Chapter 3

VECTOR CALCULUS
No man really becomes a fool until he stops asking questions.
—CHARLES P. STEINMETZ

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 1 is mainly on vector addition, subtraction, and multiplication in Cartesian coordi-

nates, and Chapter 2 extends all these to other coordinate systems. This chapter deals with
vector calculus—integration and differentiation of vectors.
The concepts introduced in this chapter provide a convenient language for expressing
certain fundamental ideas in electromagnetics or mathematics in general. A student may
feel uneasy about these concepts at first—not seeing "what good" they are. Such a student
is advised to concentrate simply on learning the mathematical techniques and to wait for
their applications in subsequent chapters.

J.2 DIFFERENTIAL LENGTH, AREA, AND VOLUME

Differential elements in length, area, and volume are useful in vector calculus. They are
defined in the Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical coordinate systems.

A. Cartesian Coordinates
From Figure 3.1, we notice that

(1) Differential displacement is given by

d\ = dx ax + dy ay + dz az (3.1)

53
54 Vector Calculus

Figure 3.1 Differential elements in the

right-handed Cartesian coordinate system.

•A-

(2) Differential normal area is given by

dS = dy dz a*
dxdz av (3.2)
dzdy a,

and illustrated in Figure 3.2.

(3) Differential volume is given by

dv = dx dy dz (3.3)

dy iaz

dz <

a^ dy

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.2 Differential normal areas in Cartesian coordinates:

(a) dS = dy dz a^, (b) dS = dxdz ay, (c) dS = dx dy a,
 3.2 DIFFERENTIAL LENGTH, AREA, AND VOLUME 55

These differential elements are very important as they will be referred to again and
again throughout the book. The student is encouraged not to memorize them, however, but
to learn to derive them from Figure 3.1. Notice from eqs. (3.1) to (3.3) that d\ and dS are
vectors whereas dv is a scalar. Observe from Figure 3.1 that if we move from point P to Q
(or Q to P), for example, d\ = dy ay because we are moving in the y-direction and if we
move from Q to S (or S to Q), d\ = dy ay + dz az because we have to move dy along y, dz
along z, and dx = 0 (no movement along x). Similarly, to move from D to Q would mean
that dl = dxax + dyay + dz az.
The way dS is denned is important. The differential surface (or area) element dS may
generally be defined as
dS = dSan (3.4)

where dS is the area of the surface element and an is a unit vector normal to the surface dS
(and directed away from the volume if dS is part of the surface describing a volume). If we
consider surface ABCD in Figure 3.1, for example, dS = dydzax whereas for surface
PQRS, dS = -dy dz ax because an = -ax is normal to PQRS.
What we have to remember at all times about differential elements is d\ and how to
get dS and dv from it. Once d\ is remembered, dS and dv can easily be found. For example,
dS along ax can be obtained from d\ in eq. (3.1) by multiplying the components of d\ along
a^, and az; that is, dy dz ax. Similarly, dS along az is the product of the components of d\
along ax and ay; that is dx dy az. Also, dv can be obtained from d\ as the product of the three
components of dl; that is, dx dy dz. The idea developed here for Cartesian coordinates will
now be extended to other coordinate systems.

B. Cylindrical Coordinates
Notice from Figure 3.3 that in cylindrical coordinates, differential elements can be found
as follows:

(1) Differential displacement is given by

dl = dpap + p dcj> a 0 + dz a z (3.5)

(2) Differential normal area is given by

dS = p d<j> dz ap
dp dz a^ (3.6)
p d4> dp az

and illustrated in Figure 3.4.

(3) Differential volume is given by

dv = p dp dcf> dz (3.7)
56 Vector Calculus

Figure 3.3 Differential elements in

cylindrical coordinates.
dp
1

-dz

z
pd<t>

As mentioned in the previous section on Cartesian coordinates, we only need to re-

member dl; dS and dv can easily be obtained from dl. For example, dS along az is the
product of the components of dl along ap and a^; that is, dp p d<f> az. Also dv is the product
of the three components of dl; that is, dp p d<j> dz.

C. Spherical Coordinates
From Figure 3.5, we notice that in spherical coordinates,

(1) The differential displacement is

dl = drar + rdd ae + r sin 0 d<f> a 0 (3.8)

(b) (c)

~-y

Figure 3.4 Differential normal areas in cylindrical coordinates:

(a) dS = pd<j> dz ap, (b) dS = dp dz a^, (c) dS = p d<f> dp az
 3.2 DIFFERENTIAL LENGTH, AREA, AND VOLUME 57

Figure 3.5 Differential elements

in the spherical coordinate system.

pd<(> = r s i n 6 d<j>

(2) The differential normal area is

dS = r2 sin 6 d6 d<f> a r
r sin 6 dr d<j> a# (3.9)
r dr dd aA

and illustrated in Figure 3.6.

(3) The differential volume is

dv = r2 sind drdd. (3.10)

r sin 0,1 •'' r sin 6dcf>

ar

\ / \ /dr
r,in '
ae r
(a) (b) (c)

w.

Figure 3.6 Differential normal areas in spherical coordinates:

(a) dS = r2 sin 0 dO d<j> ar, (b) dS = r sin 0 dr d<j> a^,
(c) dS = rdr dd a^,