Unit II: Dr. Rupali Nagar

Unit II
Introduction to Solids, Semiconductors

and Superconductors
Subject Teacher:
Dr. Rupali Nagar
Assistant Professor
Dept of Applied Science
Contact details:
i. rupali.nagar@sitpune.edu.in
ii. Office: Faculty Room 5, Opp. Surveying Lab, I Floor
iii. 020-2811 6467, 020-6193-6467
Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

Syllabus

Learning Objectives

For general introduction and
Free Electron Theory background only.
❖ Applicable to all solids (both metals and non-metals)
❖ Can explain the electrical, thermal and magnetic properties

of solids
❖ Three different theories of Free electron
▪Classical free electron theory (1900 Drude)

Electrons free i.e. V = 0, Classical laws apply
▪Quantum Free Electron Theory (1928 Sommerfeld)
Electrons move in V ≡ Constant, Quantum laws apply
▪Zone Theory (1928 Bloch) Electrons move in V ≡ Periodic, Quantum laws

Free Electron Theory SUCCESS
Metals are composed of atoms in which electrons revolve around the nucleus and
many states are available for occupation.
For g
1. Electrical conductivity & thermal conductivity of metals. ener
al
back introduc
2. It verifies ohm’s law. grou t
nd o io
nly.
3. Optical properties of metals.
4. If the density of states is zero, no states can be occupied at that energy level.
5. Valence electrons are freely moving about the whole volume of the metals
like the molecules of a perfect gas
6. Movements of free electrons laws of classical kinetic theory of gases.
7. In metals, there are large numbers of free electrons moving freely within
the metal, because nuclei occupy only 15% metal space, and the remaining
85% space is available for the electrons to move

Free Electron Theory FAILURE For general introduction
and background only.
1. Electronic specific heat & specific heat capacity of metals.
2. Long free mean paths at lower temperatures could not be explained
3. Temperature dependence of resistance for metals, semi-conductors,
insulators could not be explained.
4. Superconducting properties of metals.
5. New phenomena like photoelectric effect, Compton effect, black-body
radiation, etc.
6. Electrical conductivity (perfectly) of semiconductors or insulators.
7. Predicts incorrect−temperature dependence.
8. Incorrect mathematical expression for thermal conductivity.
9. Ferromagnetism couldn’t be explained by this theory.
10. Susceptibility has greater theoretical value than the experimental value.

Free Electron Theory
❑ Metals: +ve ion cores and “free” valence electrons

❑ “Free” electrons Atoms of a gas
❑ Mutual repulsion between electrons is ignored
❑ “Free” electrons carry negative charge
❑ Electrons follow Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
❑ +ve ion cores produce a uniform field in which electrons move
❑ Follow Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution

Free Electron Theory: Success
❑ Drift Velocity Explains electrical conductivity of metals
Source:
https://www.toppr.com/ask/en-ae/question/in-the-absence-of-electric-field-the-me
an-velocity-of-free-electrons-in-a-conductor/
Electrons move in a direction of the electric field and are accelerated by the field. The net
movement of electrons is known as drift and corresponding mean velocity known as Drift
Velocity (vd). Electrons drift in a particular direction and constitute a current known as
DRIFT current or more commonly, the CONDUCTION CURRENT.

❑ Relaxation time:
❑ Mean collision time
Average time taken by an electron between any two consecutive collisions

during its motion in the crystal lattice as the mean collision time.
❑ Mean free path

❑ Electrical conductivity:
And

Quantum Electron Theory SUCCESS & FAILURE
Pauli’s exclusion principle, Energy levels are DISCRETE
1. Could explain conductivity, thermionic emission, paramagnetism, specific

heat, etc.
2. Could not explain classification of solids as conductors, semiconductors and
insulators

Zone Theory or Bloch Theorem
Free Electron Theory: Bloch

Theorem
+ve ion
23 October 1905 – 10 cores/
September 1983 Nuclei
Nobel Prize for Physics (1952)
Variation of potential energy in

periodic lattice

…contd.
To solve, by considering Schrodinger’s time

independent wave equation in one dimension,
Bloch’s 1D solution for Schrodinger wave equation
Where uk (x) = uk (x + a)

Free Electron Theory: Kronig-Penny Model

Particle in a box problem (Unit III)
0 L
Source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org
Wave function of a FREE PARTICLE /wiki/File:Particle-in-a-box-ener
gy-levels.svg

Formula based numerical problems
1. 6.
2.
3.
4. Practice all numerical problems done

in class based on direct application of
formulae
5.

Problem 1: Assuming that there is one free electron per copper atom,
determine the no. of free electrons in 1 m3 of copper. Density of copper is
8.9×103 kg/m3, atomic weight is 63.5 u, Avagadro’s no. is 6.023×1026/kg.
Soln.

Problem 2: Assuming that there is one free electron per silver atom,
determine the no. of free electrons in 1 m3 of silver. Density of silver is 10.5
×103 kg/m3. If conductivity of silver is 6.8×107 S/m, calculate the mobility of
electrons in silver. Atomic weight = 107.9 u.
Soln.

Problem 3: Assuming that there is one free electron per copper atom,
determine the no. of free electrons in 1 m3 of copper. Density of copper is
8.9×103 kg/m3, atomic weight is 63.5 u, Avagadro’s no. is 6.023×1026/kg.
PROBLEM 1. Resistivity of copper is 8.92×103 kg/m3. Calculate the relaxation
time for copper electrons.
Soln.

Origin of energy bands formation in solids:
What we know today……..

What does Quantum theory introduce?
❖ Introduces a set of QUANTUM NUMBERS LABELS.
❖ These numbers distinctly identify the state of an atom.
❖ Principal quantum number ‘n’: Size and energy of electron orbit. n
= 1, 2, 3, ….
❖ Orbital quantum number ‘l’: Shape of an electron orbit. l = from 0
to n-1.
❖ Orbital magnetic quantum number ‘ml’: Orientation of orbit. ml :
from –l to +l.
❖ Spin quantum number ‘ms’: Direction of spin, ±1/2.
So, each electron can be labeled as having a set of four distinct quantum numbers. No
two electrons in an atom can have the same set of quantum numbers: Pauli’s exclusion
principle.

Quantum Theory
Discreteness of energy levels.
∞ distance NO INTERACTION
At closer distances, atoms interact.
Potential Energy
Energy levels get affected. More so for the
outermost electrons.
Pauli’s exclusion principle must be
satisfied.
So, creation of new energy levels, closer to
previous ones takes place.
Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Distance
Dr. in (nm)
Rupali Nagar
Splitting of energy levels
3s
2p
2s
Will be
arranged in 1s
periodic
manner
Energy 2p
2s
Distance
Energy bands
Valence electrons occupy the Valence band.
What is valence band? Highest occupied energy

band.
Quantum theory tells us that not all energy

Copper
levels are allowed. Thus, next higher energy
Atom
band that is allowed is known as Conduction
band. CB
top of the
Eg
The gap between the energy bands of valence
VB
and conduction band is known as band-gap.
bottom of the

Lithium
Filling of levels: Availability of LEVELS and ELECTRONS
Li: Atomic No. = 3; 1s2, 2s1
Let ‘N’ Li atoms be combined. Total electrons = 3N.
Remember: Each level splits into (2l+1)N levels, if N atoms are combined.
1s level: Now has N levels,

can accommodate: 2N e-s
2s level: Now has N levels,

can accommodate: 2N e-s
Available electrons:
2s 2N electrons (1s) + N electrons (2s) = 3N
Filling electrons up:

1s
Out of 3N, 2N can occupy 1s band (lower energy) + N can
go to 2s band.

Bands theory in solids: Importance of Band theory
❖ Energy band is collection of closely spaced energy levels of many atoms

which comprise of a solid. When ‘N’ atoms come together to form a solid,
the discrete energy levels of the individual atoms split to give a total of N
energy levels and hence 2N quantum states.
As N becomes larger and larger Correspondence principle

&&
Quantized energy levels appear to be CONTINUOUS (Classical Feature)
❖ Electrons follow Pauli’s exclusion principle not more than two electrons
can occupy each quantum state.
❖ In a single isolated atom, the electrons in each orbit have definite energy
associated with it. But in case of solids all the atoms are close to each other,
so the energy levels of outermost orbit electrons are affected by the
neighboring atoms.

Bands theory in solids:
❖ Valence electrons of neighbouring atoms attract/repel each other. Due to
this the energies of the electrons will not be in same level energy levels
of electrons are changed to a value which is higher or lower than that of
the original energy level of the electron.
❖ The electrons in same orbit exhibits different energy levels. The grouping
of this different energy levels is called energy band.
❖ However, the energy levels of inner orbit electrons are not much affected
by the presence of neighbouring atoms.

Semiconductors, Conductors and Insulators
Energy Bands
at room temperature 25°
eV (electron volt) – the energy absorbed by an electron when it is

subjected to a 1V difference of potential

Electrical properties
Metals Insulators Semiconductors
ρ ~ 10-8 to ρ ~ 107 to 1016 Ω-m ρ ~ 10-4 to 106 Ω-m

10-6 Ω-m
Ex.: Silver, copper Ex.: Glass, wood Ex.: Germanium,
Silicon
❖ Classical theory: Free electron theory: Nucleus (+ve charge) immobile,
electrons (-ve charge) move freely. Very less resistance.
❖ Could not explain all results.
QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY & Zone theory or BAND
THEORY of SOLIDS
Remember that at quantum level contributions of individual entities become important, the
properties of INDIVIDUAL entities must be known.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductors
Intrinsic Charge carriers arise due to rupture of bonds, e-h pairs
cause electrical conduction.
No. of holes in no. of electrons in

=
VB CB
Eg Eg
Higher T more e-s jump to CB leaving
holes in VB.
At zero kelvin no At room T small

thermal energy thermal energy, few Conductivity of intrinsic semicond.
e-s jump to CB depends upon temp.
In real crystal, concentration of atoms~5×1028
atoms/m3
All electrons in VB,
empty CB Chemically pure semiconductors [1 impurity
atom in 109 host atoms]
In case of intrinsic semiconductors , Fermi level lies midway of VB and CB.

Intrinsic
Charge carriers arise due to rupture of bonds, e-h pairs

cause electrical conduction.

=
VB CB
Eg Eg
holes in VB.
At zero kelvin no At room T small

thermal energy thermal energy, few Conductivity of intrinsic semicond.
e-s jump to CB depends upon temp.
All electrons in VB,

empty CB

Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductors
Intrinsic Chemically pure semiconductors;
Ex. Si ~5×1028 atoms/m3;
Electrical conduction thermally generated electrons and holes
In case of intrinsic semiconductors , Fermi level lies in midway VB and CB.
Extrinsic Doped semiconductors;

Electrical conduction controlled by biasing
Fermi level varies with doping.

Intrinsic
At room T small
Eg Charge carriers arise due to rupture of
thermal energy, few
bonds, e-h pairs cause electrical
e-s jump to CB
conduction.

=
VB CB

holes in VB.
Conductivity of intrinsic semicond.

depends upon temp.

Extrinsic/ doped
N-type ne ≠ nh
P-type
Donor
level Eg
Eg
Acceptor
level
In case of extrinsic semiconductors, Fermi level does not lie

midway VB and CB.

Now, what’s going on inside??

n-type
p-type
Source: http://www.electronicshub.org/semiconductor-diodes/

Carrier Concentrations
⚫ For any semiconductor in thermal equilibrium nopo=ni2,

where
⚫ no = the concentration of free electrons.
⚫ po = the concentration of holes.
⚫ ni = the intrinsic carrier concentration

⚫ Since nopo=ni2 for any semiconductor in thermal equilibrium, and
⚫ For an n-type semiconductor, no ≈ Nd
⚫ Where po is the concentration of holes in the n-type semiconductor.

⚫ Since nopo=ni2 for any semiconductor in thermal equilibrium, and
⚫ For a p-type semiconductor, po ≈ Na
⚫ Where no is the concentration of free electrons in the p-type

semiconductor.

Discussion: Fermi Level
Metals: Highest occupied energy level at 0 K is called Fermi Level
and energy corresponding to it is called Fermi Energy (EF).
All energy states are occupied at 0K till EF. If

Why 0K?? temperature is raised, some electrons occupy higher
energy states. Thus, some energy states below fermi
level become empty.
For metals and semi-conductors, probability function:
Fermi Function
Case I: T = 0K Case II: T ≠ 0K, T > 0K
E> EF Source:
or Ehttp://www-ee.ccny.cuny.edu/www/web/crouse/EE339/Lectures/Charge_Carrier_Statistics.htm
< EF E= EF P(E) = 0.5
At any finite temperature, the energy level that has 50 % probability of

being occupied is known as Fermi Level.

Intrinsic v/s Extrinsic Semiconductors
Doping: Intentional introduction of controlled amount of impurity into
an intrinsic semiconductor is called doping.
Impurity produced e-s are not T dependent rather voltage dependent.
1. In pure or intrinsic semicond., conductivity is low.
1. In extrinsic semicond., conductivity is high.
2. Conductivity is a function of temperature and increases

exponentially with increasing T.
2. Conductivity not a function of T.
3. Conductivity cannot be controlled from outside.
3. Conductivity can be tailored to desired value by doping.

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester
Source: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/dsem.html Dr. Rupali Nagar
Band Diagrams of Extrinsic Semicond.
n-type
Source: Avadhanalu and Kshirsagar, a text Book of Engg. Phys., S. Chand Publications

Band Diagrams of Extrinsic Semicond.
p-type
Source: Avadhanalu and Kshirsagar, a text Book of Engg. Phys., S. Chand Publications

Shift in Fermi Energy with Doping Concentration
Low
Moderate
High
N-type
P-type
Source: http://ecee.colorado.edu/~bart/book/extrinsi.htm
Direct- and indirect-gap semiconductors
If maximum of VB and minimum of CB lie at same value of k, DIRECT

bandgap materials (i.e. satisfies the condition of energy and momentum
conservation). For example: GaAs, InP, CdS, etc.
If maximum of VB and minimum of CB do not occur at same value of k,

called INDIRECT bandgap materials. For example: Si and Ge
Source:
Physics // http://nanotech.fzu.cz/26/index.php?file=4
AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar
pn- junction
A p-type and n-type semiconductor are joined together to form a
pn-junction. Hetero and homo
Concentration of holes is more at p-type side and of electrons is
more at n-type side.
Difference in concentration leads to diffusion of holes from p- to

n-side and likewise for electrons.
Diffusion continues till concentration of holes and electrons on
both sides are equal.
Basically, Fermi levels on both sides equalize.

p-n junction
+ -
P-ty n-ty
P-type n-type
pe pe
+
- - + + -
- - + +
- - + + Diffusion leads to shifting
of Fermi Level
Recomb
-ination
Space charge region

Source: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Solids/pnjun.html

Equilibrium Carrier Concentration (ECC)
No. of carriers in CB and VB with no externally applied bias is called
the ECC
1. Semiconductors contain majority and minority carriers

2. The ECC can be increased through doping.
3. The product of minority and majority charge carriers is a constant.

Source:
https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/pn-junctions/equilibrium-carrier-concentration
Exponential approximation of the Fermi function
ρ: Density of states
When the Fermi level lies within the bandgap, but away from its edges by an
energy of at least several times, the equations above yield:
Where, Nc and Nv are
Effective density
of states in the
CB/ VB
(For reading)
Concept of drift and diffusion current

Drift versus Diffusion Currents
[Carrier Transport phenomena]

Source: https://www.rcet.org.in/uploads/academics/rohini_40574878855.pdf
Drift current

Diffusion current

Comparison

Superconductor
Superconductivity is the flow of electric current without resistance in certain
metals, alloys, and ceramics at temperatures near absolute zero, and in some
cases at temperatures hundreds of degrees above absolute zero = -273K.
Materials exhibiting Superconductivity are called Superconductors.

Discovery of Superconductivity
Resistance
Discovered by Kamerlingh Onnes in
(Ω)
1911 during first low temperature
measurements to liquefy helium
Whilst measuring the resistivity of “pure” Hg he

noticed that the electrical resistance dropped to
zero at 4.2K Temperature (K)
In 1912 he found that the resistive state is

restored in a magnetic field or at high transport
currents
1913

Superconductivity
Resistivity of some materials drops to zero at
low temperatures
Resistivit
y
Matter exhibits a NEW STATE at
low temperatures.
T= TC Temperature
A little bit of digression Ohmic conductors
Electrical resistance in an ohmic conductor is caused by scattering

of conduction electrons by impurities, dislocations and the
displacements of atoms from their equilibrium positions due to
thermal motion. In principle, if there were no such defects, the
conductivity of a metal would be infinite.
Source: http://web.mit.edu/8.13/www/JLExperiments/JLExp39.pdf
Properties
If a current is started in a SC wire, it

1. Zero Resistance shall flow for infinite time as R= 0.
Current in closed loop will flow

II. Persistent current for infinite time (~105 years).
There are no I2R losses.
III. Meissner Effect
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EfektMeisnera.svg
Perfect Diamagnetism
Turning on a magnetic field generates internal currents which

flow without resistance and completely cancel the field inside
❑ External magnetic field
IV. Critical field
superconducting to normal state
❑ Transition strength of the
H magnetic field.
C ❑ Minimum magnetic field that leads
H
0
to transition CRITICAL
MAGNETIC FIELD [H0 at 0K].
1.0
T/T
c
V. London penetration ▪ Distance upto which magnetic

depth field penetrates the surface of
the superconductor.
▪ It slowly goes to zero.
▪ Distance in which magnetic
field losses its intensity by 1/e;
‘e’ : exponential.
London penetration depth (λL)
Critical transition temperature is

VI. Isotope effect dependent on isotopic mass.
TC α M-1/2
BCS Theory
Bardeen, Cooper , Schrieffer
▪ BCS theory assumes: attractive force exists between electrons.

▪ This force is due to Coulomb attraction between the electron and
the crystal lattice.
▪ Electron causes +ve charges around it.
▪ Positive charge at a site increases Can attract another electron.
▪ Electron-electron pair can be formed by mediation of crystal lattice.
▪ Electron-phonon interaction.
▪ These two electrons are known as a Cooper pair.
▪ If the energy required to bind these electrons together is less than
the energy from the thermal vibrations of the lattice attempting
to break them apart, the pair will remain bound.
The thermal vibration of the lattice must be small enough to allow

the forming of Cooper pairs. In a superconductor, the current is made
up of these Cooper pairs, rather than individual electrons.
Type I and Type II superconductors
Transition from superconducting to normal state
Magnetization
Magnetization
(µ0M)
(µ0M)
Hc1 Hc2
Hc
External field H
External field H
Type I; Type II;
Soft superconductors Hard superconductors
1. Perfectly diamagnetic. 1. Do not show perfect

Thus, exhibit diamagnetism. Thus,
complete Meissner do not exhibit
effect. complete Meissner
2. Only one critical effect.
field. H < Hc 2. Have lower (Hc1) and
superconducting state; upper (Hc2) critical
H > Hc normal state fields.
3. Transition at Hc is 3. They exhibit mixed
reversible state.
4. Typical values of Hc 4. Typical values of Hc2
~ 0.1 Wb/m2 ~ 30 Wb/m2
5. Material loses
magnetization
gradually.
Unpredicted Results
The resistance of mercury

SUDDENLY drops to ZERO near 4.2
K. Superconductivity is discovered.
The idea that a superconductor can pin a

magnet in free space was first characterized by
Meissner and Ochsenfeld in 1933. This
phenomenon is now known as the “Meissner
effect.”

Zero-resistance, Meissner effect
From Ohm’s law: E = ρj
Also, in super conducting state, Since j can’t be zero,
Hence,
ρ = 0, E = 0,
According to Maxwell’s equation
Perfect diamagnetism is essential property of the super conductor.

Properties of superconductors!
Persistent current ( V IMP)
• Current injected will always stay in loop.

• No I2R losses.
• Current persists for more than 105 years.

Superconductor

Meissner Effect
Source:
http://hoffman.physics.harvard.edu/materials/SCintro.php Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EfektMeisnera.svg
Perfect Diamagnetism
Turning on a magnetic field generates internal currents which
flow without resistance and completely cancel the field inside.
Discovered by Meissner and Ochsenfeld

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester in 1933
Dr. Rupali Nagar
Meissner Effect
• Repulsion of magnetic flux lines from bulk of superconductor
• Below transition temperature (Tc)
M= Intensity of magnetisation
H= Applied magnetic field
Magnetic Susceptibility becomes negative!

Meissner effect
Property of some materials where the materials expels all magnetic
field lines from within itself below critical temp.
When you place a superconductor in a magnetic field, the field is

expelled below TC.
B B
T >Tc T < Tc
Magnet
Currents i appear, to cancel B.
i x B on the superconductor
Superconductor
produces repulsion.

In a normal conductor, thermally
activated ions scatter electrons in
different directions giving rise to
their resistance.
Higher temperature More energy Higher amplitudes

This is the reason why resistance of metals increases with rising
temperatures.
Lower temperature Less energy Lower amplitudes

Resistance therefore goes down as temperature decreases
For a normal conductor, resistance does not go to zero. Rather, it

reaches a minimum value called the Residual Resistivity Ratio)
based on irregularities and impurities in the lattice.
Source: Source:
http://what-when-how.com/electronic-properties-of-materials/electrical http://teachers.web.cern.ch/teachers/archiv/HST2001/accelerators/supe
-conduction-in-metals-and-alloys-electrical-properties-of-materials-par rconductivity/superconductivity.htm
t-2/

Conductors
• Outer electrons of the atoms in conductors are loosely
bound and free to move through the material
FREE electrons
Metals are conductors
Energy is carried by charge/

electrons from one point to another

Resistance
• Life is tough for free electrons.
• Resistance:
❖ Repulsion from other electrons
❖ Vibration of atoms
❖ Impurities
• Life is tough for free electrons,

especially on hot days.
• Energy is wasted.

What Defines a Superconductor?
There are TWO distinct
properties.
• They have ZERO resistance

• They exhibit
DIAMAGNETISM
Diamagnetism is the property of an

object or material which causes it to
create a magnetic field in opposition
to an externally applied magnetic
field.
Condition: The superconductor must be cooled to lower

temperature.

Means what?
• Means that the superconducting state is characterized by

perfect diamagnetism!
• Material in the superconducting state doesn’t allow magnetic

flux lines to exist within the body!
Levitating Magnet
Demonstration of The Meissner Effect

Course Outcomes
CO Statements:
CO 1: To distinguish between different types of damping and

explain concept of mechanical and acoustic waves.
CO 2: To interpret energy bands in solids and describe

superconducting phenomenon through calculations or
explaining fundamental theory.
CO 3: To explain various applications of quantum mechanics

in real life.

Course Outcomes
CO Statements:
CO 1: To distinguish between different types of damping and

explain concept of mechanical and acoustic waves.
CO 2: To interpret energy bands in solids and describe

superconducting phenomenon through calculations or
explaining fundamental theory.
CO 3: To explain various applications of quantum mechanics

in real life.


Unit II: Dr. Rupali Nagar

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Unit II

Introduction to Solids, Semiconductors

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

❖ Applicable to all solids (both metals and non-metals)

❖ Can explain the electrical, thermal and magnetic properties

❖ Three different theories of Free electron

▪Classical free electron theory (1900 Drude)

▪Quantum Free Electron Theory (1928 Sommerfeld)

Electrons move in V ≡ Constant, Quantum laws apply

▪Zone Theory (1928 Bloch) Electrons move in V ≡ Periodic, Quantum laws

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

❑ Metals: +ve ion cores and “free” valence electrons

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

❑ Mean collision time

Average time taken by an electron between any two consecutive collisions

❑ Mean free path

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

Pauli’s exclusion principle, Energy levels are DISCRETE

1. Could explain conductivity, thermionic emission, paramagnetism, specific

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

Free Electron Theory: Bloch

Nobel Prize for Physics (1952)

Variation of potential energy in

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

To solve, by considering Schrodinger’s time

Bloch’s 1D solution for Schrodinger wave equation

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

4. Practice all numerical problems done

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

What we know today……..

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

At closer distances, atoms interact.

What is valence band? Highest occupied energy

Quantum theory tells us that not all energy

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

1s level: Now has N levels,

2s level: Now has N levels,

Filling electrons up:

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

❖ Energy band is collection of closely spaced energy levels of many atoms

As N becomes larger and larger Correspondence principle

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

at room temperature 25°

eV (electron volt) – the energy absorbed by an electron when it is

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

Metals Insulators Semiconductors

ρ ~ 10-8 to ρ ~ 107 to 1016 Ω-m ρ ~ 10-4 to 106 Ω-m

Physics // AIML // A&B // Jan’23 Semester Dr. Rupali Nagar

No. of holes in no. of electrons in

At zero kelvin no At room T small