1.

WITH RELEVANT EXAMPLES, EXAMINE THE SIGNIFANCE STUDYING

HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN INTELLECTUAL FORMATION.

Studying the history of science allows you to have a glimpse into both the history of the world
and into just how we discovered everything we know about the world. Those moments of
discovery may seem anti-climactic to us now, but imagine not having discovered them at all.
Imagine living without that knowledge.

The history of science does matter. Here are ten reasons why I think it does.

1. We learn what the world was like before we had our current understanding. People used
to think the world was flat, and that the stars and the sun revolved around the Earth, and that
earthquakes were messages from the gods. Each bit of our current understanding of science came
gradually, through observation, measurement, and experimentation. Learning how that
understanding came to be helps us also learn about our cultural history.

2. As we learn how other people made new discoveries, we learn new ways of thinking that
might allow us to make our own new discoveries. We see things every day. Tricks of the light,
or strange movements of the ground. We don’t often think enough about why or how those
things happen. Learning about the history of science shows us how other people took input from
nature and made sense of it. Then we can take our own thought exercises to the Nth degree, and
perhaps come up with an original idea.

3. As we learn about the history of science, we learn about great men and women who
thought outside the box and often went against convention. As a refreshing break from the
bombardment of people who are famous just for being famous, learning about formal and
informal scientists helps us learn about great thinkers. People who didn’t strive for the lowest
common denominator. They are often great examples of learning for us and our children.

4. Placing scientific discoveries and advancement in the context of other historical events is
important. By learning such facts as the last year of the American Civil War was also the year
that Gregor Mendel established his laws of inheritance, the basis for genetics, we see history in
context. And major societal upheavals, such as the French Revolution, also encouraged new
ways of scientific thinking.

5. Learning about the history of science is a way to bring history alive for those not given to
the humanities bent. History is often taught as a series of wars, or economic collapses. It’s less
often taught as a series of advancements, discoveries, and positive events. While the history of
science has plenty of backsliding, wrong turns, and dead ends, learning about history in this way
will likely fascinate those who lean toward STEM interests.
6. Learning about science in the context of society at the time helps us understand segments
of history. Learning whether new ideas are welcomed or shunned, built upon or persecuted,
teaches us the different struggles that the scientists went through and support they had.

7. The history of science differs somewhat from conventional history in that it is learning
about other people observing the natural world, instead of chronicling events and trends in
society. This is an important distinction. As time goes on, we question more and more about
what we see. And as time goes on, we develop more tools for measuring and observing the world
in which we live. This creates its own historical timeline.

8. We see how science is influenced by culture. Religion, war, exploration, and necessity all
spur new scientific discoveries, ideas, tools, and rules. Taking to the sea created a need for
navigation at night. Wars allowed for much travel, and explorers and scientists were inspired by
ideas in other cultures.

9. Scientific history is often overlooked. When we learn history, we might learn the
highlights of scientific history, such as Galileo‘s oppression by the Catholic church, or
Newton‘s invention of calculus. (Or was it Leibniz? Or both of them? The world may never
know.) But what does the average person know of Anton van Leeuwenhoek and his
contributions to cell theory? Hopefully, with the new version of Cosmos showing now, with
updated science from Carl Sagan‘s fantastic original, some of the less famous scientists will
become better known.

10. By learning about the history of science, we learn about the scientific revolution, one of
human history’s most important eras. Many other movements in human history, such as the
rise of Christianity, had a lasting effect on society. However, some may argue that the scientific
revolution was and is the most important of all.

2. Discuss the various criteria of science which sets it above pseudo-science.

Science is the pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social
world following a systematic methodology based on evidence. Scientific methodology includes
the following: Objective observation: Measurement and data (possibly although not necessarily
using mathematics as a tool) Evidence.

Pseudo-science- Assertions that do not allow the logical possibility that they can be shown to be
false by observation or physical experiment (See also: Falsifiability). Assertion of claims that a
theory predicts something that it has not been shown to predict.

Over the past years the raising of science bar have been experienced making a huge difference
with pseudo-science. Kwok (1965) summarizes the scientific methods, clinching that they
operate on four fundamental principles or rather criteria.

1. Empirical principle.
 This principle is also known as observation principle, holding that for knowledge to be
considered as a science it must be perceived through the five senses, hearing, and
smelling. Any knowledge that does not meet this criteria is not a science. For instance, a
scientist can experimentally show that hydrogen combines with oxygen at two atoms of
hydrogen to one atom of oxygen. This is symbolized as: 4H + O2 2H2O. Again, For
instance, on October 10, 1846, William Lassell observed Neptune. His powerful
telescope also enabled him to observe a tiny dot, which circled around Neptune every
five days. Pseudo-science tends to appeal to emotions, faith and distrust of science.
2. Quantitative principle.
According to kwok, for knowledge to be a science, it must be quantified as it reduces
vagueness. Quantification aids in assigning values to various variables. Also, it helps in
determining displacement. Kwok concludes that, in science there is no approximating,
scientist gives an exact value. For instance amount of blood.
3. Mechanical principle.
Kwok argues that for knowledge to be a science, it must be able to repeat itself. On an
experiment, same results must be met. The aim of the principle is the formulation of laws
to generate uniformity. Science teaches that when you expose iron to water it results to
rusting. It will rust in all parts of the world. Obeying the criteria of “mechanical”. The
same as the laws of gravity.
4. Cooperative principle
According to kwok, for knowledge to be accepted in science, a group of scientist in a
certain area must meet to approve the new knowledge. In pseudo-science anyone
formulates his conclusion through the application of diverse faith and culture. Scientist in
pseudo do not have to meet to test the truthfulness of facts. This weakness does not meet
the cooperative principle science meeting the cooperative principle, sets it above the
pseudo-science.

6 Sumerian Inventions That Changed the

World
 Diorite statue of Gudea, prince of Lagash (centre); Bill of sale of a field and house, from Shuruppak; c. 2600 BC
Image Credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons; History Hit

In what the Greeks later called Mesopotamia, Sumer, which flourished between c. 4,500-c. 

1,900 BC, was a civilisation responsible for inventing new technologies and developing the
large-scale use of existing ones. Sumerians, who lived in an area situated between the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers in what is known today as southern Iraq, developed technologies that
fundamentally affected how humans cultivated food, built dwellings, kept track of time and
communicated.
Much of their activity was due to their lack of natural resources: the area had few trees and
almost no stone or metal, meaning they had to make ingenious use of materials such as clay for
everything from bricks to writing tablets. Their real genius, however, was likely organisational,
since they had the ability to adapt technologies that had been invented elsewhere and apply them
on a vast scale, which allowed them to trade with neighbouring civilisations.

From the wheel to writing, here are 6 Sumerian inventions that changed the world.

1. Writing

Though not entirely certain, it’s likely that the Sumerians were the first to develop a writing
system. By 2,800 BC, they were using written communication to keep record of the goods they
were making and trading – the earliest records of their texts are simply numbers and
commodities, rather than great works of prose.
Initially, pictographs were used, which were essentially drawings of different objects.
Pictographs then evolved into symbols that stood for words and sounds. Scribes used sharpened
reeds to scratch the symbols into wet clay, which then dried to form tablets. This writing
system became known as cuneiform, which was then borrowed by other civilisations and
used across the Middle East for some 2,000 years and was only replaced during the Roman
era when alphabetical forms were introduced.
 Who were these Near Eastern pioneers forming some of the first urban settlements along the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers? Who were the mysterious people who invented writing? In this episode, Tristan is joined by Dr Paul Collins
from the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, to help unravel the mysteries of the Sumerians and their trailblazing
civilisation.

LISTEN NOW

2. Fabrication of copper

Sumerians were the first to use copper, one of the earliest non-precious metals, as early as 5,000
to 6,000 years ago. In fabricating copper they were able to make arrow heads, razors and
harpoons, and later chisels, vessels and jugs. These expertly-crafted objects helped aid the
significant growth of Mesopotamian cities such as Uruk, Sumer, Ur and al’Ubaid.

It was also the Sumerian people who used copper weapons for the first time, since they invented
swords, spears, maces, slings and clubs for the purpose. Along with their invention of the wheel,
these technologies radicalised the military world.

3. The wheel

The Sumerians were the first to use circular sections of logs as wheels to carry heavy objects by
joining them together and rolling them, with the oldest existing wheel from Mesopotamia dating
to around 3,500 BC.
 A depiction of an onager-drawn cart on the Sumerian “War” panel of the Standard of Ur (c. 2500 BCE)

Image Credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

They didn’t invent wheeled vehicles, but did likely develop the first two-wheeled chariot by
drilling a hole through the frame of the cart to create an axle, which then connected the wheels to
form a chariot. These chariots were most likely used in ceremonies or by the military, or as a
means to get around the rough terrain of the countryside.

4. A counting system

The earliest humans counted using simple methods, such as carving notches into bones.
However, the Sumerians developed a formal number system based upon units of 60 known as the
sexagesimal system, which evolved out of a need to create a trade and taxation policy. A small
clay cone was used to denote 1, a ball for 10 and a large clay cone for 60. An early version of the
abacus was invented by the Sumerians between 2,700 and 2,300 BC. With the development of
cuneiform, vertical marks were used on the clay tablets.

Assigning symbols to large numbers was further necessitated by the night sky, which the
Sumerians tracked in order to prepare the lunar calendar.

5. Monarchy

Sumerians called their land the ‘land of black-headed people’. These people were responsible for
developing the first ruling system of monarchy, since the earliest states required a ruler to govern
the many people who lived across a broad area. Before the monarchical system, priests ruled as
judges of disputes, organizer’s of religious rituals, administrators of trade and military leaders.
Votive relief of Ur-Nanshe, king of Lagash, with his sons and dignitaries. Limestone, Early Dynastic III (2550–2500
BC)

Image Credit: Louvre Museum, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

However, there was a need for legitimate authority, so followed a theory that the monarch was
divinely selected, and later, a divine power themselves. The first confirmed monarch was Etana
of Kish who ruled in around 2,600 BC.

6. Astrology and the lunar calendar

The Sumerians were the first astronomers to map the stars into separate constellations, such as
those which were later observed by the ancient Greeks. They were also responsible for
identifying the five planets visible to the naked eye. They documented the movements of stars
and planets for a variety of reasons. Firstly, they used astrological symbols to predict future
battles and the fortunes of city-states, and also charted their month from the beginning of the
sunset and first crescent of the new moon.

Phases of the moon were also used to create a lunar calendar. Their year consisted of two
seasons, the first of which was the summer which started with the vernal equinox, and the other
was winter which began with the autumn equinox.

Agriculture & Water Irrigation

Iran has been at the helm of agriculture in several ways. To start, Persians were the first to manage to control
the forces of nature and domesticating animals and plants existing in the wild state in the plateau. They also
invented water irrigation methods caled qanat to procure water to divert the flow to where it’s needed.

According to Professor Ernest Hertzfeld and Sir Arthur Keith, the Caspians i.e. the original inhabitants of the
plateau of Iran, were the original agriculturists and that their knowledge of agriculture spread from the Caspian
plateau to the three adjoining alluvial plains which later became the site of early urban civilizations. This theory
was later corroborated by later excavations in Iran. The oldest known qanat is in the city of Gonabad in Iran,
which after 2,700 years still succeeds in providing drinking and agricultural water to people today.

Alcohol
Today, Alcohol is one of the mostly used products in the world. It is used in drinks, foods, and preservatives in
its different states and different compositions. It was first invented by a Persian physician named Muhammad
ibn Zakariya al-Razi. He worked on different gases and chemicals and invented Alcohol.

Algebra
Khwārizmī, a Persian mathematician, invented modern day Algebra, and the word Algorithm, is even an
latinised form of his name. Al-Khwarizmi's Kitab al-mukhtasar fi hisab al-jabr wal-muqabala (The Compendious
Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing) was a pioneering piece of work - offering practical answers
for land distribution, rules on inheritance and distributing salaries.

Architecture
According to Professor Arthur Pope (Persian Architecture), Iran has a continuous history of architecture from at
least 5,000 B.C. to the present, and characteristic examples of this architecture are distributed over a vast area
from Syria to North India and the borders of China, from the Caucasus to Zanzibar.

Astronomy
Historically astronomy has occupied an important position in Persian culture. Many prominent astronomers such
as Biruni and Khayyam in the first half of the 11th century and Tusi in the 13th century have played major roles
in the advancement of astronomy in Iran during their times. Likewise, astronomy schools such as Maragheh
Observatory (13th century) were once among the most prestigious astronomy research institutes in the world.

Backgammon
The popular game of backgammon was first invented in Iran around 3000 BC, making it one of the oldest board
games known in our history. In the modern world, it is played with two players and the playing pieces are moved
according to the roll of the dice. A player wins if he/she is able to remove all of their pieces from the board
before their opponent. Excavations at Shahr-e Sukhteh in Iran found a board game with two dice and 60
checkers. The popularity of backgammon has survived thousands of years in the region as Iranians can still be
found playing the game in public parks and cafes all over the country. The game is today known as “nard” and
has different initial positions and objectives to the ancient game.

Banks
During the Achaemenian period private banks were established. The most famous was Bank of Egibi which
carried on the business of pawn-brokers floating loans and accepting deposits. Its capital was invested in house
property, fields, cattle, and in the boats that carried the merchandise. Current accounts were operated and checks
were in use. Bank of Murashshu and Sons was founded later in Nippur. It held leases, dug canals and sold water
to the farmers, secured monopolies, such as brewing or fisheries which were farmed out at a profit.

Battery
The battery was first designed and made by Persian people. That battery was simple and could produce the
current of 1.5 to 2.0 volts. Although this is a minimal amount of current, yet it was a great invention at that
time. It consisted of three major components; a pot, a metallic rod and a rod used a cell.

The concept was very simple as they used a pot containing an electrolyte and a rod which was used as a cell.
Persian people invented battery, and later on, each civilization worked on its concept to get better results.
Today, we are using batteries in its advanced form in almost every field of our life. We can say that all of the
credit of inventing battery goes to the Persian civilization.

Bricks
Professor Girshman very clearly shows the gradual evolution of molded and baked bricks in different layers of
Siyalk- near Kashan- and by doing so proves beyond the shadow of a doubt that brick was first made in Iran.

Cutlery
According to the Journal of British Institute of Iranian Studies, Volume III published in 1965 in Iran, two very
beautifully proportioned silver spoons were found in 1964 in Iran belonging to the second half of the 5th century
B.C. One spoon has a duck or swan's head handle. The other, a zoomorphic handle ending in a cloven hoof. The
same publication noted that among Achaemenian works of art, other spoons or ladles terminating in swan's
handles had been recovered. Also according to Byzantine and Christian sources, the Iranian nobility in
Sassanian times, had special knives to serve fruit with, and used gold forks and spoons and special gold cups at
their dinner tables.

Early Environmentalists!
From ancient times, Persians have shown great respect for flowers, plants and trees. From times unknown to
present day, Persians have advocated planting trees, and there is even a special Derakht Kari (tree planting) day
when thousands of trees are plated throughout the country. Another sign of the significance of trees in Persian
culture is evidenced in the ruins of Persepolis- the 2,500 year old Achaemenid palace- where numerous flowers
and cypress trees are found in the bas-reliefs throughout the palace.

eBay
eBay is one of the most popular ways to buy and sell goods and services on the internet. eBay was founded by
Iranian-American billionaire entrepreneur, computer scientist, and philanthropist, Pierre Omidyar. He served as
chairman from 1998 to 2015. He became a billionaire at the age of 31 with eBay's 1998 initial public offering.

Gas Masks
An early type of rudimentary gas mask was invented in the 9th century by the Persian Banu Musa Brothers. This
gas mask was designed by the brothers to protect workers working in polluted wells. The device was mentioned
in the book "Book of Ingenious Devices" that describes 100 inventions.

Guitar
Music is heavenly and even in the ancient days various types of musical instruments were used. According to
history, the Persians were very fond of music. One of the many Persian contributions to civilization includes the
Guitar – one of the most popular and widely used musical instruments! The Persian type guitar was called Tar. It
was made using wooden box and strings. It was invented at a time when musical instruments were quite rare.
This is among the top Persian discoveries that was much loved by the monarchs of those days and has influenced
Persian music greatly.

Gloves
Xenophon in his Cyropaedia speaks of Iranians covering their hands with thick leather and their fingers in
frames thereby explaining how he came to know for the first time what Iranians used in order to protect their
hands against cold and frosty winds. This shows that the Greeks did not know what gloves were. Excavations in
Ziwieh in Iran have produced a kind of a glove used as adornment belonging to the 7th century B.C.

Grape Vine and Wine

The laboratory analysis of a 4,500 year old clay pot excavated in the northwestern part of Iran showed that it
was used for storing wine. To date, this is the oldest wine container found. The grape-vine, which is indigenous
to Iran, was introduced to China by Can K'ien in 128 B.C. at the time of the Chinese Emperor Wu (140-87 B.C.).
The introduction of the vine from Iran to China is well attested. The word for wine the Chinese envoy carried
with him to his country was budo, which apparently came from the Persian badeh.

Human Rights
The Cyrus Cylinder has been historically recognised as the the world’s first universal charter of human rights.
Created in 534 BCE, the Cyrus Cylinder is constructed out of clay and inscribed in Akkadian cuneiform script,
and predates the Magna Carta by one millennium. It was discovered in Babylon in 1879, and is now kept in the
British Museum in London.
Modern Medicine
Ibn Sina, a Persian polymath, is often called the father of modern medicine. He wrote the book Canon
medicinae, a medical encyclopedia, which became a standard medical text at many medieval universities and
remained in use as late as 1650, more than 650 years after his death.

4 CONTRIBUTION OF ISLAM AND ISLAMIC SCHOLARS TO THE GROWTH OF SCIENCE.

1 The elephant clock 

This centerpiece of the exhibition is a three-meter-high replica of an early 13th-century water clock and
one of the engineering marvels of the medieval world. It was built by al-Jazari, and gives physical form to
the concept of multiculturalism. It features an Indian elephant, Chinese dragons, a Greek water
mechanism, an Egyptian phoenix, and wooden robots in traditional Arabian attire. The timing
mechanism is based on a water-filled bucket hidden inside the elephant.

2 The camera obscura

The greatest scientist of the medieval world was a 10th century Arab by the name of Ibn Al-Haytham.
Among his many contributions to optics was the first correct explanation of how vision works. He used
the Chinese invention of the camera obscura (or pinhole camera) to show how light travels in straight
lines from the object to form an inverted image on the retina.

3 Al-Idrisi's world maps

This three-metre reproduction of the famous 12th-century map by the Andalusian cartographer, Al-
Idrisi, was produced in Sicily and is regarded as the most elaborate and complete description of the
world made in medieval times. It was used extensively by travelers for several centuries and contained
detailed descriptions of the Christian north as well as the Islamic world, Africa and the Far East.

4 The Banu Musa brothers' "ingenious devices"

These three brothers were celebrated mathematicians and engineers in ninth-century Baghdad. Their
Book of Ingenious Devices, published in 850, was a large illustrated work on mechanical devices that
included automata, puzzles and magic tricks as well as what we would today refer to as "executive toys".

5 Al-Zahrawi's surgical instruments

This array of weird and wonderful devices shows the sort of instruments being used by the 10th-century
surgeon al-Zahrawi, who practised in Cordoba. His work was hugely influential in Europe and many of his
instruments are still in use today. Among his best-known inventions were the syringe, the forceps, the
surgical hook and needle, the bone saw and the lithotomy scalpel.

6 Ibn Firnas' flying contraption.

Abbas Ibn Firnas was a legendary ninth-century inventor and the Da Vinci of the Islamic world. He is
honored on Arabic postage stamps and has a crater on the moon named after him. He made his famous
attempt at controlled flight when, aged 65, he built a rudimentary hang glider and launched himself
from the side of a mountain. Some accounts claim he remained airborne for several minutes before
landing badly and hurting his back.

Other sources.

Jim Al-Khalili is an author and broadcaster. He is professor of physics and of the public engagement in

science at the University of Surrey. Muslims Scholars of Theology and Science:

According to the famous scientist Albert Einstein; “Science without religion is lame. Religion without
science is blind.” Francis Bacon, the famous philosopher, has rightly said that a little knowledge of
science makes you an atheist, but an in-depth study of science makes you a believer in God. A critical
analysis reveals that most of Muslim scientists and scholars of medieval period were also eminent
scholars of Islam and theology. The earlier Muslim scientific investigations were based on the inherent
link between the physical and the spiritual spheres, but they were informed by a process of careful
observation and reflection that investigated the physical universe.

Influence of Qur’an on Muslims Scientists:

The worldview of the Muslims scientists was inspired by the Qur’an and they knew that: “Surely, In the
creation of the heavens and the earth; in the alternation of the night and the day, in the sailing of the
ships through the ocean for the profit of mankind; in the rain which Allah sends down from the skies,
with which He revives the earth after its death and spreads in it all kinds of animals, in the change of the
winds and the clouds between the sky and the earth that are made subservient, there are signs for
rational people.”(Qur’an; 2:164). “Indeed in the alternation of the night and the day and what Allah has
created in the heavens and the earth, there are signs for those who are God fearing.”(Qur’an; 10:6).
They were aware that there was much more to be discovered. They did not have the precise details of
the solar and lunar orbits but they knew that there was something extremely meaningful behind the
alternation of the day and the night and in the precise movements of the sun and the moon as
mentioned in Qur’an: One can still verify that those who designed the dome and the minaret, knew how
to transform space and silence into a chanting remembrance that renews the nexus between God and
those who respond to His urgent invitation.

Famous Muslim Scientists and Scholars:

The traditional Islamic institutions of learning produced numerous great theologians, philosophers,
scholars and scientists. Their contributions in various fields of knowledge indicate the level of
scholarship base developed among he Muslims one thousand years ago. Only few are being mentioned
here:

Chemistry:

Jabir ibn Hayyan, Abu Musa (721-815), alchemist known as the “father of chemistry.” He studied most
branches of learning, including medicine. After the ‘Abbasids defeated the Umayyads, Jabir became a
court physician to the ‘Abbasid caliph Harun ar-Rashid. Jabir was a close friend of the sixth Shi’ite imam,
Ja’far ibn Muhammad, whom he gave credit for many of his scientific ideas.

Mathematics, Algebra, Astronomy & Geography:

Al-Khwarizmi (Algorizm) (770–840 C.E) was a researcher of mathematics, algorithm, algebra, calculus,
astronomy & geography. He compiled astronomical tables, introduced Indian numerals (which became
Arabic numerals), formulated the oldest known trigonometric tables, and prepared a geographic
encyclopaedia in cooperation with 69 other scholars.

Physics, Philosophy, Medicine:

Ibn Ishaq Al-Kindi (Alkindus) (800–873 C.E) was an intellectual of philosophy, physics, optics, medicine,
mathematics & metallurgy. Ali Ibn Rabban Al-Tabari(838–870 C.E) was a scholar in medicine,
mathematics, calligraphy & literature. Al-Razi (Rhazes) (864– 930 C.E), a physical and scientist of
medicine, ophthalmology, smallpox, chemistry & astronomy.

Ar-Razi’s two most significant medical works are the Kitab al-Mansuri, which became well known in the
West in Gerard of Cremona’s 12th-century Latin translation; and ‘Kitab al-hawi’, the “Comprehensive
Book”. Among his numerous minor medical treatises is the famed Treatise on the Small Pox and
Measles, which was translated into Latin, Byzantine Greek, and various modern languages.

Al-Farabi (Al-Pharabius) (870- 950 C.E) excelled in sociology, logic, philosophy, political science & music.
Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahravi (Albucasis; 936 -1013 C.E) was an expert in surgery & medicine known as the
father of modern surgery.

Ibn Al-Haitham (Alhazen) (965-1040 C.E); was the mathematician and physicist who made the first
significant contributions to optical theory since the time of Ptolemy (flourished 2nd century). In his
treatise on optics, translated into Latin in 1270 as Opticae thesaurus Alhazeni libri vii, Alhazen published
theories on refraction, reflection, binocular vision, focusing with lenses, the rainbow, parabolic and
spherical mirrors, spherical aberration, atmospheric refraction, and the apparent increase in size of
planetary bodies near the Earth’s horizon. He was first to give an accurate account of vision, correctly
stating that light comes from the object seen to the eye.

Abu Raihan Al-Biruni (973-1048 C.E); was a Persian scholar and scientist, one of the most learned men
of his age and an outstanding intellectual figure. Al-Biruni’s most famous works are Athar al-baqiyah
(Chronology of Ancient Nations); at-Tafhim (“Elements of Astrology”); al-Qanun al-Mas’udi (“The
Mas’udi Canon”), a major work on astronomy, which he dedicated to Sultan Mas’ud of Ghazna; Ta’rikh
al-Hind (“A History of India”); and Kitab as-Saydalah, a treatise on drugs used in medicine. In his works
on astronomy, he discussed with approval the theory of the Earth’s rotation on its axis and made
accurate calculations of latitude and longitude. He was the first one to determine the circumference
earth. In the filed of physics, he explained natural springs by the laws of hydrostatics and determined
with remarkable accuracy the specific weight of 18 precious stones and metals. In his works on
geography, he advanced the daring view that the valley of the Indus had once been a sea basin.

Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 981–1037 C.E); was a scientist of medicine, philosophy, mathematics & astronomy.
He was particularly noted for his contributions in the fields of Aristotelian philosophy and medicine. He
composed the Kitab ash-shifa` (“Book of Healing”), a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and
the Canon of Medicine, which is among the most famous books in the history of medicine.

Ibn Hazm, (994-1064 C.E) was a Muslim litterateur, historian, jurist, and theologian of Islamic Spain. One
of the leading exponents of the Zahiri (literalist) school of jurisprudence, he produced some 400 works,
covering jurisprudence, logic, history, ethics, comparative religion, and theology, and The Ring of the
Dove, on the art of love.

Al-Zarqali (Arzachel) (1028-1087 C.E); an astronomer who invented astrolabe (an instrument used to
make astronomical measurements). Al-Ghazali (Algazel) (1058-1111 C.E); was a scholar of sociology,
theology & philosophy.

Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) (1091-1161 C.E); was a scientist and expert in surgery & medicine.

Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (1128- 1198 C.E); excelled in philosophy, law, medicine, astronomy & theology.

Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi (1201-1274 C.E); was the scholar of astronomy and Non-Euclidean geometry.

Geber (flourished in 14th century Spain) is author of several books that were among the most influential
works on alchemy and metallurgy during the 14th and 15th centuries. A number of Arabic scientific
works credited to Jabir were translated into Latin during the 11th to 13th centuries. Thus, when an
author who was probably a practicing Spanish alchemist began to write in about 1310. Four works by
Geber are known: Summa perfectionis magisterii (The Sum of Perfection or the Perfect Magistery,
1678), Liber fornacum (Book of Furnaces, 1678), De investigatione perfectionis (The Investigation of
Perfection, 1678), and De inventione veritatis (The Invention of Verity, 1678).

They are the clearest expression of alchemical theory and the most important set of laboratory
directions to appear before the 16th century. Accordingly, they were widely read and extremely
influential in a field where mysticism, secrecy, and obscurity were the usual rule. Geber’s rational
approach, however, did much to give alchemy a firm and respectable position in Europe. His practical
directions for laboratory procedures were so clear that it is obvious he was familiar with many chemical
operations. He described the purification of chemical compounds, the preparation of acids (such as nitric
and sulfuric), and the construction and use of laboratory apparatus, especially furnaces. Geber’s works
on chemistry were not equaled in their field until the 16th century with the appearance of the writings
of the Italian chemist Vannoccio Biringuccio, the German mineralogist Georgius Agricola, and the
German alchemist Lazarus Ercker.

Muhammad Ibn Abdullah (Ibn Battuta) (1304-1369 C.E); was a world traveler, he traveled 75,000 mile
voyage from Morocco to China and back. Ibn Khaldun(1332-1395 C.E) was an expert on sociology,
philosophy of history and political science.

Tipu, Sultan of Mysore (1783-1799 C.E) in the south of India, was the innovator of the world’s first war
rocket. Two of his rockets, captured by the British at Srirangapatana, are displayed in the Woolwich
Museum of Artillery in London. The rocket motor casing was made of steel with multiple nozzles. The
rocket, 50mm in diameter and 250mm long, had a range performance of 900 meters to 1.5 km.

Turkish scientist Hazarfen Ahmet Celebi took off from Galata tower and flew over the Bosphorus, two
hundred years before a comparable development elsewhere.  Fifty years later Logari Hasan Celebi,
another member of the Celebi family, sent the first manned rocket into upper atmosphere, using 150
okka (about 300 pounds) of gunpowder as the firing fuel.

Contribution of Great Muslim Women & Scholars:

Islam does not restrict acquisition of knowledge to men only, the women are equally required to gain
knowledge. Hence many eminent women have contributed in different fields. Aishah as-Siddiqah (the
one who affirms the Truth), the favourite wife of Propeht Muhammad (peace be upon him), is regarded
as the best woman in Islam. Her life also substantiates that a woman can be a scholar, exert influence
over men and women and provide them with inspiration and leadership. Her life is also an evidence of
the fact that the same woman can be totally feminine and be a source of pleasure, joy and comfort to
her husband. The example of Aishah in promoting education and in particular the education of Muslim
women in the laws and teachings of Islam is one which needs to be followed. She is source of numerous
Hadith and has been teaching eminent scholars. Because of the strength of her personality, she was a
leader in every field in knowledge, in society and in politics.

Sukayna (also “Sakina), the great granddaughter of the Prophet (peace be upon him), and daughter of
Imam Husain was the most brilliant most accomplished and virtuous women of her time. She grew up to
be an outspoken critic of the Umayyads. She became a political activist, speaking against all kinds of
tyranny and personal, social and political iniquities and injustice. She was a fiercely independent woman.
She married more than once, and each time she stipulated assurance of her personal autonomy, and the
condition of monogamy on the prospective husband’s part, in the marriage contract. She went about
her business freely, attended and addressed meetings, received men of letters, thinkers, and other
notables at her home, and debated issues with them. She was an exceedingly well-educated woman
who would take no nonsense from anyone howsoever high and mighty he or she might be.

Um Adhah al-Adawiyyah (d. 83 AH), reputable scholar and narrator of Hadith based on reports of Ali ibn
Abu Talib and Ayesha; Amrah bint Abd al-Rahman (d. 98 AH), one of the more prominent students of
Ayesha and a known legal scholar in Madina whose opinions overrode those of other jurists of the time;
Hafsa bint Sirin al-Ansariyyah (d. approx. 100 AH), also a legal scholar. Amah al-Wahid (d. 377 AH), noted
jurist of the Shafaii school and a mufti in Baghdad; Karimah bint Ahmad al-Marwaziyyah (d. 463 AH),
teacher of hadith (Sahih Bukhari); Zainab bint Abd al-Rahman (d. 615 AH), linguist and teacher of
languages in Khorasan. Zainab bint Makki (d. 688 AH) was a prominent scholar in Damascus, teacher of
Ibn Taimiya, the famous jurist of the Hanbali school; Zaynab bint Umar bin Kindi (d. 699 AH), teacher of
the famous hadith scholar, al-Mizzi; Fatima bint Abbas (d. 714 AH), legal scholar of the Hanbali school,
mufti in Damascus and later in Cairo; Nafisin bint al Hasan taught hadith; Imam Shafaii sat in her
teaching circle at the height of his fame in Egypt. Two Muslim women — Umm Isa bint Ibrahim and
Amat al-Wahid — served as muftis in Baghdad. Ayesha al-Banniyyah, a legal scholar in Damascus, wrote
several books on Islamic law. Umm al-Banin (d. 848 AH/ 1427 CE) served as a mufti in Morocco. Al Aliyya
was a famous teacher whose classes men attended before the noon prayer (Zuhr) and women after the
afternoon prayer (Asr). A Muslim woman of the name of Rusa wrote a textbook on medicine, and
another, Ujliyyah bint al-Ijli (d. 944 CE) made instruments to be used by astronomers. During the
Mamluk period in Cairo (11th century) women established five universities and 12 schools which women
managed.

Rabi’a al-Adawiyya al-Basri (717 C.E), is honored as one of the earliest and greatest sufis in Islam.
Orphaned as a child, she was captured and sold into slavery. But later her master let her go. She
retreated into the desert and gave herself to a life of worship and contemplation. She did not marry, and
to a man who wanted her hand she said: “I have become naught to self and exist only through Him. I
belong wholly to Him. You must ask my hand of Him, not of me.” She preached unselfish love of God,
meaning that one must love Him for His own sake and not out of fear or hope of rewards. She had many
disciples, both men and women.

Zubaida (Amatal Aziz bint Jafar), the favourite wife of  Harun al-Rashid, the legendary Abassid caliph.
She came to be an exceedingly wealthy woman, a billionaire so to speak, independently of her husband.
Granddaughter of Al-Mansur, she grew up to be a lady of dazzling beauty, articulate and charming of
speech, and great courage. Discerning and sharp, her wisdom and insightfulness inspired immediate
admiration and respect. In her middle years she moved out of the royal “harem” and began living in a
huge palace of her own. She owned properties all over the empire which dozens of agents in her employ
managed for her. A cultivated woman, pious and well acquainted with the scriptures, Zubaida was also a
poetess and a patron of the arts and sciences. She allocated funds to invite hundreds of men of letters,
scientists, and thinkers from all over the empire to locate and work in Baghdad. She spent much of her
funds for public purposes, built roads and bridges, including a 900-mile stretch from Kufa to Makkah,
and set up, hostels, eating places, and repair shops along the way, all of which facilitated travel and
encouraged enterprise. She built canals for both irrigation and water supply to the people. She spent
many millions of Dinars on getting a canal built, that went through miles of tunnel through mountains,
to increase the water supply in Makkah for the benefit of pilgrimages. She took a keen interest in the
empire’s politics and administration. The caliph himself sought her counsel concerning the affairs of
state on many occasions and found her advice to be eminently sound and sensible. After Harun’s death,
his successor, Al Mamun, also sought her advice from time to time. She died in 841 C.E (32 years after
Harun’s death).
Arwa bint Ahmad bin Mohammad al-Sulayhi (born 1048 C.E) was the ruling queen of Yemen for 70
years (1067-1138 C.E), briefly, and that only technically, as a co-ruler with her two husbands, but as the
sole ruler for most of that time. She is still remembered with a great deal of affection in Yemen as a
marvellous queen. Her name was mentioned in the Friday sermons right after that of the Fatimid caliph
in Cairo. She built mosques and schools throughout her realm, improved roads, took interest in
agriculture and encouraged her country’s economic growth. Arwa is said to have been an extremely
beautiful woman, learned, and cultured. She had a great memory for poems, stories, and accounts of
historical events. She had good knowledge of the Qur’an and Sunnah. She was brave, highly intelligent,
devout, with a mind of her own. She was a Shi’a of the Ismaili persuasion, sent preachers to India, who
founded an Ismaili community in Gujarat which still thrives. She was also a competent military strategist.
At one point (1119 C.E) the Fatimid caliph sent a general, Najib ad-Dowla, to take over Yemen.
Supported by the emirs and her people, she fought back and forced him to go back to Egypt. She died in
1138 C.E at the age of 90. A university in Sana’a is named after her, and her mausoleum in Jibla
continues to be a place of pilgrimage for Yemenis and others. The other eminent ladies who played
important role in the affairs of state and philanthropy include, Buran the wife of Caliph Mamun. Among
the Mughals Noor Jehan, Zaib un Nisa left their mark in Indian history. Razia Sultan was an other
eminent women ruler in India.

4 EXPLAIN THE MAJOR SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENTS THAT AROSE DURING THE RENAISSANCE
PERIOD 14TH TO 16TH CENTURY) AND THEIR IMPACT ON THE SCHOLARLY WORLD.

MAIN DEVELOPMENTS DURING THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD.

(a)

Architecture –medieval buildings were built in a gothic style of architecture, with pointed arches over
doors and windows, flying buttresses, and spires. Fine examples of gothic churches built in Ireland in
medieval times are Christ Church Cathedral and St Patrick’s Cathedral, Dublin, and St Canice’sCathedral,
Kilkenny. Renaissance studied the buildings of ancient Greece and Rome for inspiration. They used
columns, domes and rounded arches. The buildings were strong and made of concrete, and many still
stand today. Their remarkable features gave an impression of strength.

(b)

Science and medicine –during the renaissance, the study of anatomy became part of the education of
doctors. Medieval medicine was based on ancient Greek medicine. This changed during the renaissance,
when the human body began to be studied in great detail. Vesalius, who wrote the book “On the
Structure of the Human Body”, was the man mainly responsible for this change. Other doctors also
improved our knowledge. An Englishman, William Harvey, discovered that the heart made blood
circulate around the body.

(c)
Sculpture –medieval sculpture had a religious theme. The sculptures were usually part of a building, and
the figures lacked feeling. Renaissance sculpture was realistic. Sculptors took care to make bones and
muscles lifelike.

(d)

Printing –the printing-press was invented in the fifteenth century by Johannes Gutenberg. Gutenberg’s
printing press spread very quickly. Presses were soon working in all the major cities. Aldus Manutius and
William Caxton in London were very important printers in their countries. The invention of the printing
press had important results. There was plentiful supply of all kinds of books: Latin and Greek books, and
also comedies, songbooks, and books on the lives of saints. The price of books fell quickly. Within a few
years, printed books were only one-third of the price of manuscripts. The new renaissance learning was
spread around Europe. Literacy became more widespread. The spreading of new ideas lead to the age of
exploration and the reformation

IMPACTS OF THE SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENTS

Development of Humanism: During the middle ages, only spirituality and theology were studied.
Renaissance brought about a change in the outlook of people. Writers, painters, sculptors were more
interested in man, his interests, and his life. It encouraged the study of humanities.

Development of Scientific Outlook: The people started accepting theories only if they had a reason
behind them. The people stopped believing blindly and encouraged discoveries and inventions which
contributed to the progress of human civilization.

Development of Arts: New forms and styles of painting, sculptures, architecture, etc., were created.
There was a growth in the field of fine arts.

Rise of the Middle Class: The feudal lords held a greater part of the territory of their country in their
hands to enjoy the luxuries of life in the middle ages. But later, the traders, soldiers, lawyers, etc., began
to make rapid progress and the feudal lords were set back.

Rise and Growth of Nation-States: Renaissance led to the feeling of nationality that led to the rise and
growth of nation-states.

Consequences of Geographical Explorations: Scientific inventions helped people to explore new routes
and distant lands. Trade was established between Europe and The East. This paved the way for the
process of colonization of Asia and Africa. European countries increased their power by exporting the
resources of their colonies in America, Asia, and Africa.