CENG 

453‐ Design of Steel and Timber Structures                                            Chapter 3‐ Compression Members     

3. Compression members
Compression members are one of the basic structural elements primarily resist axial load
(compression force) such as columns, struts, etc. Columns are vertical members supporting floors,
roofs and cranes in buildings.
Though internal columns in buildings are essentially axially loaded and are designed as such, most
columns are subjected to axial load and moment.
Compression members may be classified by length. A short column, post or pedestal fails by
crushing. A long or slender column fails by buckling. The failure load is less than the crush load
and depends on the degree of slenderness. Most practical columns fail by buckling. For example, a
universal column under axial load fails in flexural buckling about the weaker axis.

3.1 Loads on compression members

Axial loading on columns in buildings is due to loads from:
• roofs, floors and walls transmitted to the column through beams and
• self weight of the member
Floor beam reactions are eccentric to the column axis and if the beam arrangement or loading is
asymmetrical; moments are transmitted to the column. Wind loads on multi-storey buildings are
usually taken to be applied at floor levels and to be resisted by the bracing, and so do not cause
moments.

In industrial buildings, loads from cranes and wind cause moments in columns. In this case, the
wind is applied as a distributed load to the column through the sheeting rails. In rigid frame
construction moments are transmitted through the joints from beams to column.

3.2 Classification of cross-sections

The projecting flange of an I-beam will buckle prematurely if it is too thin. Webs will also buckle
under compressive stress from bending and from shear. To prevent local buckling from occurring,
limiting outstand/ thickness ratios for flanges and depth/thickness ratios are given in Table 4.1 of
EBCS 3, 1995. Cross-sections are classified as follows according to local buckling requirements:
1. Class 1 Plastic cross-section: This can develop a plastic hinge with sufficient rotation
capacity to permit redistribution of moments in the structure. Only class I sections can be
used for plastic design.
2. Class 2 Compact cross-section: This can develop the plastic moment capacity, but local
buckling prevents rotation at constant moment.
3. Class 3 Semi-compact cross-section: The stress in the extreme fibers should be limited to
the yield stress because local buckling prevents development of the plastic moment
capacity.
4. Class 4 Slender cross-section: Local buckling may prevent the section from reaching its
design strength. (Moment capacity < M y )

Instructor: Abrham Gebre  Page 1 
 
CENG 453‐ Design of Steel and Timber Structures                                            Chapter 3‐ Compression Members     

3.3 Effective lengths

The actual length of a compression member on any plane is the distance between effective
positional or directional restraints in that plane. The actual column is replaced by an equivalent pin-
ended column of the same strength that has an effective length: Le= KL
Where: L is the actual length, and K the effective length ratio and K is to be determined
from the end conditions.
Some values of effective length, Le, are:

Effective length for column in frames

To determine Kab, the effective length ratio for column ab, first determine η1 and η 2 as follows: 
∑ C1 K c + K1
η1 = =
∑ C1 + ∑ b1 K c + K 1 + K 11 + K 12

∑ C2 K c + K1
η2 = =
∑ C 2 + ∑ b2 K c + K 2 + K 21 + K 22

Using η1 and η 2 obtain the value of K from figure A.2.1 or A.2.2 of EBCS-3, 1995

Instructor: Abrham Gebre  Page 2 
 
CENG 453‐ Design of Steel and Timber Structures                                            Chapter 3‐ Compression Members     

3.4 Design Considerations and procedures

For the particular applications, the following checks are relevant
i. Overall flexural buckling (controlled by slenderness ratio)
ii. Local buckling (width to thickness ratio)
iii. Buckling of component parts (strength of individual parts must be checked. Only
relevant for built up sections)
iv. Torsional or torsional-flexural buckling
Local buckling and overall buckling (flexural or torsional) should always be checked.

According to EBCS 3, 1995 design provisions, the followings procedures has great importance in
design of compression members
• Select a trial section (the steel grade, fy, and section is selected)
• Classify the cross section (Table 4.1 of EBCS 3, 1995)
• Compute the effective length Le =kl
• The slenderness λ=kl/r is calculated for the relevant axis.
λ
• Compute λ1 = π ( E / f y ) 0.5 = 93.9ε and λ = βA ,
λ1
ε=(235/fy)0.5 (fy is in MPa)
λ is the relative slenderness for flexural buckling
i. for class 1,2 and 3cross sections β A =1
ii. for class 4 cross sections β A = Aeff/Ag
• Determine the relevant buckling curve (Table 4.11 of EBCS 3, 1995)
• Obtain χ from Table 4.9 of EBCS 3, 1995
→ χ is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling mode

→ χ may be determined from the following equation

1
χ= 2
for 0.2 ≤ λ ≤ 3
φ + (φ 2 − λ ) 0.5

χ =1 for λ ≤ 2 if χ > 1, crushing governs

2
φ = 0.5(1 + α (λ − 0.2) + λ )
α is the imperfection factor corresponding to the relevant buckling curve

Buckling curve a b c d
α 0.21 034 0.49 0.76

• Compute the compression resistance N Pl , Rd = χAg β A f y / γ m1

• Compare Npl,Rd with Nsd . (Npl,Rd > Nsd)

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CENG 453‐ Design of Steel and Timber Structures                                            Chapter 3‐ Compression Members     

3.5 Effective area of class 4 cross sections

For class 4 cross sections, some of the sections are non effective. Thus, the effective area of the
section, Aeff, should be determined in order to determine the compression resistance of class 4 cross
sections. The effective cross section properties of class 4 cross sections shall be based on the
effective widths of the compression elements.

As an approximation, the reduction factor ρ may be obtained as follows:

ρ = 1 if λ ρ < 0.673
λ ρ − 0.22
ρ= 2
if λ ρ > 0.673
λρ
0 .5
⎡ fy ⎤ b
Where: λ ρ = ⎢ ⎥ =
⎣σ cr ⎦ t (28.4ε kσ )

t is the relevant thickness

σ cr is the critical plate-buckling stress
kσ is the buckling factor obtained from Table 4.3 or 4.4 of EBCS3, 1995

b is the appropriate width obtained as follows:

b = d for webs
b = b for internal flange elements (except RHS)
b = b-3t for flanges of RHS
b = c for outstand flanges
b = (b+h)/2 for equal –leg angles
b = h or (b+h)/2 for unequal –leg angles

Instructor: Abrham Gebre  Page 4 
 
CENG 453‐ Design of Steel and Timber Structures                                            Chapter 3‐ Compression Members     

3.6 Latticed Members

To design lacings the followings points have to be considered

• Lacing shall be proporsioned to resist a shearing stress normal to the axis of the member
equal to 2% of the compressive stress of the member.
→ V=0.02N (N is the normal force to the member)

P= V/cosθ
P is the design force of the lacing

• the inclination of the lacing bars to axis of member shall not be less than 60° (α > 60°) and
L1=2btanα
• for lacings, the slenderness ratio shall be less than 140. and r ≅ 0.4h

Single Lacing Double Lacing

Instructor: Abrham Gebre  Page 5