 = ∬ 𝑀𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑤𝑙𝑥 2 𝑤𝑥 3
𝐸𝐼 2 = ∫ ( − + 𝐶1 )
𝑑𝑥 4 6
𝑤𝑙𝑥 3 𝑤𝑥 4
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = − + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
12 24
This is the required general equation for deflection at any point on the elastic curve.
Applying boundary condition, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝐶2 = 0 (deflection is zero at point of maximum

slope)
𝒍
For maximum deflection, at 𝒙 = 𝟐
5𝑤𝑙 4
𝑦𝑐 = − 384𝐸𝐼 , negative sign indicates that the deflection is downward
5𝑤𝑙 4
Therefore deflection, 𝑦𝑐 = 384𝐸𝐼
Example 4
Consider a simply supported beam of span 8.74m subjected to a UDL 3.7km/m over the entire
span. If the allowable deflection at the center is 3.4mm, find the value of the load. Take E= 200Gpa
and I= 300x 106 mm4
Solution
For this example, since we have calculated the general equation for a simply supported beam
carrying a UDL in example 3 we can simply substitute the values
5𝑤𝑙 4
𝑦𝑐 = −
384𝐸𝐼
Example 6
Consider the simply supported beam below carrying an eccentric point load, find the general
equation for the slope and deflection.
a w b
Ra c
R
L b
Solution
𝒘𝒃 𝒘𝒂
𝑹𝒂 = 𝒍
, 𝑹𝒃 = 𝒍
.
Consider section 𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟏
𝒙𝟏 𝑿
Ra 𝒙𝟏
x
𝑹𝒂 (𝒙) = 𝑴𝒙 .
𝒘𝒃
𝑴𝑿 = 𝒍
𝒙.
For slope,
𝑑2 𝑦
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2 = ∫ 𝑀𝑥 .
𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑏𝑥 2
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑙
+ 𝐶1 2
𝑑𝑦
Applying boundary condition, at point c, 𝑥 = 𝑎 , 𝑑𝑥
= 𝜃𝑐
𝑊𝑎 2 𝑏
𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 = 2𝑙
+ 𝐶1, find C and subt in eqn 2
𝑤𝑎2 𝑏
𝐶1 = 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝐶 −
2𝑙
𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑏𝑥 2 𝑤𝑎 2 𝑏
Then general equation for slope is𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑙
+ 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 − 2𝑙
For deflection
𝑑2 𝑦
𝐸𝐼 =∬𝑀𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑏𝑥 2
𝐸𝐼 =∫ ( + 𝐶1 )
𝑑𝑥 2𝑙
𝑤𝑏𝑥 3
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
6𝑙
Applying boundary condition, x=0, y=0. Then, 𝐶2 =0
𝑤𝑏𝑥 3 𝑤𝑎2 𝑏𝑥
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = + 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 𝑥 −
6𝑙 2𝑙
This is the general equation for deflection, though will only be useful if values of slope at point c is
known.
The above equations only hold for values of 𝑋 < 𝑎.
Now cut section and find equation for 𝑋 > 𝑎

w 𝒙𝟐
𝑹𝒂 𝒙𝟐
x
𝑤𝑏𝑥
𝑀𝑥 = − 𝑤(𝑥 − 𝑎)
𝑙
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑤𝑏𝑥
𝐸𝐼 2
= ∫( − 𝑤(𝑥 − 𝑎))
𝑑𝑥 𝑙
𝑑𝑦
By integrating, and applying boundary condition at C, x = a, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜃𝑐
𝑤𝑎 2 𝑏
Third constant of integration𝐶3 = 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 − 2𝑙
Then general slope equation equals
𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑏𝑥 2 𝑤(𝑥−𝑎)2 𝑤𝑎 2 𝑏
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑙
– 2
+ 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 − 2𝑙
For deflection,
𝑤𝑏𝑥 3 𝑤(𝑥−𝑎)3 𝑤𝑎 2 𝑏
General slope deflection is𝐸𝐼𝑦 = 6𝑙
− 6
+ 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 𝑥 − 2𝑙
𝑥 + 𝐶4
To find the fourth constant of integration apply boundary condition X = L, Y = 0
By simplification,
𝑤𝑎𝑏
𝐶4 = (𝑏 − 𝑎) − 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 . 𝑙
3
𝑤𝑏𝑥 3 𝑤(𝑥 − 𝑎)3 𝑤𝑎2 𝑏 𝑤𝑎𝑏

𝐸𝐼𝑦 = − + 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 𝑥 − 𝑥+ (𝑏 − 𝑎) − 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 . 𝑙
6𝑙 6 2𝑙 3
To obtain the value of 𝜃𝑐 , we have to find the defection at point C from the deflection equations
derive for sections AC and CB
Substituting x = b in the two equations we have
𝑤𝑏𝑥 3 𝑤𝑎2 𝑏𝑥 𝑤𝑏𝑥 3 𝑤(𝑥 − 𝑎)3 𝑤𝑎2 𝑏 𝑤𝑎𝑏

+ 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 𝑥 − = − + 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 𝑥 − 𝑥+ (𝑏 − 𝑎) − 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 . 𝑙
6𝑙 2𝑙 6𝑙 6 2𝑙 3
𝑤𝑎𝑏
Therefore, 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 = 3𝑙
(𝑏 − 𝑎)
Substituting 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 above in slope equation of section AC,
𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑏
We have 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = (3𝑥 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎2 )
6𝑙
This is the general slope equation for section AC
For maximum slope at A, substitute x=0 in the above equation
𝑊𝑏 2
𝜃𝐴 = (𝑙 − 𝑏 2 )
6𝐸𝐼𝑙
𝑊𝑏 2
𝜃𝐵 = (𝑙 − 𝑎2 )
6𝐸𝐼𝑙
For deflection on section AC,
𝑤𝑏𝑥 3 𝑤𝑎2 𝑏𝑥
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = + 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 𝑥 −
6𝑙 2𝑙
Substitute value of slope
𝑤𝑏𝑥 3 𝑤𝑎𝑏 𝑤𝑎2 𝑏𝑥

𝐸𝐼𝑦 = + (𝑎 − 𝑏)𝑥 −
6𝑙 3𝑙 2𝑙
𝑤𝑏𝑥 2
𝑦= (𝑙 − 𝑏 2 − 𝑥 2 ) General equation for deflection at x
6𝐸𝐼𝑙
𝑤𝑎𝑏 2
𝑦𝑐 = (𝑙 − 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 )
6𝐸𝐼𝑙
By symmetry, maximum deflection will occur in section CB since b>a. then for maximum
𝑑𝑦
deflection = 0 subt in equation below
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑏
𝐸𝐼 = (3𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏)
𝑑𝑥 6𝑙
𝑤𝑏
0= (3𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏)
6𝑙
3𝑥 2 = 𝑙 2 − 𝑎𝑏 2
𝑙2 − 𝑏2
𝑥=√
3
𝑤𝑎𝑥
For maximum deflection substitute value of x in 𝑦𝑐 = − 6𝐸𝐼𝑙 (𝑙 2 − 𝑏 2 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑤𝑏 3
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 9 (𝑙 2 − 𝑏 2 )2
√3𝐸𝐼𝑙
3.0 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT FOR DETERMINATE BEAMS
Prepared by: Engr. Idris Ahmed Ja’e

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Structure is defined as a system of interconnected members assembled in a stable configuration and

used to support a load or combination of loads. The load can have a vertical or lateral effects on the
structural components. The loads acting on the structures can be divided into the following
categories: Dead loads, live loads, fluid loads, Wind loads, snow loads, earthquake loads, thermal
loads and Earth pressure loads.
The structural members are connected together by providing different types of joints or supports.
Most common types of supports are pin-jonted or hinged, roller support and fixed support. Every
support provide some restraint (reaction) to the structural members connected to it. A pin-jonted
support will develop two reactions on the connected member because it does not allow it to
translate in any direction (along x and y) whereas the roller support can provide the reaction only in
the direction other than movement of roller i.e perpendicular to the surface on the rollers are kept.
A fixed support provide restraint to translation as well as rotation, therefore it has 3 reactions (2
forces and one moment).
Beams are usually long, straight prismatic members. Beams can be made of concrete, steel, timber,
aluminum or a composite. Steel and aluminum beams play an important part in both structural and
mechanical engineering.
In most cases, the loads are perpendicular to the axis of the beam. Such a transverse loading causes
only bending and shear in the beam. When the loads are not at a right angle to the beam, they also
produce axial forces in the beam.
3.2 TYPES OF LOAD ON BEAM
i. Concentrated load
ii. Uniformly distributed load (UDL)
iii. Gradually varied load (GVL)
iv. Concentrated moment
3.3 TYPES OF BEAM BASED ON THEIR SUPPORT
Beams are classified according to the way in which they are supported. Several types of beams
frequently used are shown in Fig. 1. The distance L shown in the various parts of the figure is
called the span. Note that the reactions at the supports of the beams in parts a, b, and cof the figure
involve a total of only three unknowns and, therefore, can be determined by the methods of statics.
Such beams are said to be statically determinate. On the other hand, the reactions at the supports of
the beams in parts d, e, and fof Fig.1 involve more than three unknowns and cannot be determined
by the methods of statics alone. The properties of the beams with regard to their resistance to
deformations must be taken into consideration. Such beams are said to be statically indeterminate.
Fig.1.2 Classification of beam based on type of support
3.4 NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES
Consider, for example, a simply supported beam AB carrying two concentrated loads and a
uniformly distributed load (Fig.2a). To determine the internal forces in a section through point C
we first draw the free-body diagram of the entire beam to obtain the reactions at the supports (Fig.
2b). Passing a section through C, we then draw the free-body diagram of AC (Fig.2c), from which
we determine the shear force V and the bending couple M.
Figure 2
The bending couple M creates normal stressesin the cross section, while the shear force V creates
shearing stresses in that section. In most cases the dominant criterion in the design of a beam for
strength is the maximum value of the normal stress in the beam. Since the distribution of the
normal stresses in a given section depends only upon the value of the bending moment M in that
section and the geometry of the section, the elastic flexure formulas can be used to determine the
maximum stress, as well as the stress at any given point, in the section.
|𝑴|𝒄
Then,𝝈𝒎 = 𝑰
1
𝑴𝒚
𝝈𝒙 = − 𝑰
2
Where, I is the moment of inertia of the cross section with respect to a centroidal axis
perpendicular to the plane of the couple, Y is the distance from the neutral surface, and C is the
maximum value of that distance. Also, introducing the elastic section modulus of the beam, the
maximum value of the normal stress in the section can be expressed as:
|𝑴|
𝝈𝒎 = 3
𝑺
The fact that 𝝈𝒎 is inversely proportional to Sunderlines the importance of selecting beams with a
large section modulus. Section moduli of various rolled-steel shapes are available in different text,
while the section modulus of a rectangular shape can be expressed as in equation
𝟏
𝑺 = 𝟔 𝒃𝒉𝟐 4
Where, band h are the width and depth of the cross section, respectively.
Equation (3) also shows that, for a beam of uniform cross section, 𝝈𝒎 is proportional to |𝑴|: Thus,
the maximum value of the normal stress in the beam occurs in the section where|𝑴|: 𝑖𝑠 largest. It
follows that one of the most important parts of the design of a beam for a given loading condition
is the determination of the location and magnitude of the largest bending moment.
This task is made easier if a bending-moment diagram is drawn, i.e., if the value of the bending
moment M is determined at various points of the beam and plotted against the distance X measured
from one end of the beam. It is further facilitated if a shear diagram is drawn at the same time by
plotting the shear V against X.
3.5 BENDING MOMENT
A moment is a rotational force that occurs when a force is applied perpendicularly to a point at a
given distance away from that point. It is calculated as the perpendicular force multiplied by the
distance from the point. A Bending Moment is simply the bend that occurs in a beam due to a
moment.
Mathematically, it can be referred to as the algebraic sum of the moment of the forces to the left or
to the right of the section taken about the section.
3.5.1 SHEAR FORCE
Is the algebraic sum of the vertical forces acting to the left or right of the cut-section.
3.5.2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOAD, SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING

MOMENT
For a given section, the rate of change of shear force is equal to the rate of loading
𝑑𝐹
𝑑𝑥
=𝑤 5
3.5.3 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS
The rate of change of bending moment is equal to the shear force at the section
𝑑𝑀
𝑑𝑥
=𝑉 6
3.5.4 STEPS INVOLVE IN DRAWING A SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING

MOMENT DIAGRAM
i. Draw a the free body diagram
ii. Calculate Reactions
iii. Cut section (where necessary)
iv. Calculate shear forces at different values of x (distance)
v. Generate Bending moment equation (s)
vi. Calculate BM at different values of x
vii. Draw SF and BM diagram
3.5.5 SHEAR AND BENDING-MOMENT DIAGRAM
As indicated earlier, the determination of the maximum absolute values of the shear and of the
bending moment in a beam are greatly facilitated if V and M are plotted against the distance X
measured from one end of the beam. Besides, you will understand in the next topic (deflection of
beams) that the knowledge of M as a function of X isessential to the determination of the
deflection of a beam.
In the examples and sample problems of this section, the shear and bending-moment diagrams will
be obtained by determining the values of V and M at selected points of the beam. These values will
be found in the usual way, i.e., by passing a section through the point where they are to be
determined (Fig. 3.a) and considering the equilibrium of the portion of beam located on either side
of the section (Fig.3.b). Since the shear forces V and Vi have opposite senses, recording the shear
at point C with an up or down arrow would be meaningless, unless we indicate that the same time
which of the free bodies AC and CB we are considering. For this reason, the shear V will be
recorded with a sign: a minus sign if the shearing forces are directed as shown in Fig. 3.c, and a
plus sign otherwise. A similar convention will apply for the bending moment M. It will be
considered as negative if the bending couples are directed as shown in that figure, and positive
otherwise. Summarizing the sign conventions we have presented, we state:
The shear V and the bending moment M at a given point of a beam are said to be positive when the
internal forces and couples acting on each portion of the beam are directed as shown in Fig 3.
Figure 3
3.5.6 SIGN CONVENTION
In summary, we shall consider the following sign convention throughout, even though sign
convention is flexible.
i. All upward forces shall be positive

ii. Downward forces shall be negative
iii. Clockwise moment – positive
iv. Anti-clockwise moment- negative
3.5.7 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS
Depending on the type of loading, shear force and bending moment diagram obey certain shapes.
The diagrams below should serve as a guide in producing relevant diagrams.
Point to note are:
Shear and bending moment diagrams carrying point loads consist of straight lines,
For beam carrying UDL or gradually varied load (GVL), shear force diagram is connected with
straight lines while the BMD is connected with curves; hence resulting in parabolic or cubic shape.
3.5.8 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DERIVATIONS
Example 1.
Draw a shear force and bending moment diagram for the simply supported beam below.
Solution
i. Free body
1. Calculate Reactions
Using condition of equilibrium
∑𝐹𝑉 = 0.
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 − 𝑝 = 0
Taking moment at B,
𝐿
𝑅𝐴 (𝐿) − 𝑝(2) =0
𝑝
𝑅𝐴 = 2.
𝑝
Substituting in equation, 𝑅𝐵 = 2
To calculate shear force,
𝑝
At x=0, S.F = RA= 2
𝐿 𝑝
At x = , S.F = 𝑅𝐴 − 𝑃= −
2 2
𝑤𝑝
At X=L, S.F = − 2
ii. Cut section
Considering section A-D, (in btw A and C)
Shear force
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0.
𝑅𝑎 − 𝑉 = 0.
𝑅𝑎 = 𝑉.
BM equation will be
𝑅𝐴 𝑥 -------------------------- (c)
At x=0, BM=0
Considering the second section, E - B
With the X extended, generate eqn.
For Shear force,
At x=L/2
𝑃
𝑅𝑎 − 𝑃 = − 2
𝑝
𝑅𝑎 − 𝑃 + 𝑉 − 𝑅𝑎 = − ,
2
For Bending Moment,
𝑙
𝑅𝐴 𝑥 − 𝑝 (𝑥 − 2) = 0.
𝑝 𝑙
−2𝑥 +𝑝2 = 0
𝑙 𝑝𝐿
At x =2, BM = 4
kNm
At X = L, BM = 0
Example 2 (Numerical)
i. Consider the beam used in example 1. If span of the beam L=4m and the value point load
P=5kN
ii. If P used in Question 2a is located at 1m from support A, draw the SF and BM.
Example 2
Draw the shear and bending-moment diagrams for a cantilever beam AB of span L supporting a
pointed load W.
Solution
Cut section
∑𝐹𝑉 = 0
𝐹𝑋 - W =0
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑊.
Shear force,
At x =0, S.F = 𝑅𝐴
At x=L, S.F = 𝑅𝐴 − 𝑊
Bending moment
∑𝑀𝑋 = 0
𝑀𝑋 + 𝑊𝑋 = 0
.
𝑀𝑋 = −𝑊𝑋
.
Considering section x-x,
At x= 0, BM = 0
At x=L, BM= -WL
Consider example 2, if the span is 8m and the value of point load at the end is 1200N.
Calculate the reactions and also draw the shear force and bending moment diagram.
EXAMPLE 4
Draw shear force and bending moment diagram for the simply supported beam carrying a
uniformly distributed load of W kN/m
Solution
Calculating the reactions,
𝑊𝐿
𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝐵 = 2
.
Shear force,
Cut section X-X
𝑊𝐿
𝑅𝐴 − 𝑊𝑋 = 2
− 𝑤𝑥,
𝑤𝑙
At x=0, S.F =𝑅𝐴 = 2
𝐿
At x= , S.F = 0
2
−𝑊𝐿
At x=L, S.F = 2
Bending moment equation at section X-X
𝑥 𝑊𝐿 𝑥
𝑅𝐴 𝑋 − 𝑊𝑥 2 = 2
𝑥 − 𝑤𝑥 2
At x=0, BM = 0
𝐿 𝑊𝐿2
At X=2 , B.M = 8
At x=0, B.M =0
Consider example 5, if the uniformly distributed (UDL) load is 5kN/m and span equals 6m.
Example 6
Solution
Understand that the end is fixed, hence we have 3 reactions,
To determine the distributed load at section Y-Y, distance X
Y
At length L , distributed load is W, Then at distance X distributed load will be W2
𝑊𝑋
i.e w2 = 𝐿
At this section,
1 𝑊𝑋
Converting distributed load to point load by calculating the area, ( ) 𝑥.
2 𝐿
This load will act at the
1 2
center of the gravity of the section, i.e for triangular loading (3) 𝑥 from the hill and (3) 𝑥 from the
toe.
The FBD is thus;
For Shear force,
𝑊𝑋 2
𝐹𝑋 = .
2𝐿
𝑊𝐿
Shear forces at 0 and L will be 0 and 2
(by substituting 0 and L in the equation of shear force
above)
Bending Moment,
With point load at C.G of the section i.e, 1/3 of x
∑ 𝑀𝑥 = 0
Considering the FBD above, taking moment at B,
𝑤𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑤𝑥 3
𝑀𝑥 − ( ) ( ) = 0, 𝑀𝑥 = −
2𝑙 3 6𝑙
𝑤𝑙 2
Moments will be 0 and − 6
at x equals 0 and L respectively
Draw the S.F and B.M.
Example 6b
Consider the beam in example 6 to be simply supported with span 6m and gradually varied load of
5kN/m. draw the SF and BM diagram.
Example 7 (Class work)
For the timber beam and loading below, draw the shear force and bending moment diagram and
determine the maximum normal stress due to bending.
Examples 8
A simply supported beam overhanging on one side is subjected to a U.D.L. of 1 kN/m. Sketch the
shear force and bending moment diagrams and find the position of point of contraflexure.
Solution:
4
𝑅𝐴 = = 1.33𝑘𝑁
3
8
𝑅𝐵 = 3
= 2.67 kN
To calculate for shear forces;
Consider a section between A and B
𝑅𝐴 − 𝑤𝑥 = 0
At x=0, S.F = 𝑅𝐴
At x=2, S.F=𝑅𝐴 − 1(2) = −0.67𝑘𝑁
At x=3, S.F=𝑅𝐴 − 3 = −1.67𝑘𝑁 (for UDL)
At the same point (i.e at x=3m)
For point load;𝑅𝐴 − 3 + 𝑅𝐴 = 1𝑘𝑁
Finally at x=4m, SF= 𝑅𝐴 − 4 + 𝑅𝐴 = 0
For bending moment,
For section between A and B
𝑥
𝑅𝐴 𝑥 − 𝑤𝑥 (2) = 0
At x= 0, BM= 0
At x= 1, BM= 0.8kNm
At x= 2, BM= 0.66kNm
At x= 3, BM= 0.51kNm
For section between B and C
𝑥
𝑅𝐴 (𝑥) − 𝑤(𝑥) ( ) + 𝑅𝐵 (𝑥 − 3) = 0
2
At x= 3.5, BM= -0.135kNm
At x= 4, BM= 0kNm
To find the point of contraflexure,
The point of contraflexture is a point on the bending moment diagram where 𝑀𝑥 = 0
Where 𝑀𝑥 is moment with respect to x
Using the BM equation for section A-B (you may use equation of any section but the values
should guide you)
𝑥2
1.33𝑥 − 2
= 𝑀𝑥 = 0.
2.66𝑥 − 𝑥 2 = 0.
Solving the quadratic equation; we have 2.66m, then solving the second equation we have 4m
It should be noted that only one of the values will be reasonable. This can be observed from the
calculated values or after drawing the diagram.
In this case point of contraflexure is 2.66m from C
To determine the maximum value of BM,
It should be noted that maximum BM occurs where shear force equals Zero.
So, using the relation,
𝑑𝑀
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑉.
Where V= shear force
𝑑𝑀
𝑑𝑥
= 0.
Consider equation for section A-B
𝑥2
𝑑 (1.33𝑥 − 2
)
=0
𝑑𝑥
1.33 − 𝑥 = 0
Therefore x = 1.33m (from support A)
Substituting value of x back in the equation you have 0.88kNm
Example 9
Draw Shear force and bending moment diagram for the beam carrying a couple 12kNm, as shown
in figure below.
Solution
∑𝐹𝑉 = 0.
12
𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵 − 4 − ( ) = 0
20
∑𝑀𝑐 = 0.
𝑅𝐵 (16) − 4(18) − 12 = 0
𝑅𝐵 = 5.25𝑘𝑁.
∑𝑀𝐵 = 0.
−𝑅𝑐 (16) − 4(2) − 12 = 0
𝑅𝑐 = −1.25𝑘𝑁.
Shear Force
At x=0, S.F = 0
At x=2, S.F = −1(2) = −2𝑘𝑁
At x = 4, S.F = 0 − 4 = −4𝑘𝑁
For point load; −4 + 5.25 = 1.25𝑘𝑁
X = 12m, S.F = −4 + 5.25 = 1.25𝑘𝑁
Bending moment
At x=0, B.M = 0𝑘𝑁𝑚
At x=4, B.M = −4(2) = −8𝑘𝑁𝑚
At x = 12, B.M = −4(10) + 5.25(8) = 2𝑘𝑁𝑚
B.M = −4(10) + 5.25(8) + 12 = −10𝑘𝑁𝑚
x = 20m, B.M, = −4(18) + 5.25(16) + 12 = 0𝑘𝑁𝑚
S.F and BM Diagram
3.6 REFERENCES
Any structural analysis text book, but be mindful of units and sign conventions.
4.0 ANALYSIS OF CABLES AND ARCHES
Prepared by: Engr.Aliyu A. Ozovehe

4.1 CABLES
Flexible cables have been used to form structural systems for many centuries. Someof the
earliest man-made structures of any size were hanging bridges constructedfrom jungle
vines and creepers and spanning ravines and rivers. In Europeanliterature the earliest
description of an iron suspension bridge was published byVerantius in 1607, while ropes
have been used in military bridging from at least1600. In modem times, cables formed by
binding a large number of steel wirestogether are employed in bridge construction where
the bridge deck is suspended onhangers from the cables themselves. The cables in turn
pass over the tops of towersand are fixed to anchor blocks embedded in the ground; in this
manner large, clearspans are achieved. Cables are also used in cable-stayed bridges, as part
of roofsupport systems, for prestressing in concrete beams and for guyed structures such
aspylons and television masts.
Structurally, cables are extremely efficient because they make the most effectiveuse of
structural material in that their loads are carried solely through tension. Thereis, therefore,
no tendency for buckling to occur either from bending or fromcompressive axial loads).
However, many of the structuresmentioned above are statically indeterminate to a high
degree. In other situations,particularly in guyed towers and cable-stayed bridges, the
extension of the cablesaffects the internal force system and the analysis becomes non-
linear.
Cables are often used in engineering structures for support and to transmit loads from one
member to another. When used to support suspension roofs, bridges, and trolley wheels,
cables form the main load-carrying element in the structure. In the force analysis of such
systems, the weight of the cable itself may be neglected; however, when cables are used as
guys for radio antennas, electrical transmission lines, and derricks, the cable weight may
become important and must be included in the structural analysis. Two cases will be
considered in the sections that follow: a cable subjected to concentrated loads and a cable
subjected to a distributed load. Provided these loadings are coplanar with the cable, the
requirements for equilibrium are formulated in an identical manner.
Two categories of cable arise; the first is relatively lightweight and carries alimited number
of concentrated loads, while the second is heavier with a moreuniform distribution of load.
We shall also examine, in the case of suspensionbridges, the effects of different forms of
cable support at the towers.
4.1.1 CABLES SUBJECTED TO CONCENTRATED LOADS
In the analysis of this type of cable we shall assume that the self-weight of the cable
isnegligible, that it can only carry tensile forces and that the extension of the cable doesnot
affect the geometry of the system,cable is perfectly flexible and inextensible, no resistance
to shear/bending, force acting on the cable is always tangent to the cable at points along its
length. When a cable of negligible weight supports several concentrated loads, the cable
takes the form of several straight-line segments, each of which is subjected to a constant
tensile force. We shall illustrate the method by examples.
Examples
1.Find the tension in cable AB.
∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0; − 𝑇𝐴𝐵 (3⁄ ) + 𝑇𝐵𝐶 (1⁄ ) = 0

√10 √2
𝑇𝐴𝐵 = 0.745𝑇𝐵𝐶
∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0; 𝑇𝐴𝐵 (1⁄ ) + 𝑇𝐵𝐶 (1⁄ ) − 20 = 0

√10 √2
𝑇𝐴𝐵 (1⁄ ) + 𝑇𝐴𝐵 × 1⁄0.745 (1⁄ ) = 20

√10 √2
1.265 𝑇𝐴𝐵 = 20
𝑇𝐴𝐵 = 15.81𝑘𝑁
2. A hoisting device uses the cable system shown. If the load of 𝑃 = 5𝑘𝑁, then the load at
point B is?
∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0; − 𝑇𝐶𝐷 (1⁄ ) − 𝑇𝐵𝐶 (3⁄ )=0

√5 √10
𝑇𝐶𝐷 = 𝑇𝐵𝐶 (3⁄ ) × √5

√10
𝑇𝐶𝐷 = 2.127 𝑇𝐵𝐶
∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0; −5 + 𝑇𝐵𝐶 (1⁄ ) + 𝑇𝐶𝐷 (2⁄ ) = 0

√10 √5
−5 + 𝑇𝐵𝐶 (1⁄ ) + 2.127 𝑇𝐵𝐶 (2⁄ ) = 0

√10 √5
𝑇𝐵𝐶 = 2.25 𝑘𝑁
∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0; 2.25 (3⁄ ) − 𝑇𝐴𝐵 (1⁄ ) = 0

√10 √2
𝑇𝐴𝐵 = 3.02 𝑘𝑁
∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0; − 𝐵 + 3.02 (1⁄ ) − 2.25 (1⁄ )=0

√2 √10
𝐵 = 1.42 𝑘𝑁
3.Cable ABCD supports the loading shown below. Determine the maximum tension in the
cable and the sag at point B.
Approach
i. Apply equilibrium to point B

ii. Apply equilibrium to point C
iii. Solve simultaneous equations 𝑦𝐵
iv. Find maximum tension
Step 1
−1 3
∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0; 𝑇𝐴𝐵 + 𝑇𝐵𝐶 = 0
√𝑦𝐵2 + 12 √(𝑦𝐵 − 2)2 + 32
𝑇𝐴𝐵 3𝑇𝐵𝐶
=
2 +12
√𝑦𝐵 √(𝑦𝐵 −2)2 +32
𝑦𝐵 𝑇𝐴𝐵 (𝑦𝐵 − 2)𝑇𝐵𝐶

∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0; + − 40 = 0
√𝑦𝐵2 + 12 √(𝑦𝐵 − 2)2 + 32
3𝑦𝐵 𝑇𝐵𝐶 (𝑦𝐵 −2)𝑇𝐵𝐶

+ = 40
√(𝑦𝐵 −2)2 +32 √(𝑦𝐵 −2)2 +32
(4𝑦𝐵 −2)𝑇𝐵𝐶
= 40 (1)
√(𝑦𝐵 −2)2 +32
Step 2.
−3 0.5
∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0; 𝑇𝐵𝐶 + 𝑇𝐶𝐷 = 0
√(𝑦𝐵 − 2)2 + 32 √0.52 + 22
6 𝑇
𝑇 = √0.5𝐶𝐷
√(𝑦𝐵 −2)2 +32 𝐵𝐶 2 +22
−(𝑦𝐵 − 2) 2
∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0; 𝑇𝐵𝐶 + 𝑇𝐶𝐷 − 60 = 0
√(𝑦𝐵 − 2)2 + 32 √0.52 + 22
−(𝑦𝐵 −2)𝑇𝐵𝐶 12 𝑇𝐵𝐶

+ = 60
√(𝑦𝐵 −2)2 +32 √(𝑦𝐵 −2)2 +32
(14−𝑦𝐵 )𝑇𝐵𝐶
= 40 (2)
√(𝑦𝐵 −2)2 +32
Step 3.
Divide equation (2) by (1)
14 − 𝑦𝐵 60 3
= =
4𝑦𝐵 − 2 40 2
28 − 2𝑦𝐵 = 12𝑦𝐵 − 6
14𝑦𝐵 = 34
𝑦𝐵 = 2.43𝑚
Step 4.
Substitute 𝑦𝐵 in equation (1)
(4×2.43−2)𝑇𝐵𝐶
= 40
√(2.43−2)2 +32
𝑇𝐵𝐶 = 15.7𝑘𝑁
From
𝑇𝐴𝐵 3𝑇𝐵𝐶
=
√𝑦𝐵2 + 12 √(𝑦𝐵 − 2)2 + 32
𝑇𝐴𝐵 3 × 15.7
=
√2.432 + 12 √(2.43 − 2)2 + 32
𝑇𝐴𝐵 = 40.9𝑘𝑁
From
6 𝑇𝐶𝐷
𝑇𝐵𝐶 =
√(𝑦𝐵 − 2)2 + 32 √0.52 + 22
6 × 15.7 𝑇𝐶𝐷
=
√(2.43 − 2)2 + 32 √0.52 + 22
𝑇𝐶𝐷 = 64.1𝑘𝑁 𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
4.1.2 CABLES SUBJECTED TO UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOADS
We shall now consider the more practical case of cables having a significant self-weight.
Cables provide a very effective means of supporting the dead weight of girders or bridge
decks having very long spans. A suspension bridge is a typical example, in which the deck
is suspended from the cable using a series of close and equally spaced hangers.
In order to analyze this problem, we will first determine the shape of a cable subjected to a
uniform horizontally distributed vertical load Fig. a. Here the x, y axes have their origin
located at the lowest point on the cable, such that the slope is zero at this point. The free-
body diagram of a small segment of the cable having a length is shown in Fig. b. Since the
tensile force in the cable changes continuously in both magnitude and direction along the
cable’s length, this change is denoted on the free-body diagram by The distributed load is
represented by its resultant force which acts at from point O.
Applying the equations of equilibrium yields
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0; −𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + (𝑇 + ∆𝑇)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 + ∆𝜃) = 0
∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0; −𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑤° (∆𝑥) + (𝑇 + ∆𝑇)𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 + ∆𝜃) = 0
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0; 𝑤° (∆𝑥) ∆𝑥⁄2 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃∆𝑦 + 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃∆𝑥 = 0
Dividing each of these equations by ∆𝑥 and taking the limit as∆𝑥 → 0and hence∆𝜃 →
0, ∆𝑦 → 0 and∆𝑇 → 0 we obtain,
𝑑(𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
=0 (1)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
= 𝑤° (2)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 (3)
𝑑𝑥
Integrating (1) where 𝑇 = 𝐹𝐻 𝑎𝑡𝑥 = 0:
𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝐹𝐻 (4)
Integrating (2) where 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0:
𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑤° 𝑥 (5)
Divide (5) by (4)
𝑑𝑦 𝑤° 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥 = (6)
𝐹𝐻
Performing an integration with y=0 at x=0 yields
𝑤
𝑦 = 2𝐹° 𝑥 2 (7)
𝐻
𝑦 = ℎ 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑤° 𝐿2
𝐹𝐻 = (8)
2ℎ
ℎ
cable profile yields equation of a parabola 𝑦 = 𝐿2 𝑥 2 (9)
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝐹𝐻2 + (𝑤° 𝐿)2 (10)
From (8)
2
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑤° 𝐿√1 + (𝐿⁄2ℎ) (11)
Examples
1.The cable supports a girder which weighs 12 kN/m. Determine the tension in the cable at
points A, B & C.
12kN/m
The origin of the coordinate axes is established at point B, the lowest point on the cable
where slope is zero,
wo 2 12kN/m 2 6 2
y x  x  x (1)
2 FH 2 FH FH
𝑦 = 0.0389𝑥 2
Assuming point C is located x’ from B
6 2
6 x'  FH  1.0 x' 2 (2)
FH
From B to A
6
12  [(30  x' )]2
FH
6
12  2
[(30  x' )]2
1.0 x'
x' 2 60 x'900  0  x'  12.43m , from (2)
𝐹𝐻 = 154.4𝑘𝑁
𝑦 = 0.0389𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦
Integrating, 𝑑𝑥 = 0.0777𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
dy
tan  C   0.966
dx x 12.43
 C  44.0o
FH 154.4
TC    214.6kN
cos C cos 44.0o
dy
tan  A   1.366
dx x  17.57
 A  53.79 o
FH
TA   261.4kN
cos A
2. The suspension bridge in the figure below is constructed using the two stiffening trusses
that are pin connected at their ends C and supported by a pin at A and a rocker at B.
Determine the maximum tension in the cable IH. The cable has a parabolic shape and the
bridge is subjected to the single load of 50 kN.
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0; −12𝐶𝑦 + 8𝑇°
𝑇° = 1.5𝐶𝑦 (1)
∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0; −12𝐶𝑦 + 50 × 9 − 8𝑇° = 0
𝑇° = −1.5𝐶𝑦 + 56.25 (2)
Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously, 𝐶𝑦 = 18.75𝑘𝑁, 𝑇° = 28.125𝑘𝑁
𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑥
°
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 28.12
𝑑𝑥
𝑤° 𝑥
𝑦=∫ 𝑑𝑥
28.12
𝑤° 𝑥 2
𝑦= + 𝐶1
28.12
𝑤° × 122
8=
2 × 28.12
𝑤° = 3.125 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
𝑤° 𝑥 = 12 × 3.125 = 37.5𝑘𝑁
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √37.52 + 28.122 = 46.88𝑘𝑁
3. For the structure shown, determine the maximum tension of the cable
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0; 𝐵𝑦 × 5 + 𝑇° × 0.5 = 0
∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0; 𝐵𝑦 × 20 + 20 × 10 − 𝑇° × 8 = 0
From (1) and (2), 𝐵𝑦 = 0, 𝑇° = 25𝑘𝑁
𝑑𝑦 𝑤° 𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑑𝑥 25
𝑤° 𝑥
𝑦=∫ 𝑑𝑥
25
𝑤° 𝑥 2
𝑦= + 𝐶1
25
𝑤° × 202
8=
2 × 25
𝑤° = 1.0 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
𝑤° 𝑥 = 20 × 1 = 20𝑘𝑁
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √252 + 202 = 32.02𝑘𝑁
Exercises
1. Determine the tension in each segment of the cable shown in the figure below.
Also, what is the dimension h ?
Ans. TCD = 6.79 kN, TCB = 4.82 kN, TBA = 6.90 kN, h = 2.74 m
2. The cable shown below is pinned to supports at A and B and carries a concentrated
load of 10 kN at a point C. Calculate the tension in each part of the cable and the reactions
at the supports.
Ans. TCA = 12.6 kN, TCB = 13.4 kN, RA = 4kN, RB=6kN
3. Calculate the tension in each of the parts AC, CD and DB of thecable shown below
TCA = 29.1 kN, TDB = 28.4 kN, TCD = 27.6 kN
4. Calculate the tension in each segment of the cable known in the Figurebelow
andalso the vertical distance of the points B and E below the support points A and F
Ans. TAB = TFE = 26.9 kN, TBC = TED = 25.5 kN, TCD= 25.0 kN, 1.0 m.
5. Calculate the sag at the point B in the cable shown in Fig. below and thetension in
each of its segments.
Ans. 0.81 m relative to A. TAB = 4.9 kN, TBC = 4.6 kN, TCD = 4.7 kN.
6. Calculate the sag, relative to A, of the points C and D in the cable shown in Fig.
below. Determine also the tension in each of its segments.
Ans. C = 4.2m, D = 3.1m, TAB=11.98kN, TBC=9.68kN, TCD=9.43kN.
7. A cable that carries a uniform horizontally distributed load of 10 kN/m is

suspended between two points that are at the same level and 80 m apart. Determine the
minimum sag that may be allowed at mid-span if the maximum tension in the cable is
limited to l000 kN.
Ans. 8.73 m.
8. A suspension cable is suspended from two points 102 m apart and at the same
horizontal level. The self-weight of the cable can be considered to be equivalent to 36 N/m
of horizontal length. If the cable carries two concentrated loads each of 10 kN at 34 m and
68 m horizontally from the left-hand support and the maximum sag in the cable is 3 m,
determine the maximum tension in the cable and the vertical distance between the
concentrated loads and the supports.
Ans. 129.5 kN, 2.96 m.
9. A cable of a suspension bridge has a span of 80 m, a sag of 8 m and carries a

uniform horizontally distributed load of 24 kN/m over the complete span.
The cable passes over frictionless pulleys at the top of each tower which are of the same
height. If the anchor cables are to be arranged such that there is no bending moment in the
towers calculate the inclination of the anchor cables to the horizontal. Calculate also the
maximum tension in the cable and the vertical force on a tower.
Ans. 21.8", 2584.9 kN, 1919-9 kN.
10. A suspension cable passes over saddles supported by roller bearings on the top of
two towers 120 m apart and differing in height by 2.5 m. The maximum sag in the cable is
10 m and each anchor cable is inclined at 55" to the horizontal. If the cable carries a
uniform horizontally distributed load of 25 kN/m and is to be made of steel having an
allowable tensile stress of 240 N/mm', determine its minimum diameter. Calculate also the
vertical load on the tallest tower.
Ans. 218.3 mm, 8962.9 kN.
11. A suspension cable has a sag of 40 m and is fixed to two towers of the same height
and 400 m apart; the effective cross-sectional area of the cable is 0.08 m2. However, due
to corrosion, the effective cross-sectional area of the central half of the cable is reduced by
20%. If the stress in the cable is limited to 500 N/mm2 calculate the maximum allowable
distributed load the cable can support. Calculate also the inclination of the cable to the
horizontal at the top of the towers.
Ans 62.8 kN/m, 21.8".
12. A suspension bridge with two main cables has a span of 250 m and a sag of 25 m.
It carries a uniform horizontally distributed load of 25 kN/m and the allowable stress in the
cables is 800 N/mm2. If each anchor cable makes an angle of 45" with the towers
calculate:
a. the required cross-sectional area of the cables,

b. the load in an anchor cable and the overturning force on a tower when
i. the cables run over a pulley device,
ii. the cables are attached to a saddle resting on rollers.
Ans.(a) 5270 mm', (b) (i) 4210 kN, 930 kN (ii) 5530kN, 0.
13. A suspension cable passes over two towers 80 m apart and carries a load of 5 kN
per metre of span. If the top of the left-hand tower is 4 m below the top of the right-hand
tower, calculate the maximum tension in the cables. Also, if the cable passes over saddles
on rollers on the tops of the towers with the anchor cable at 45" to the horizontal, calculate
the vertical thrust on the right-hand tower.
Ans. 360 kN, 502 kN.
4.2 ARCHES
Like cables, arches can be used to reduce the bending moments in long-span structures.
Essentially, an arch acts as an inverted cable, so it receives its load mainly in compression
although, because of its rigidity, it must also resist some bending and shear depending
upon how it is loaded and shaped. In particular, if the arch has a parabolic shape and it is
subjected to a uniform horizontally distributed vertical load, then from the analysis of
cables it follows that only compressive forces will be resisted by the arch. Under these
conditions the arch shape is called a funicular arch because no bending or shear forces
occur within the arch.
A typical arch is shown in Fig.1, which specifies some of the nomenclature used to define
its geometry. Depending upon the application, several types of arches can be selected to
support a loading. A fixed arch, Fig. 2, is often made from reinforced concrete. Although it
may require less material to construct than other types of arches, it must have solid
foundation abutments since it is indeterminate to the third degree and, consequently,
additional stresses can be introduced into the arch due to relative settlement of its supports.
A two-hinged arch, Fig. 3, is commonly made from metal or timber. It is indeterminate to
the first degree, and although it is not as rigid as a fixed arch, it is somewhat insensitive to
settlement. We could make this structure statically determinate by replacing one of the
hinges with a roller. Doing so, however, would remove the capacity of the structure to
resist bending along its span, and as a result it would serve as a curved beam, and not as an
arch. A three-hinged arch, Fig. 4, which is also made from metal or timber, is statically
determinate. Unlike statically indeterminate arches, it is not affected by settlement or
temperature changes. Finally, if two and three-hinged arches are to be constructed without
the need for larger foundation abutments and if clearance is not a problem, then the
supports can be connected with a tie rod, Fig. 5. A tied arch allows the structure to behave
as a rigid unit, since the tie rod carries the horizontal component of thrust at the supports. It
is also unaffected by relative settlement of the supports.
Fig 1.
Fig 2.
Fig 3.
Fig. 4
Fig 5.
4.2.1 THREE HINGED ARCH
To provide some insight as to how arches transmit loads, we will now consider the
analysis of a three-hinged arch such as the one shown in Fig. 4. In this case, the third hinge
is located at the crown and the supports are located at different elevations. In order to
determine the reactions at the supports, the arch is disassembled and the free-body diagram
of each member is shown in Fig. 6. Here there are six unknowns for which six equations of
equilibrium are available. One method of solving this problem is to apply the moment
equilibrium equations about points A and B. Simultaneous solution will yield the reactions
and The support reactions are then determined from the force equations of equilibrium.
Once obtained, the internal normal force, shear, and moment loadings at any point along
the arch can be found using the method of sections. Here, of course, the section should be
taken perpendicular to the axis of the arch at the point considered. For example, the free-
body diagram for segment AD as shown in the fig 6.
Fig. 6
Three-hinged arches can also take the form of two pin-connected trusses, each of which
would replace the arch ribs AC and CB in Fig. 6. A three hinged arch may be either of the
following two types, depending upon the geometry of its axis. The analysis of this form
follows the same procedure outlined above. The following examples numerically illustrate
these concepts.
4.2.2 THREE HINGED PARABOLIC ARCH
Consider a three hinged parabolic arch ACB, having hinges at the supports A and B as
well as at crown C, as shown in the Figure below. Now, consider a point X, on the axis of
the arch, at a distance x from A.
𝑙 =span AB of the arch,
𝑦𝑐 =rise of the crown from the springings,
𝑦 = rise of the point 𝑋 from the springings, and
𝜃 =angle, which the tangent at 𝑋 makes with the horizontal.
Now, taking A as the origin, we know that, equation for the centre line of a parabolic arch
is,
𝑦 = 𝑘 ∙ 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) (1)
Where 𝑘 is a constant, when 𝑥 = 𝑙 ⁄2, 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 . Therefore substituting these values of 𝑥 and

𝑦 in (1), we get
𝑙 𝑙 𝑘𝑙 2
𝑦𝑐 = 𝑘 ∙ (𝑙 − ) =
2 2 4
4𝑦𝑐
𝑘=
𝑙2
Now substituting the value of 𝑘 in equation (1)
4𝑦𝑐
𝑦= ∙ 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) (2)
𝑙2
This is the required equation for the rise 𝑦 of an arch axis, from its springings at a distance
𝑥 from the support A or B.
𝑙 4𝑦𝑐 𝑙 𝑙 3𝑦𝑐
When 𝑥 = 4 , 𝑦 = ∙ 4 (𝑙 − 4) =
𝑙2 4
The slope of the angle 𝜃may be found out by differentiating (2) with respect to 𝑥
4𝑦𝑐 4𝑦𝑐
𝑦= 2
∙ 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) = 2 ∙ (𝑙𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑙 𝑙
𝑑𝑦 4𝑦𝑐
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 2 (𝑙 − 2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑙
Three hinged circular arch
Consider a three hinged circular arch ACB, having hinges at the supports A and B as well
as a crown at C. now consider a point X, on the axis of the arch at a distance x from D.
Let 𝑙 =span AB of the arch,
𝑦𝑐 =rise of the crown from the springings,
𝑦 = rise of the point 𝑋 from the springings,
𝜃 =angle, which the tangent at 𝑂𝑋 makes with the center line 𝑂𝐶,
2 ∝=angle which the two supports A and B make at the centre of the arch O.
𝑅 =radius of the circular arch and,
𝑥, 𝑦 =coordinates of the point X, with reference to the point D, which is middle of the span
AB of the arch.
Since the arch is a circular one, therefore from the geometry of the figure, we find that
𝐴𝑂 = 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑅
𝑙
𝐴𝐷 = 𝐷𝐵 =
2
𝐷𝐶 = 𝑦𝑐
From the given point X, draw XE perpendicular to OC. Then
𝑂𝐸 = 𝑂𝐷 + 𝐷𝐸 = (𝑅 − 𝑦𝑐 ) + 𝑦
𝑋𝐸 = 𝑥
Now, in the right angled triangle OEX, we know that,
𝑂𝑋 2 = 𝑂𝐸 2 + 𝐸𝑋 2
𝑅 2 = [(𝑅 − 𝑦𝑐 ) + 𝑦]2 + 𝑥 2 , this is the required equation that the relation between x and y.
We also know that in a segment of a circle,
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙2
𝑦𝑐 (2𝑅 − 𝑦𝑐 ) = × =
2 2 4
𝑙2
2𝑅 − 𝑦𝑐 =
4𝑦𝑐
𝑙2
2𝑅 = + 𝑦𝑐
4𝑦𝑐
𝑙2 𝑦𝑐
𝑅= +
8𝑦𝑐 2
And in triangle AOD,
𝐵𝐷 𝑙 1 𝑙
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝= = × =
𝐴𝑂 2 𝑅 2𝑅
𝑂𝐷 𝑅 − 𝑦𝑐
𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝= =
𝐵𝑂 𝑅
For a given section X,
𝑥 = 𝑂𝑋𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑦 = 𝑂𝐸 − 𝑂𝐷 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝= 𝑅(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝)
4.2.3 HORIZONTAL THRUST IN A THREE HINGED ARCH
The arches having hinged supports, at their two ends and also having a third hinge
anywhere between the two ends are known as three hinged arches. The third hinge is
usually placed at the crown of the arch. Since no bending moment can exist at the hinges,
therefore the line of thrust in a three hinge arch must pass through the three hinges. The
reaction at the two ends have both horizontal and vertical components when an arch is
subjected to vertical loads only. The horizontal components at the two supports will be
equal and opposite. When the two ends of an arch are at the same level, the two vertical
reactions RA and RB may be found out in the same way as a simply supported beam.
Let 𝑙 =span of the arch
𝑦𝑐 =central rise of the arch
𝐻 =horizontal thrust of the arch,
A simple calculation will show that the bending moment at the crown of the arch,
𝑀𝑐 = 𝜇𝑐 − 𝐻𝑦𝑐
𝜇𝑐 =beam moment at c due to loading (by considering the arch as a simply supported
beam of span l)
𝐻𝑦𝑐 =moment due to the horizontal thrust.
Since the arch is hinged at its crown and the bending moment at the crown will be zero,
then
𝜇𝑐 − 𝐻𝑦𝑐 = 0
𝜇𝑐 = 𝐻𝑦𝑐
𝜇𝑐
𝐻=
𝑦𝑐
This is the required equation for the horizontal thrust on an arch
Examples
1.A three hinged parabolic arch of span 40m and rise 10m is carrying a Uniformly
Distributed Load as shown below. Find the horizontal thrust at the springings.
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0; 𝑉𝐵 × 40 − 30 × 20 × 10 = 0
40𝑉𝐵 = 6000
𝑉𝐵 = 150𝑘𝑁
The beam moment at point C due to external loading,
𝜇𝑐 = 𝑉𝐵 × 20 = 150 × 20 = 3000𝑘𝑁
𝜇𝑐 3000
𝐻= = = 300𝑘𝑁
𝑦𝑐 10
2. A three hinged circular arch of span 21m has a rise of 4m. The arch is loaded with a
point load of 80kN at a horizontal distance 6m from the left support. Determine the
horizontal thrust, the two reactions and bending moment under the load.
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0; 𝑉𝐵 × 21 − 80 × 6 = 0
21𝑉𝐵 = 480
𝑉𝐵 = 22.86𝑘𝑁
𝑉𝐴 = 80 − 22.86 = 57.14𝑘𝑁
21
𝜇𝑐 = 𝑉𝐵 ×
2
𝜇𝑐 = 22.86 × 10.5 = 240𝑘𝑁
𝜇𝑐 240
𝐻= = = 60𝑘𝑁
𝑦𝑐 4
𝑅𝐴 = √𝑉𝐴2 + 𝐻 2
𝑅𝐴 = √57.142 + 602
𝑅𝐴 = 82.86𝑘𝑁
𝑅𝐵 = √𝑉𝐵2 + 𝐻 2
𝑅𝐵 = √22.862 + 602
𝑅𝐵 = 64.21𝑘𝑁
𝑙2 𝑦𝑐
𝑅= +
8𝑦𝐶 2
212 4
= + = 15.78𝑚
8×4 2
From the geometry of the figure ODB, we find that
𝐷𝐵 10.5
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = = = 0.6654
𝑂𝐵 15.78
∝= 41°42′
Similarly from the figure OXE, we find that
𝑋𝐸 10.5 − 6 4.5
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = = = = 0.2866
𝑂𝑋 15.78 15.78
𝜃 = 16°39′
Rise of the arch under the load,
𝑦 = 𝑅(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝)
= 15.78(𝑐𝑜𝑠16°39′ − 𝑐𝑜𝑠41°42′)
= 15.78(0.9581 − 0.7464)
= 15.78 × 0.2117 = 3.34𝑚
Bending moment at X,
𝑀𝑋 = (𝑉𝐴 × 6) − (𝐻 × 3.34)
= (57.14 × 6) − (60 × 3.34) = 142.44𝑘𝑁𝑚
3. A three hinged parabolic arch of span 20m has a rise of 5m. The arch is loaded with a
point load of 200kN at a horizontal distance 6m from the left support. Determine the
horizontal thrust and the two reactions under the load. Draw the bending moment diagram
and indicate the position of maximum bending moment.
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0; 𝑉𝐵 × 20 − 200 × 6 = 0
20𝑉𝐵 = 1200
𝑉𝐴 = 200 − 60 = 140𝑘𝑁
𝜇𝑐 = 𝑉𝐵 × 10 = 600𝑘𝑁𝑚
600
𝐻= = 120𝑘𝑁
5
𝑅𝐴 = √𝑉𝐴2 + 𝐻 2
𝑅𝐴 = √1402 + 1202
𝑅𝐴 = 184.4𝑘𝑁
𝑅𝐵 = √𝑉𝐵2 + 𝐻 2
𝑅𝐵 = √602 + 1202
𝑅𝐵 = 134.2𝑘𝑁
Position of maximum bending moment
i. Draw the arch ACB with the given span and rise
ii. Since the bending moment at A, B and C is zero, therefore join B and C and extend
the line.
iii. Draw a vertical line through D, meeting the line BC at E.
iv. Join AE.
Now, AEB is the required bending moment diagram. From the bending moment diagram
we see that the maximum positive bending moment takes place under the load. Rise of the
arch at D,
4𝑦𝑐 4×5 6 × 14
𝑦= ∙ 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) = × 6(20 − 6) = = 4.2𝑚
𝑙2 202 20
Therefore the maximum moment at D,
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝑉𝐴 × 6) − (𝐻 × 4.2)
= (140 × 6) − (120 × 3.34) = 336𝑘𝑁𝑚
From the bending moment diagram, we also see that the maximum negative bending
moment occurs at the section CB. Let the maximum negative bending moment take place
at the distance x from B. we know that rise of x from B.
4𝑦𝑐 4×5
𝑦= 2
∙ 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) = × 𝑥(20 − 𝑥)
𝑙 202
𝑥 𝑥2
= (20 − 𝑥) = 𝑥 −
20 20
Therefore bending moment at a distance x from B,
𝑥2
𝑀𝑋 = 𝑉𝐵 𝑥 − 𝐻𝑦 = 60𝑥 − 120 (𝑥 − )
20
= 60𝑥 − 120𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 = 6𝑥 2 − 60𝑥
Now, for maximum bending moment, we differentiate the above equation with respect to x
and equate to zero.
𝑑(6𝑥 2 − 60𝑥)
=0
𝑑𝑥
12𝑥 − 60 = 0
𝑥=5
Therefore the rise at a distance 5m from B,
4𝑦𝑐 4×5 5 × 15
𝑦= ∙ 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) = × 5(20 − 5) = = 3.75𝑚
𝑙2 202 20
Bending moment at 5m from B,
𝑀𝑋 = (𝑉𝐵 × 𝑥) − (𝐻 × 𝑦) = (60 × 5) − (120 × 3.75)
= −150𝑘𝑁𝑚
4. A parabolic three pinned arch has a span of 20m and a central rise of 4m. it is loaded
with a uniformly distributed load of 20kN/m for a length of 8m from the left hand support.
Draw the bending moment diagram for the arch and find the position of maximum bending
moment over the arch.
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0; 𝑉𝐵 × 20 − 20 × 8 × 4 = 0
20𝑉𝐵 = 640
𝑉𝐴 = (20 × 8) − 32 = 128𝑘𝑁
𝜇𝑐 = 𝑉𝐵 × 10 = 320𝑘𝑁𝑚
320
𝐻= = 80𝑘𝑁
4
Maximum positive bending moment
i. Draw the arch ACB with the given span and rise.
ii. Since the bending at A, B and C is zero, therefore join B and C and extend it to E
such that the horizontal distance from E to A is 8m.
iii. Now draw a parabolic curve AFE, after locating the point E.
From the bending moment diagram, we also see that the maximum positive bending
moment occurs at the section AD. Let the maximum positive bending moment take place
at the distance x from A. we know that rise of x from A.
4𝑦𝑐 4×4
𝑦= 2
∙ 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) = × 𝑥(20 − 𝑥)
𝑙 202
𝑥 4𝑥 𝑥 2
= (20 − 𝑥) = −
25 5 25
Therefore bending moment at a distance x from A,
𝑥 4𝑥 𝑥 2
𝑀𝑋 = 𝑉𝐴 𝑥 − (20𝑥 × ) − 𝐻𝑦 = 128𝑥 − 10𝑥 2 − 80 ( − )
2 5 25
16𝑥 2 34𝑥 2
= 128𝑥 − 10𝑥 2 − 64𝑥 + = 64𝑥 −
5 5
and equate to zero.
𝑑 34𝑥 2
(64𝑥 − )=0
𝑑𝑥 5
68𝑥
64 − =0
5
𝑥 = 4.7𝑚
Therefore the rise at a distance 4.7m from B,
4𝑦𝑐 4×4
𝑦= 2
∙ 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) = × 4.7(20 − 4.7) = 2.88𝑚
𝑙 202
Maximum bending moment at 4.7m from A,
20 × 4.72
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝑉𝐴 × 𝑥) − − (𝐻 × 𝑦) = (128 × 4.7) − (10 × 4.72 ) − (120 × 3.75)
2
= 601.6 − 220.9 − 230.4
= 150.3𝑘𝑁𝑚
From the bending moment diagram, we also see that the maximum negative bending
moment occurs at the section CB. Let the maximum negative bending moment take place
at the distance x from B. we know that rise of x from B.
4𝑦𝑐 4×4
𝑦= 2
∙ 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) = × 𝑥(20 − 𝑥)
𝑙 202
𝑥 4𝑥 𝑥 2
= (20 − 𝑥) = −
25 5 25
Therefore bending moment at a distance x from B,
4𝑥 𝑥 2
𝑀𝑋 = 𝑉𝐵 𝑥 − 𝐻𝑦 = 32𝑥 − 80 ( − )
5 25
16𝑥 2 16𝑥 2
= 32𝑥 − 64𝑥 + = − 32𝑥
5 5
and equate to zero.
𝑑 16𝑥 2
( − 32𝑥) = 0
𝑑𝑥 5
32𝑥
− 32 = 0
5
𝑥 = 5𝑚
Therefore the rise at a distance 5m from B,
4𝑦𝑐 4×4 5 × 15 × 16
𝑦= 2
∙ 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) = 2
× 5(20 − 5) = = 3𝑚
𝑙 20 20 × 20
Bending moment at 5m from B,
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝑉𝐵 × 𝑥) − (𝐻 × 𝑦) = (32 × 5) − (80 × 3)
= −80𝑘𝑁𝑚
4.2.4 EXERCISE
1. A three hinged parabolic arch of span 20m has a rise of 3m. The arch is loaded with a point
load of 100kN at a horizontal distance 7.5m from the left support. Determine the horizontal
thrust and the two reactions under the load and bending moment at a point 7.5m from the
right support.
Ans. 125kN, 93.8kNm
2. A three hinged parabolic arch of span 𝑙 and central rise 𝑦𝑐 carries a uniformly
distributed load of 𝑤 per unit length over the left half of the span. Show that the
𝑤𝑙2
maximum positive bending moment is equal to 64 .
3. A three hinged parabolic arch of span 84m has a rise of 18m. The arch is loaded
with a uniformly distributed load of 20kN/m over a 1/3 of the span from the left
support. Calculate the bending moment at the quarter span point.
Ans. 2450kNm, -980kNm
4. A three hinged circular arch of span 25m has a rise of 5m. The arch is loaded with
a point load of 100kN at a horizontal distance 7.5m from the left support.
Determine the horizontal thrust and the bending moment under the load.
Ans. 75kN, 202.5kNm
Note: More on Arches will be treated in CVEN 302
5.0 Stability of Gravity Section
Prepared by: Engr. Yakubu Kasimu Galadima

Retaining structures are structures designed to retain back soil, liquids or other materials. There are
many types of retaining structures. However, from the point of view of the source from which the
retaining structure achieve stability, retaining structures are generally categorised as gravity and
non-gravity types.
The gravity type retaining structures derive their stability utilising their self-weight while in the
case of the non-gravity structures, stability is achieved by factors other than the self-weight.
Further discussion on retaining wall in this text will be restricted to stability analysis of gravity
type retaining structures. Gravity retaining wall can fail in three different ways. Sliding, Toppling,
and soil bearing capacity failure. Again, in this section, we will look at the first two ways only.
Figure 5-1
5.1 SLIDING
The retaining wall can slide. This is called a sliding failure. The example is below; the retaining
wall will fail if the Force is less than the resultant Vertical Force. The Factor of Safety (𝐹𝑜𝑆) is
given by
𝐹𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟
(𝐹𝑜𝑆) =
𝐹
Where:
𝐹𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 is the resistance against sliding due to the weight of the dam, and
𝐹 is the resultant horizontal earth pressure.
The resistance against sliding 𝐹𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 is obtained from
𝐹𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 = 𝑊 × 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝛿)
where
𝑊 = weight of the retaining wall
𝛿 = friction angle between concrete and soil
5.2 OVERTURNING
In the case of the stability of the section against overturning, the retaining wall will fail if the
overturning moment (𝐹 (ℎ/3)) is greater than the resisting moment (𝑊 × 𝑥). The Factor of
Safety (𝐹𝑜𝑆) against overturning is given by
(3 × 𝑊 × 𝑥)
(𝐹𝑜𝑆) =
(𝐹 × ℎ)
Where:
𝑥 =distance from Point 𝐴 to the center of gravity of the dam
Example 1
A gravity retaining wall with sand backfill and no groundwater has a heightℎ of 10𝑚. The weight
of the retaining wall is 2400 𝑘𝑁 for a meter length of the wall and the weight acts at a distance of
4𝑚 from the tow of point A. The friction angle of the soil backfill is 30𝑜 . The soil backfill mainly
consists of sandy soil. The density of the soil is 980 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3. The friction angle between the soil
and earth at the bottom of the retaining wall was found to be 20o. Find the factor of safety for the
retaining wall shown above.
Figure 5-2
Solution
Step 1: Calculate 𝐾𝑎 .
𝐾𝑎 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45 – 𝜑/2) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45 – 30/2) = 0 .33
Step 2: Calculate the horizontal effective stress.
𝜎 = 𝐾𝑎 𝛾ℎ = 0.33 × 980 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 × 10𝑚 × 10 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 = 32340 𝑁⁄𝑚2 = 32 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2
Step 3: Find the resultant earth pressure
ℎ
𝐹 = 𝜎 × ( ) = 32 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2 × (10𝑚/2) = 160𝑘𝑁 per meter of wall
2
Step 4: Find the resistance against sliding at the base.
𝐹𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 = 𝑊 × 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝛿) = 2400𝑘𝑁/𝑚 × 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (20) = 873.5𝑘𝑁 per meter of wall
Step 5: Find the Factor of safety for Sliding(𝐹𝑜𝑆)𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 .
𝐹𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 873.5
(𝐹𝑜𝑆)𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = = 5.5
𝐹 160
Step 6: Find the resisting Moment 𝑀𝑟 against overturning.
𝑀𝑟 = 𝑊 × 𝑥 = 2400𝑘𝑁 × 4𝑚 = 9600𝑘𝑁𝑚
Step 7: Find the overturning moment𝑀𝑜 :
𝐹 × ℎ 160𝑘𝑁 × 10𝑚
𝑀𝑜 = = = 533𝑘𝑁𝑚
3 3
Step 8: Find the Factor of Safety against overturning (𝐹𝑜𝑆)𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 :
𝑀𝑟 9600
(𝐹𝑜𝑆)𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = 18
𝑀𝑜 533
So the concern limiting Factor of Safety is the sliding failure which is 5.5. This is still acceptable.
5.2.1 STRESS ANALYSIS
Consider a unit length of a rectangular dam, retaining water on one of its vertical sides, as shown in
Figure 5-3
Figure 5-3
Let
𝑏 =width of the dam
𝐻 =height of the dam
ℎ =height of water retained by the dam
𝜌 =specific weight of the dam masonry
𝑤 =specific weight of water
The weight of dam per unit length is
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑔. 𝑏ℎ
The weight 𝑊 will act through the center of gravity of the dam section. Also, the intensity of the
water pressure is zero at the water surface and increases by a straight line law to 𝑤ℎ at the bottom.
Thus the average intensity of pressure on the exposed face of the dam is equal to
𝑤ℎ
2
Therefore, the total pressure on a unit length of the dam is
𝑤ℎ 𝑤ℎ2
𝑃= ×ℎ =
2 2
This water pressure 𝑃 will act at a height of ℎ⁄3 from the bottom of the dam as shown in fig. the
resultant of water pressure 𝑃 and the weight of the dam 𝑊 are related by
𝑅 = √𝑃2 + 𝑊 2
Let 𝑥 be the horizontal distance between the center of gravity of the dam and the point through
which the resultant 𝑅 cuts the base (i.e. the distance 𝐽𝐾 in Figure 5-3). From similar triangles 𝐿𝑀𝑁
and 𝐿𝐽, we see that
𝐽𝐾 𝑁𝑀
=
𝐿𝐽 𝐿𝑁
𝑥 𝑃 𝑃ℎ
∴ = ⟹ 𝑥=
ℎ⁄ 𝑊 3𝑊
3
The distance 𝑑 between the toe of the dam 𝐴 and the point where the resultant 𝑅 cuts the base is
given by
𝑏 𝑏 𝑃ℎ
𝑑 = 𝐴𝐾 = 𝐴𝐽 + 𝐽𝐾 = +𝑥 = +( )
2 2 3𝑊
The eccentricity 𝑒 of the resultant is given by
𝑏
𝑒=𝑑−
2
This eccentricity will induce a moment on the dam which in turn will induce bending stress at the
base section of the dam. The magnitude of this moment is
𝑀 =𝑊×𝑒
The moment 𝑀 is related to the dam section properties through the relation
𝑀 𝑝𝑏
=
𝐼 𝑦
Where
𝑦 = the distance between the center of gravity of the base section and the extreme fiber of the base
𝑏
(= 2 in this case).
𝑝𝑏 =bending stress in the fiber at a distance 𝑦 from the center of gravity of the base section, and
𝑏2
𝐼= is the moment of inertia of the base section about the center of gravity. Thus
12
6𝑊𝑒
𝑝𝑏 =
𝑏2
Now the distribution of direct stress 𝑝𝑜 due to the weight 𝑊of the dam at the base is
𝑊
𝑝𝑜 =
𝑏
A careful examination will reveal that the maximum stress at the base will occur at 𝐵 while the
minimum stress will occur at 𝐴, hence
𝑊 6𝑒
𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑝𝑜 + 𝑝𝑏 = (1 + )
𝑏 𝑏
𝑊 6𝑒
𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑝𝑜 − 𝑝𝑏 = (1 − )
𝑏 𝑏

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available for students taking CVEN 201

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Prepared by: Engr. Ibrahim Aliyu

A structure is a combination of members connected together in such a way to serve a useful

1.1 TYPES OF STRUCTURES

i. Beam. A beam is a flexure member of the structure. It is subjected to transverse loading

Fig 5bA suspension Cable

1.3 CONCEPT OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

1.3.1 STRUCTURAL LOAD

1.3.2 TYPES OF STRUCTURAL (OR STRUCTURAL MEMBER) LOADING

i. Concentrated load (point load):A concentrated load is a force applied at a single

a. Uniformly distributed load;

1.3.4 TYPES OF SUPPORTS

ii. Pinned Supports.: Providing two mutually perpendicular restrains.

1.3.5 STABILITY AND DETERMINACY OF FRAMEWORKS;

Fig 14 Examples of internally unstable structures

1.4 STATIC DETERMINACY AND INDETERMINACY OF FRAMEWORKS

External Redundant≡ numberof reactions in excess of thosenecessary for equilibrium,referred to

For Several Interconnected Rigid Structures:

R < 3+C Structure is statically unstable externally

R = 3+C Structure may be statically determinate externally

R > 3+C Structure is statically indeterminate externally

C ≡ number equations ofconditions

ID = R - (3 + C)≡ degree of external indeterminacy

For Single Rigid Structure:

R < 3 Structure is statically unstable externally

R > 3 Structure is statically indeterminate externally,

R ≡number of support reactions

Fig 16 Example of Externally Statically Determinate Plane Structures

1.4.2 PIN JOINTED FRAMES (TRUSSES)

Where m is the number of members and n number of nodes

e.g in the case above

Fig 20 Unstable Pin Jointed frames (Trusses)

Σ (number of members+support reactions)=(m+r)=(2n−3)+3=2n

The degree of indeterminacy ID=(m+r)−2n

Examples:Determine the determinacy or otherwise of the frames shown below.

Σthe vertical forces Fy =0;

Σthe horizontal forces Fx =0;

Σthe moments M = 0,Making 3×n= 3n equations

The degree of indeterminacy 𝑰𝑫 = [(𝟑𝒎) + 𝒓] − 𝟑𝒏

i.e. Statically indeterminate to degree 1

The structure is statically determinate.

Fig Typicall Roof Trusses

NOTE; For Truss Analysis, it is assumed that

 Bars are pin-connected.

1.5.1 METHOD OF SECTIONS FOR TRUSS ANALYSIS

SIGN CONVENTION: For the purpose of this part of the course.

 Clockwise moments are Positive (+ve) and Anticlockwise moments (-ve)

Apply the three equations of static equilibrium to the force system:

1.5.3 SIMPLE GUIDELINES FOR THIS METHOD

 Firstly draw the Free Body Diagram (FBD),

FigureXX. Force polygon for the truss of Example 1

FAE, = +1 .59 kN (Tension)

FBE,= +0.87 kN(Tension)

FBC= - 2.03 kN(Compression)

FDC, = - 3.75 kN (Compression),

FDE= +1.88 kN(Tension)

FCE= +0.29 kN (Tension)

EXAMPLE 2: Determine the member forces in the truss shown.

Force polygon for Example 2

From the force polygon

FBH = - 6.7KN (Compression)