ANTILOCK BRAKING SYSTEMS

A SEMINAR REPORT
SUBMITTED BY

RAGURAM R
in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree
of
MASTER OF ENGINEERING
in
AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies

(VISTAS)

CHENNAI 600117

APRIL 2023

i
DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

ii
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this Seminar ANTILOCK BRAKING SYSTEMS is the bonafide work of
RAGURAM R who carried out the Seminar under my supervision.

TECHNICAL SEMINAR II INCHARGE HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

DR.M.RUBAN, M.E PH.D DR. L.KARIKALAN, M.E PH.D
ASST. PROFESSOR PROFESSOR / HEAD
AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
VISTAS VISTAS
PALLAVARAM PALLAVARAM
CHENNAI-117 CHENNAI-117

Submitted for the Technical Seminar II held on .

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

iii
ABSTRACT

Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS) are designed to maintain driver control and

stability of the car during emergency braking. Locked wheels will slow a car down but

will not provide steering ability. ABS allows maximum braking to be applied while

retaining the ability to 'steer out of trouble'

The theory behind anti-lock brakes is simple. A skidding wheel (where the

tire contact patch is sliding relative to the road) has less traction than a non-skidding

wheel. By keeping the wheels from skidding while you slow down, anti-lock brakes

benefit you in two ways: You'll stop faster, and you'll be able to steer while you stop.

An ABS system monitors four wheel speed sensors to evaluate wheel slippage.

Slip can be determined by calculating the ratio of wheel speed to vehicle speed, which

is continuously calculated from the four individual wheel speeds. During a braking

event, the function of the control system is to maintain maximum possible wheel grip

on the road - without the wheel locking - by adjusting the hydraulic fluid pressure to

each brake by way of electronically controlled solenoid valves.

Antilock braking systems are used in modern cars to prevent the wheels from locking

after brakes are applied. The dynamics of the controller needed for antilock braking

system depends on various factors. The vehicle model often is in nonlinear form.

Controller needs to provide a controlled torque necessary to maintain optimum value

of the wheel slip ratio. The slip ratio is represented in terms of vehicle speed and

wheel rotation.

iv
 In present work first of all system dynamic equations are explained and a

slip ratio is expressed in terms of system variables namely vehicle linear velocity and

angular velocity of the wheel. By applying a bias braking force system, response is

obtained using Simulink models. Using the linear control strategies like P - type, PD -

type, PI - type, PID - type the effectiveness of maintaining desired slip ratio is tested.

It is always observed that a steady state error of 10% occurring in all the control

system models.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER.NO TOPIC PAGE.NO

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE II

ABSTRACT III

TABLE OF CONTENTS V

LIST OF FIGURES IX

LIST OF TABLES X

1 INTRODUCTION 1

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 3

3 WHAT IS ABS 6

4 HISTORY OF ABS 7

5 NEED FOR ABS 8

6 IMPORTANCE OF ANTILOCK

BRAKING SYSTEM 9

6.1 STOPPING DISTANCE 9

6.2 STABILITY 10

6.3 STEERABILITY 10

7 MAJOR SYSTEMS OF ABS 11

7.1 WHEEL SPEED SENSORS 13

7.2 ELECTRONIC CONTROL UNIT 13

vi
CHAPTER.NO TOPIC PAGE.NO

7.3 HYDRAULIC PRTESSURE

MODULATOR 14

7.4 PUMPS 15

8 CONCEPT OF ABS 17

9 HOW ABS WORKS 18

9.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

SIMPLE BRAKING STSTEM 21

9.1.1 HYDRAULIC BRAKING 21

SYSTEM

9.1.2 MASTER CYLINDER 22

9.1.3 PRINCIPLE OF ABS 23

9.1.4 PRESSURE MODULATION 23

10 COMPONENTS OF ABS 25

10.1 HYDRAULIC COMPONENTS 25

10.1.1 ACCUMULATOR 25

10.1.2 VALVE ASSEMBLY 25

10.2 BOOSTER PUMP 26

10.2.1 MASTER CYLINDER 26

10.2.2 FLUID ACCUMULATION 26

10.2.3 HYDRAULIC
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 CONTROL UNIT

CHAPTER.NO TOPIC PAGE.NO

10.2.4 MAIN VALVE 26

10.2.5 MODULATOR UNIT 27

10.2.6 SOLENOID VALVES 27

10.2.7 WHEEL CIRCUIT

VALVES 27

10.3 ELECTRICAL\ ELECTRONIC 28

COMPONENTS

10.3.1 ABS CONTROL MODULE 28

10.3.2 BRAKE PEDAL SENSOR 28

10.3.3 PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL 28

SWITCH

10.3.4 RELAYS 29

10.3.5 TOOTHED RING 29

10.3.6 WHEEL SPEED SENSOR 29

11 TYPES OF ANTILOCK BRAKE SYSTEM 30

11.1 FOUR-CHANNEL, 30

FOUR-SENSOR ABS

11.2 THREE-CHANNEL 30

THREE-SENSOR ABS
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CHAPTER.NO TOPIC PAGE.NO

11.3 ONE-CHANNEL, 31

ONE-SENSOR ABS

12 FOUR WHEEL SYSTEMS 32

12.1 OPERATIONS 32

12.2 WORKING 33

12.3FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM OF 34

FOUR CHANNEL ABS

13 ADVANCEMENTS IN ABS 35

13.1 AUTOMATIC TRACTION 35

CONTROL (ATC )

13.2 AUTOMATIC STABILITY CONTROL 37

13.3 VEHICLE USING ABS 39

14 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 40

14.1 ADVANTAGES 40

14.2 DISADVANATGES 40

15 CONCLUSION 42

16 REFERENCES 43

16.1 INTERNET REFERENCES 44

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. NAME OF FIGURE PAGE NO.

5.1 NEED FOR ABS 8

6.1 OUTLINE OF COMPONENTS OF ABS 12

7.1 SCHEME OF ABS 16

8.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OPF ABS 17

8.2 COMPONENTS OF ABS 18

9.1 BRAKE SYSTEM COMPONENTS 21

9.2 INSIDE MASTER CYLINDER 22

9.3 WORKING OF ABS 23

12.1 FOUR WHEEL SYSTEM 33

12.2 FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM OF FOUR

CHANNEL ABS 34

13.1 AUTOMATIC TRACTION CONTROL 36

13.2 AUTOMATIC STABILITY CONTROL 37

13.3 OVER STEER VS UNDER STEER 40

x
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. NAME OF TABLE PAGE NO.

4.1 HISTORY OF ABS 7

9.1 GRAPH ON SLIP RATE VS 24

CO- EFFICIENT OF FRICTION

13.1 VEHICLES USING ABS 39

xi
Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

1. INTRODUCTION

Anti-lock brake systems (ABS) prevent brakes from locking during

braking. Under normal braking conditions the driver controls the brakes. However,

during severe braking or on slippery roadways, when the driver causes the wheels to

approach lockup, the antilock system takes over. ABS modulates the brake line

pressure independent of the pedal force, to bring the wheel speed back to the slip level

range that is necessary for optimal braking performance. An antilock system consists

of wheel speed sensors, a hydraulic modulator, and an electronic control unit. The

ABS has a feedback control system that modulates the brake pressure in response to

wheel deceleration and wheel angular velocity to prevent the controlled wheel from

locking. The system shuts down when the vehicle speed is below a pre-set threshold

Car manufacturers world wide are vying with each other to invent more

reliable gadgets there by coming closer to the dream of the ‘Advanced safety vehicle’

or ‘Ultimate safety vehicle’, on which research and development has been going on

for the past several year. Most of the newer vehicle models offer ABS as either

standard or optional equipment. Wheel lockup during braking causes skidding which

in turn cause a loss of traction and vehicle control. This reduces the steering ability to

change direction. So the car slides out of control. But the road wheel that is still

rotating can be steered. That is what ABS is all about. With such a system, the driver

can brake hard, take the evasive action and still be in control of the vehicle in any road

condition at any speed and under any load. ABS does not reduce stopping distance,

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Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

but compensates the changing traction or tyre loading by preventing wheel lockup.

During panic braking when the wheels are about to lockup, sensors sense that

the wheel has just begun turning slower than others on the vehicle. So they

momentarily reduce braking force on the affected wheel. This prevents sliding of the

wheels on the pavement. When the wheel resumes rolling, full braking force is again

applied. ABS repeats the process until there is no longer any need for modulated

braking. ABS acts faster than any driver could, pumping the brakes several times per

second. Depending on the type of system, ABS adjusts the braking force at each wheel

or set of wheels, whereas a driver’s foot on the brake pedal operates all the brakes at

once in normal braking.

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Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Following literature is surveyed relating to ABS.

 Mirzaeinejad and Mirzaei [1] have applied a predictive approach to design a non-

linear model-based controller for the wheel slip. The integral feedback technique is

also employed to increase the robustness of the designed controller. Therefore, the

control law is developed by minimizing the difference between the predicted and

desired responses of the wheel slip and it’s integral.

 Baslamisliet al. [2] proposed a static-state feedback control algorithm for ABS

control. The robustness of the controller against model uncertainties such as tire

longitudinal force and road adhesion coefficient has been guaranteed through the

satisfaction of a set of linear matrix inequalities. Robustness of the controller

against actuator time delays along with a method for tuning controller gains has

been addressed. Further tuning strategies have been given through a general

robustness analysis, where especially the design conflict imposed by noise rejection

and actuator time delay has been addressed.

 Choi [3] has developed a new continuous wheel slip ABS algorithm. here ABS

algorithm, rule-based control of wheel velocity is reduced to the minimum. Rear

wheels cycles independently through pressure apply, hold, and dump modes, but

the cycling is done by continuous feedback control. While cycling rear wheel

speeds, the wheel peak slips that maximize tire-to-road friction are estimated. From

the estimated peak slips, reference velocities of front wheels are calculated. The

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Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

front wheels are controlled continuously to track the reference velocities. By the

continuous tracking control of front wheels without cycling, braking performance

is maximized.

 Rangelov [4] described the model of a quarter-vehicle and an ABS in

MATLABSIMULINK. In this report, to model the tire characteristics and the

dynamic behavior on a flat as well as an uneven road, the SWIFT-tire model is

employed.

 Sharkawy [5] studied the performance of ABS with variation of weight, friction

coefficient of road, road inclination etc. A self-tuning PID control scheme to

overcome these effects via fuzzy GA is developed; with a control objective to

minimize stopping distance while keeping slip ratio of the tires within the desired

range.

 Poursmad [6] has proposed an adaptive NN- based controller for ABS. The

proposed controller is designed to tackle the drawbacks of feedback linearization

controller for ABS. Topalovet al. [7] proposed a neurofuzzy adaptive control

approach for nonlinear system with model uncertainties, in antilock braking

systems. The control scheme consists of PD controller and an inverse reference

model of the response of controlled system. Its output is used as an error signal by

an online algorithm to update the parameters of a neuro-fuzzy feedback controller.

 Patil and Longoria[8] have used decoupling feature in frictional disk brake

mechanism derived through kinematic analysis of ABS to specify reference

braking torque is presented. Modelling of ABS actuator and control design are

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Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

described.

 Layne et al. [9] have illustrated the fuzzy model reference learning control

(FMRLC). Braking effectiveness when there are transition between icy and wet

road surfaces is studied.

 Huang and Shih [10] have used the fuzzy controller to control the hydraulic

modulator and hence the brake pressure. The performance of controller and

hydraulic modulator are assessed by the hardware in loop (HIL) experiments.

 Onitet al. [11] have proposed a novel strategy for the design of sliding mode

controller (SMC). As velocity of the vehicle changes, the optimum value of the

wheel slip will also alter. Gray predictor is employed to anticipate the future output

of the system.

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Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

3. WHAT IS ABS?

A brake is one of the most important parts of any type of vehicle. Brake is used

to retard or stop a vehicle. Here Kinetic energy transferred into Heat energy. The

kinetic energy increases with the square of the velocity. So, K.E.=1/2mv². An anti-

lock braking system is a safety system that allows the wheels on a motor vehicle to

continue interacting tractively with the road surface as directed by driver steering

inputs while braking, preventing the wheels from locking up (that is, ceasing

rotation) and therefore avoiding skidding. Stopping a car in a hurry on a slippery

road can be very challenging. Anti-lock braking systems (ABS) take a lot of the

challenge out of this sometimes nerve-wracking event. In fact, on slippery surfaces,

even professional drivers can't stop as quickly without ABS as an average driver

can with ABS. An ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases

stopping distances on dry and slippery surfaces for many drivers; however, on

loose surfaces like gravel or snow-covered pavement, an ABS can significantly

increase braking distance, although still improving vehicle control. Since initial

widespread use in production cars, anti-lock braking systems have evolved

considerably. Recent versions not only prevent wheel lock under braking, but also

electronically control the front-to-rear brake bias

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Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

4. HISTORY OF ABS

YEAR ACHEIVEMENT IN ABS

Bosch and Mercedes-Benz
1936
partner - R&D into ABS.
WABCO partners with
1972 Mercedes-Benz developing first
ABS for trucks.
First production-line installation
1978 of ABS into Mercedes and BMW
vehicles
1981 100,000 Bosch ABS installed.
German company Bosch is
awarded a patent for “Apparatus
1984
for preventing lock-braking of
wheels
First ABS installed on US
1985
vehicles.
1986 1M Bosch ABS installed.
Traction control - in conjunction
1987 with ABS - used on passenger
vehicles.
ABS hydraulic unit combined
1989 with standard hydraulic brake
unit.
1992 10M Bosch ABS installed.
Electronic Stability - in
1995 conjunction with ABS and TCS -
for passenger cars.
1999 50M Bosch ABS installed.
4 of 10 new cars on the road are
2000
ABS equipped
2003 100M Bosch ABS installed.
Nowadays: Almost every vehicle has ABS
Table 4.1 : History of ABS

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Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

5. NEED FOR ABS

 Under hard braking, an ideal braking system should:

 Provide the shortest stopping distances on all surfaces.

 Maintain vehicle stability and steer ability.

 Types of ABS Anti-lock braking systems use different schemes depending

on the type of brakes

FIG 5.1 NEED FOR ABS

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 Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

6. IMPORTANCE OF ANTILOCK BRAKING SYSTEMS

The objectives of antilock systems are threefold:

i. to reduce stopping distances,

ii. to improve stability, and

iii. to improve steerability during braking.

These are explained below

6.1 STOPPING DISTANCE

The distance to stop is a function of the mass of the vehicle, the initial velocity,

and the braking force. By maximizing the braking force the stopping distance will be

minimized if all other factors remain constant. However, on all types of surfaces, to a

greater or lesser extent, there exists a peak in fiction coefficient. It follows that by

keeping all of the wheels of a vehicle near the peak, an antilock system can attain

maximum fictional force and, therefore, minimum stopping distance. This objective of

antilock systems however, is tempered by the need for vehicle stability and

steerability.

6.2 STABILITY

Although decelerating and stopping vehicles constitutes a fundamental purpose

of braking systems, maximum friction force may not be desirable in all cases, for

example not if the vehicle is on a so-called p-split surface (asphalt and ice, for

example), such that significantly more braking force is obtainable on one side of the

9
Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

vehicle than on the other side. Applying maximum braking force on both sides will

result in a yaw moment that will tend to pull the vehicle to the high friction side and

contribute to vehicle instability, and forces the operator to make excessive steering

corrections to counteract the yaw moment. If an antilock system can maintain the slip

of both rear wheels at the level where the lower of the two friction coefficients peaks,

then lateral force is reasonably high, though not maximized. This contributes to

stability and is an objective of antilock systems.

6.3 STEERABILITY

Good peak frictional force control is necessary in order to achieve satisfactory

lateral forces and, therefore, satisfactory steerability. Steerability while braking is

important not only for minor course corrections but also for the possibility of steering

around an obstacle.

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Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

7. MAJOR SUB SYSTEMS OF ABS :-

Tyre characteristics play an important role in the braking and steering response of a

vehicle. For ABS-equipped vehicles the tyre performance is of critical significance.

All braking and steering forces must be generated within the small tire contact patch

between the vehicle and the road. Tire traction forces as well as side forces can only

be produced when a difference exists between the speed of the tire circumference and

the speed of the vehicle relative to the road surface. This difference is denoted as slip.

It is common to relate the tire braking force to the tire braking slip. After the peak

value has been reached, increased tire slip causes reduction of tire-road friction

coefficient. ABS has to limit the slip to values below the peak value to prevent wheel

from locking. Tires with a high peak friction point achieve maximum friction at 10 to

20% slip. The optimum slip value decreases as tire-road friction decreases.

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Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

FIG 6.1 OUTLINE OF COMPONENTS OF ABS

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Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

The ABS system consists of the following major subsystems:

7.1 WHEEL-SPEED SENSORS

Electro-magnetic or Hall-effect pulse pickups with toothed wheels mounted

directly on the rotating components of the drivetrain or wheel hubs. As the wheel turns

the toothed wheel (pulse ring) generates an AC voltage at the wheel-speed sensor. The

voltage frequency is directly proportional to the wheel's rotational speed.

7.2 ELECTRONIC CONTROL UNIT (ECU)

The electronic control unit receives, amplifies and filters the sensor signals for

calculating the wheel rotational speed and acceleration. This unit also uses the speeds

of two diagonally opposed wheels to calculate an estimate for the speed of the vehicle.

The slip at each wheel is derived by comparing this reference speed with the speeds of

the individual wheels. The "wheel acceleration" and "wheel slip" signals serve to alert

the ECU to any locking tendency. The microcomputers respond to such an alert by

sending a signal to trigger the pressure control valve solenoids of the pressure

modulator to modulate the brake pressure in the individual wheel-brake cylinders. The

ECU also incorporates a number of features for error recognition for the entire ABS

system (wheel-speed sensors, the ECU itself, pressure-control valves, wiring harness).

The ECU reacts to a recognized defect or error by switching off the malfunctioning

part of the system or shutting down the entire ABS.

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Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

7.3 HYDRAULIC PRESSURE MODULATOR

The hydraulic pressure modulator is an electro-hydraulic device for reducing,

holding, and restoring the pressure of the wheel brakes by manipulating the solenoid

valves in the hydraulic brake system. It forms the hydraulic link between the brake

master cylinder and the wheel-brake cylinders. The hydraulic modulator is mounted in

the engine compartment to minimize the length of the lines to the brake master

cylinder and the wheel-brake cylinders. Depending on the design, this device may

include a pump, motor assembly, accumulator and reservoir

ABS modulator valves regulate the air pressure to the brakes during ABS

action. When not receiving commands from the ECU, the modulator valve allows air

to flow freely and has no effect on the brake pressure. The ECU commands the

modulator valve to either:

 Change the air pressure to the brake chamber, or

 Hold the existing pressure.

However, it cannot automatically apply the brakes, or increase the brake application

pressure above the level applied by the driver.

The modulator valve typically contains two solenoids. The modulator valve and relay

valve may be incorporated into a single unit. The modulator valve may also be

separate, inserted into the service line to the brake chamber(s) after any relay valve,

located as close as practicable to the chamber(s) itself.

When the modulator valve is separate, it has to control more air flow and, therefore,

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Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

includes two larger diaphragm valves which are controlled by the solenoids. It usually

has three ports: the supply port, the delivery port and the exhaust port

 The supply port receives air from a quick release or relay valve.

 The delivery port sends air to the brake chambers.

 The exhaust port vents air from the brake chamber(s).

Typically, when an ECU controlling a separate modulator valve detects impending

wheel lockup, it activates the solenoids to close the supply port and open the exhaust

port. When enough air is vented to prevent wheel lockup, the exhaust valve will close

and the ECU will - depending on the situation - either:

 Keep the supply port closed to maintain existing pressure, or

 Open the supply port to allow brake application pressure to increase and repeat

the cycle.

7.4 PUMPS

The pump in the ABS is used to restore the pressure to the hydraulic brakes

after valves have released it. A signal from the controller will release the valve at the

detection of wheel slip. After a valve release the pressure supplied from the user, the

pump is used to restore a desired amount of pressure to the braking system. The

controller will modulate the pumps status in order to provide the desire amount of

pressure and reduce slipping. A picture of the pumping system 15 is shown in figure

above. Similar to the valves, the major limitation or mode of failure is due to blockage

within the pump. A blockage within the pump will prevent the pump from supplying

the correct pressure to the pumping system

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Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

Fi

ABS Wheel ω Vehicle

ModulatorDynamicsDynamics

Controller

FIG 7.1 Scheme of ABS

Following brakes are generally used in automobiles.

In disk brake, a force is applied to both sides of a rotor and braking action is achieved

through the frictional action of inboard and outboard brake pads against the rotor.

In drum brakes, a force is applied to a pair of brake shoes. A variety of configurations

exists, including 1eading, trailing shoe (simplex), duo-duplex, and duo-servo. Drum

brakes feature high gains compared to disk brakes, but some configurations tend to be

more nonlinear and sensitive to fading.

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Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

8. CONCEPT OF ABS

FIG 8.1 : Block diagram of ABS

The theory behind anti-lock brakes is simple. A skidding wheel (where the tire contact

patch is sliding relative to the road) has less traction than a nonskidding wheel. If the

vehicle have been stuck on ice and if the wheels are spinning then the vehicle have no

traction. This is because the contact patch is sliding relative to the ice. By keeping the

wheels from skidding while you slow down, anti-lock brakes benefit you in two ways:

You'll stop faster, and you'll be able to steer while you stop. Good drivers have always

pumped the brake pedal during panic stops to avoid wheel lock up and the loss of

steering control. ABS simply gets the pumping job done much faster and in much

precise manner than the fastest human foot.

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Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

9. HOW ABS WORKS ?

Fig 8.2 Comparision of ABS

A typical ABS includes a central electronic control unit (ECU), four wheel

speed sensors, and at least two hydraulic valves within the brake hydraulics. The ECU

constantly monitors the rotational speed of each wheel; if it detects a wheel rotating

significantly slower than the others, a condition indicative of impending wheel lock, it

actuates the valves to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel, thus

reducing the braking force on that wheel.

The wheel then turns faster. Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning

significantly faster than the others, brake hydraulic pressure to the wheel is increased

so the braking force is reapplied, slowing down the wheel. This process is repeated

continuously and can be detected by the driver via brake pedal pulsation. Some anti-

1
 Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

lock system can apply or release braking pressure 16 times per second.

The ECU is programmed to disregard differences in wheel rotative speed below

a critical threshold, because when the car is turning, the two wheels towards the centre

of the curve turn slower than the outer two. For this same reason, a differential is used

in virtually all roadgoing vehicles.

If a fault develops in any part of the ABS, a warning light will usually be

illuminated on the vehicle instrument panel, and the ABS will be disabled until the

fault is rectified.

The modern ABS applies individual brake pressure to all four wheels through a

control system of hub-mounted sensors and a dedicated micro-controller. ABS is

offered or comes 19 standard on most road vehicles produced today and is the

foundation for ESC systems, which are rapidly increasing in popularity due to the vast

reduction in price of vehicle electronics over the years.

Modern electronic stability control (ESC or ESP) systems are an evolution of

the ABS concept. Here, a minimum of two additional sensors are added to help the

system work: these are a steering wheel angle sensor, and a gyroscopic sensor. The

theory of operation is simple: when the gyroscopic sensor detects that the direction

taken by the car does not coincide with what the steering wheel sensor reports, the

ESC software will brake the necessary individual wheel(s) (up to three with the most

sophisticated systems), so that the vehicle goes the way the driver intends. The

steering wheel sensor also helps in the operation of Cornering Brake Control (CBC),

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Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

since this will tell the ABS that wheels on the inside of the curve should brake more

than wheels on the outside, and by how much.

The ABS equipment may also be used to implement a traction control

system(TCS) on acceleration of the vehicle. If, when accelerating, the tire loses

traction, the ABS controller can detect the situation and take suitable action so that

traction is regained. More sophisticated versions of this can also control throttle levels

and brakes simultaneously.

 Sensors at each of the four wheels sense the rotation of the wheel

 Too much brake application wheel stop rotating

 Sensors ECU releases brake line pressure wheel turns again.

 then ECU applies pressure again stops the rotation of the wheel releases it

again and so on

 This releasing and re-application or pulsing of brake pressure happens 20-30 times

per second or more.

 This keeps the wheel just at the limit before locking up and skidding no matter

 ABS system can maintain extremely high static pressure and must be disabled

before attempting repairs

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Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

9.1 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF SIMPLE

9.1.1 HYDRAULIC BRAKING SYSTEM.

A simple braking system consists of a master cylinder, and our wheel

cylinders. Every wheel cylinder contains two pistons which move out words when the

hydraulic fluid flows from the master cylinder to the wheel cylinders through the

suitable pipes or lines.

Fig 9.1 Brake system components

Springs are used to hold the brake shoes on all four wheels. When the brake pedal is

pressed the piston in the master cylinder forces the liquid out of the cylinder. This

liquid presses the two pistons in the wheel cylinders outwards. These two pistons push

the brake shoes out words. The brake shoes in turn press against the brake drums; this

stops the brake drum which will be rotating.

When the brake pedal is released the master cylinder is pushed backwords.This is

2
Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

done by a spring fitted in the master cylinder. The springs of the brake shoe brings the

shoes closer. The liquid in the wheel cylinder is pushed outwards through the pipes. It

returns through the pipes to the master cylinder. This is how the hydraulic system of

the four wheels operates

9.1.2 MASTER CYLINDER

Fig 9.2 : inside the

master cylinder

It consists of a reservoir feedhole, bypass port, primary piston, secondary piston. The

liquid in the reservoir flows through bypass port to the master cylinder. When the

pedal is pressed the primary piston moves to the left. When it crosses the bypass port

the liquid is forced along the pipe lines to the wheel cylinders. When the pedal is

released the primary piston is moved backwards .it is the spring, which pushes the

piston back wards. At the same time a partial vacuum is developed in the space

previously occupied by the spring.

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 Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

9.1.3 PRINCIPLES OF ABS

Fig 9.3 working

of ABS

The brakes of vehicle not equipped with ABS will almost immediately lock the

wheels, when the driver suddenly applies the brake. In this case the vehicle slides

rather than rolls to a stop. The skidding and lack of control was caused by the locking

of wheels. The release and reapply of the brake pedal will avoid the locking of the

wheels which in turn avoid the skidding. This is exactly what an antilock braking

system does.

9.1.4 Pressure modulation

When the brake pedal is pumped or pulsed the pressure is quickly applied and released

at the wheels. This is called pressure modulation. Pressure modulation works to

prevent the wheel locking. ABS can modulate the pressure to the brake as often as 15

times per seconds. By modulating the pressure to the brakes the friction between the

tires and the road is maintained and the vehicle is able to come to the controllable

stop.

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 Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

Steering is another important consideration. As long as a tire doesn’t slip it goes only

in the direction in which it is turned. But once it is skid it has little or no directional

stability.

The Maneuverability of the vehicle is reduced if the front wheels are locked and the

stability of the vehicle is reduced if the rear wheels are locked.

ABS precisely controls the slip rate of the wheels to ensure maximum grip

force from the tyre and it there by ensures maneuverability and stability of the vehicle.

ABS control module calculates the slip rate of the wheels based on the vehicle speed

and speed of the wheels, and then it controls the brake fluid pressure to attain the

target slip rate.

FIG 9.4

During ABS operation, the target slip rate can be from 10 to 30%. 0%

slip means the wheel is rolling freely, while 100 % means the wheel is fully locked. A

slip rate of 25 % means the velocity of a wheel is 25 % less than that of a freely rolling
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wheel at the same vehicle speed.

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10.ABS COMPONENTS

Many different ABS are found on today’s vehicles. These designs are varied by their

basic layout, operation and components. The ABS components can be divided into

two categories.

Hydraulic components

Electrical/electronic components

Besides these normal and conventional brake parts are part of the overall brake

system.

10.1 HYDRAULIC COMPONENTS

10.1.1 ACCUMULATOR

An accumulator is used to store hydraulic fluid to maintain high pressure in the brake

system and provide the residual pressure for power assisted braking. Normally the

accumulator is charged with nitrogen gas and is an integral part of the modulator unit.

10.1.2 ANTILOCK HYDRAULIC CONTROL VALVE ASSEMBLY

This assembly controls the release and application of the brake system pressure to the

wheel brake assemblies. It may be of integral type and non integral type. In integral

type the unit is combined with the power boost and master cylinder unit into one

assembly. The non integral type is mounted externally from the master cylinder

/power booster unit and is located between the master cylinder and wheel brake

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assembly. Both types generally contain solenoid valve that control the releasing,

holding and applying of brake system pressure.

10.2 BOOSTER PUMP

The booster pump is an assembly of an electric motor and pump. The booster pump is

used to provide pressurized hydraulic fluid ABS. The pumps motor is controlled by

systems control unit.

10.2.1 BOOSTER/MASTER CYLINDER ASSEMBLY

It is referred as the hydraulic unit, contains the valves and pistons needed to modulate

hydraulic pressure in the wheel circuit during the ABS operations.

10.2.2 FLUID ACCUMULATOR

Different than a pressure accumulator, fluid accumulator temporarily store brake fluid,

that is removed from the wheel brake unit during ABS cycle. This fluid is then used by

pump to build pressure for the brake hydraulic system.

10.2.3 HYDRAULIC CONTROL UNIT

This assembly contains solenoid valve, fluid accumulator, pump and electric motor.

The unit may have one pump and one motor or it have one motor and two pumps.

□10.2.4 MAIN VALVE

This is a two position valve and is also controlled by ABS control module and is open

only in the ABS mode. When open pressurized brake fluid from the booster circuit is

directed into the master circuit to prevent excessive pedal travel.

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10.2.5 MODULATOR UNIT

The modulator unit controls the flow of pressurized brake fluid to the individual wheel

circuits. Normally the modulator is made up of solenoid that open and close valves,

several valves that control flow of fluid to wheel brake units and electrical relays that

activate or deactivate the solenoids through the commands of the control module. This

unit may also be called the hydraulic actuator, hydraulic power unit or the electro

hydraulic control valve.

10.2.6 SOLENOID VALVES

The solenoid valves are located in the modulator unit and are electrically operated by

signals from the control module. The control module switches the solenoids on or off

to increase, decrease, or maintain the hydraulic pressure to the individual wheel units.

10.2.7 WHEEL CIRCUIT VALVES

Two solenoid valves are used to control each circuit or channel. One controls the inlet

valve of the circuit, the controls the outlet valve .the position is determined by the

control module. Outlet valves are normally closed and inlet valves are normally open.

Valves are activated when abs control module switches 12 volts to the circuit

solenoids. During normal driving the circuits are not activated.

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10.3 ELECTRICAL\ ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

10.3.1 ABS CONTROL MODULE

This small computer is normally mounted inside the trunk on the wheel housing,

mounted to the master cylinder or is part of the hydraulic control unit. It monitors

system operation and controls antilock function when needed. The module relies on

input from the wheel speed sensors and feedback from the hydraulic unit to determine

if the abs is operating correctly and to determine when the anti lock mode is required.

10.3.1 BRAKE PEDAL SENSOR

The antilock brake pedal sensor switch is normally closed. When the brake pedal

exceeds the antilock brake pedal sensor switch setting during an antilock stop, the

antilock brake control module senses that the antilock brake pedal sensor switch is

open and grounds the pump motor relay coil. This energizes the relay and turns the

pump motor on. When the pump motor is running, the hydraulic reservoir is filled

with high pressure brake fluid and the brake pedal will be pushed up until antilock

brake pedal sensor switch closes. when the antilock brake pedal sensor switch closes ,

the pump motor is turned off and the brake pedal will drop some with each abs control

cycle until the antilock brake pedal sensor switch opens and the pump motor is turned

on again .this minimizes pedal feedback during abs cycling .

10.3.2 PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL SWITCH

It is located in the modulator unit. This switch sends a signal to the control module

whenever there is an undesirable difference in the hydraulic pressures with in the

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brake system.

10.3.4 RELAYS

Relays are electromagnetic devices used to control a high current circuit with a low

current switching circuit. In abs relays are used to switch motors and solenoids. A low

current signal from the control module energizes the relays that complete the

electrical circuit for the motor or solenoid.

10.3.5 TOOTHED RING

It can be located on an axle shaft, differential gear or a wheels hub. This

ring is used with conjunction with the wheel speed sensor. The ring has a number of

teeth around its circumference. As the ring rotates and each tooth passes by the wheel

speed sensor, an ac voltage signal is generated between the sensor and tooth.

10.3.6 WHEEL SPEED SENSOR

It is mounted near the different toothed ring. As the rings teeth rotate past

the sensor an ac voltage is generated. as the teeth move away from the sensor, the

signal is broken until the next tooth comes close to the sensor .the end result is a

pulsing signal that is sent to the control module. The control module translates the

signal in to wheel speed. The sensor is normally a small coil of wire with a permanent

magnet in its center.

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11. TYPES OF ANTILOCK BRAKE SYSTEMS

One of the classifications of abs is integral and nonintegral type. Integral type

they combine the master cylinder, hydraulic booster and abs hydraulic circuit in to

single hydraulic assembly. In non-integral type they use a conventional vacuum-assist

booster and master cylinder. In addition, they can be classified according to the

control they provide.

Anti-lock braking systems use different schemes depending on the type of brakes

in use. We will refer to them by the number of channels -- that is, how many valves

that are individually controlled -- and the number of speed sensors.

There are mainly three types of ABS.

a) Four-channel, Four-sensor ABS

 This is the best scheme. There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a

separate valve for all four wheels. With this setup, the controller monitors

each wheel individually to make sure it is achieving maximum braking

force.

b) Three-channel, Three-sensor ABS

 This scheme, commonly found on pickup trucks with four-wheel ABS,

has a speed sensor and a valve for each of the front wheels, with one

valve and one sensor for both rear wheels. The speed sensor for the rear

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wheels is located in the rear axle.

 This system provides individual control of the front wheels, so they can

both achieve maximum braking force. The rear wheels, however, are

monitored together; they both have to start to lock up before the ABS will

activate on the rear. With this system, it is possible that one of the rear

wheels will lock during a stop, reducing brake effectiveness.

c) One-channel, One-sensor ABS

 This system is commonly found on pickup trucks with rear-wheel ABS. It

has one valve, which controls both rear wheels, and one speed sensor,

located in the rear axle.

 This system operates the same as the rear end of a three-channel system.

The rear wheels are monitored together and they both have to start to lock

up before the ABS kicks in. In this system it is also possible that one of

the rear wheels will lock, reducing brake effectiveness.

 This system is easy to identify. Usually there will be one brake line going

through a T-fitting to both rear wheels. You can locate the speed sensor

by looking for an electrical connection near the differential on the rear-

axle housing.

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12.FOUR WHEEL SYSTEM

The hydraulic circuit for this type of system is an independent four channel type. One

for each wheel. The hydraulic control unit is a separate unit. Normal braking is

accompanied by conventional vacuum power assist brake system.

The system prevents wheel lock up during an emergency stop by modulating brake

pressure. It allows the driver to maintain steering control and stop the vehicle in the

shortest possible distance under most conditions. During ABS operation the driver will

sense a pulsation in the brake pedal and clicking sound.

12.1 OPERATION

The ABS control module calculates the slip rate of the wheels and control the brake

fluid pressure to attain the target slip rate if the control module senses that the wheel is

about to lock based on input sensor data, it pulses the normally open inlet solenoid

valve closed for that circuit. This prevents any more fluid from entering that circuit.

ABS control module then looks at the sensor signal from the effected wheel again. If

that wheel is still decelerating faster than other three wheels it opens the normally

closed out let solenoid valve for that circuit. This dumps any pressure that is trapped

between the closed inlet valve and the brake back to the master cylinder reservoir.

Once the effected wheel returns to the same speed as the other wheel, the control

module returns the valve to the normal condition allowing fluid flow to the effected

brake.

Based on the input from vehicle speed and the wheel speed sensor, the control module

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Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

calculates the slip rate of each wheel, and transmits a control signal to the modulator

unit solenoid valve when the slip rate is high.

Wheel speed at each wheel is measured by variable reluctance sensors and sensor

indicators. The sensors operate on magnetic induction principles.

As the teeth on brake sensor indicators rotate past the sensors, ac current is generated.

The ac frequency changes in accordance with the wheel speed. The ABS control unit

detects the wheel sensor signal frequency and there by detects wheel speed.

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12.3 FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM OF FOUR CHANNEL ABS

FIG 12.1 : FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM OF FOUR CHANNEL ABS

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13. ADVANCEMENTS IN ABS

Some systems, which work with the ABS, are Automatic traction control and

Automatic stability control, which are discussed below.

13.1 AUTOMATIC TRACTION CONTROL (ATC)

Automatic traction control systems apply the brakes when a drive wheel attempts to

spin and lose traction. The system works best when one drive wheel is working on a

good traction surface and the other is not. The system also works well when the

vehicle is accelerating on slippery road surfaces, especially when climbing hills. ATC

is most helpful on four wheel or all wheel drive vehicles in which loss of traction at

one wheel could hamper driver control.

During road operation the ATC system uses an electronic control module to monitor

the wheel speed sensors. If a wheel enters a loss of traction situation, the module

applies braking force to the wheel in trouble. Loss of traction is identified by

comparing the vehicle speed to the speed of the wheel. If there is a loss of traction the

speed of the wheel will be greater than expected for the particular vehicle speed. ABS

and ATC systems can be integral and uses the common valves.

These systems are designed to reduce wheel slip and maintain traction at the drive

wheels when the road is wet or snow covered. The control module monitors wheel

speed. If during acceleration the module detects drive wheel slip and if brakes are not

applied, the control module enters into the traction control mode. The inlet and outlet

solenoid valves are pulsed and allow the brake to be quickly applied and released.

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FIG 13.1 AUTOMATIC TRACTION CONTROL

In some systems when a loss of traction is sensed, it not only cycles the brakes but

signals the engine control module to retard ignition timing and partially close the

throttle as well, which in turn reduces engine output.

Many systems are equipped with a dash mounted warning light to alert the driver that

the system is operating. There will also be a manual cut off switch so that the driver

can turn off ATC operation.

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13.2 AUTOMATIC STABILITY CONTROL

Like ATC, the stability control systems are linked with the ABS. it can also be

called Electronic Stability Programme (ESP). Stability control systems momentarily

apply the brakes at any one wheel to correct over steer or under steer. The control unit

receives signals from the typical sensors plus a yaw, lateral acceleration (G-force) and

a steering angle sensor.

The system uses the angle of the steering wheel and the speed of the four wheels to

calculate the path chosen by the driver. It then looks at lateral G-forces and vehicle

yaw to measure where the vehicle is going. (Yaw is defined as the natural tendency for

a vehicle to rotate on its vertical center axis). So it is also called Yaw control.

FIG 13.2 : Automatic stability control

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Fig 13.3 Over steer vs Under steer

Under steer is the condition in which the vehicle is slow to respond to steering

changes. Over steer occurs when the rear wheels try to swing around causing the car to

spin. When the system senses under steer in a turn the brake at the inside rear wheel is

applied. During over steer the outside front brake is applied. Relaying on the input

from the sensors and computer programming the system calculates if the vehicle is

going exactly in the same direction in which it is being steered. In case of any

difference between what the driver is asking and what the vehicle is doing, the system

corrects the situation by applying one of the right or left brakes.

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13.3 VEHICLE USING ABS

Table 13.1 vehicles using ABS

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14. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

14.1 ADVANTAGES OF ABS

 It allows the driver to maintain directional stability and control over steering during

braking

 Safe and effective

 Automatically changes the brake fluid pressure at each wheel to maintain optimum

brake performance.

 ABS absorbs the unwanted turbulence shock waves and modulates the pulses thus

permitting the wheel to continue turning under maximum braking pressure.

14.2 DISADVANTAGES

 Stop Times - Anti-lock brakes are made to provide for surer braking in slippery

conditions. However, some drivers report that they find the stopping distances for

regular conditions are lengthened by their ABS system, either because there may be

errors in the system, or because noise of the ABS may contribute to the driver not

braking at the same rate.

 Delicate Systems - It's easy to cause a problem in an ABS system by messing

around with the brakes. Problems include disorientation of the ABS system, where

a compensating brake sensor causes the vehicle to shudder, make loud noise or

generally brake worse. 

 Cost - An ABS can be expensive to maintain. Expensive sensors on each wheel can

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cost hundreds of dollars to fix if they get out of calibration or develop other

problems. For some, this is a big reason to decline an ABS in a vehicle.

 System damage - A variety of factors can cause the system to be less effective,

and can present with everything from shuddering of the vehicle to loud noises

while trying to stop.

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15. CONCLUSION

 ABS has been so far developed to a system, which provides rapid, automatic

braking in response to signs of incipient wheel locking by alternatively increasing

and decreasing hydraulic pressure in the brake line

 Statistics show that approximately 40 % of automobile accidents are due to

skidding. These problems commonly occur on vehicle with conventional brake

system which can be avoided by adding devices called ABS

 If there is an ABS failure, the system will revert to normal brake operation.

Normally the ABS warning light will turn on and let the driver know there is a fault

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16. REFERENCES

 Antilock Brake Control System for Four-Wheel-Drive Electric Vehicle with

Electro-hydraulic Braking based on Precise Control of Hydraulic Braking Force

Paper #:2015-01-1573 ,Published:2015-04-14

 An Investigation Into New ABS Control Strategies ,2016-04-05,Journal Article

2016- 01-1639 ,Jonathan Loyola, Francis Assadian

 Klein, R.: Realisierung einer Fuzzy-ABS-Regelung mit dem Mikrocontroller SAB

80C166 und dem Fuzzy-Coprozessor SAE 81C99A, Project work at the Institute

for Industrial Information Systems, University of Karlsruhe, 1995.

 Automotive technology –Jack erjavec

 Automobile engineering – kirpal Singh

 Daiß, A.: Beobachtung fahrdynamischer Zustände und Verbesserung einer ABS-

und Fahrdynamikregelung, Institute for Industrial Information Systems, University

of Karlsruhe, Ph. D. dissertation, 1996.

 Tianku Fu,“Modelling and performance analysis of ABS system with non-linear

control”, 2000. •

 Tobias Eriksson,“Co-simulation of full vehicle model in Adams and anti-lock

brake system model in Simulink”, 2014

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Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS)

16.1 INTERNET REFERENCE

 http://products.boschmobilitysolutions.com/en/de/specials/specials_safety/bosch_a

bs_1/esp facts_3/marktentwick lung_4/esp_questions_and_answers_9.html

 https://www.slideshare.net/haithamshehata/anti-lock-abs-show-3586238

 www.howstuffworks.com