CENG 

453‐ Design of Steel and Timber Structures     Chapter 4‐ Beams   

4. Beams
4.1 Types and uses
Beams are subjected to transverse gravity loading. Beams span between supports to carry lateral
loads which are resisted by bending and shear. However, deflections and local stresses are also
important.
Beams may be cantilevered, simply supported, fixed ended or continuous. The main uses of beams
are to support floors and columns, carry roof sheeting as purlins and side cladding as sheeting rails.

Fig 4.1 Some types of beam sections

Any section may serve as a beam, and common beam sections. Some comments on the different
sections are given:
→ The universal beam where the material is concentrated in the flanges is the most efficient
section to resist uniaxial bending.
→ The compound beam consisting of a universal beam and flange plates is used where the
depth is limited and the universal beam itself is not strong enough to carry the load.
Beams may be of uniform or non-uniform section. Sections may be strengthened in regions of
maximum moment by adding cover plates or haunches.

1.3.1 Bending stresses

Uniaxial bending: The bending stress distributions for an I-section beam subjected to uniaxial
moment are shown below.

Fig 4.2 Uniaxial stress distributions for an I- section

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CENG 453‐ Design of Steel and Timber Structures     Chapter 4‐ Beams   

Mx
The maximum stress in the extreme fibers top and bottom is: σ bc = σ bt =
Zx
Where: Mx = applied bending moment;
Ix = moment of inertia about x–x axis;
Zx =2Ix/D = modulus of section for x–x axis; and
D = overall depth of beam.

Biaxial bending: When a beam section is bent about both axes, the neutral axis will lie at an
angle to the rectangular axes which depends on the section properties and
values of the moments.

Fig 4.3 Biaxial stress distributions for an I- section

Mx My
The maximum stress at A or B is: σ A = σ B = +
Zx Zy
Where: Mx = moment about the x–x axis,
My = moment about the y–y axis,
Zx = modulus of section for the x–x axis,
Zy = modulus of section for the y–y axis.

4.2 Classification of beam cross-sections

During design of beams it is important to classify the cross section by limiting outstand/thickness
ratios for flanges and depth/thickness ratios for webs. The same classification that was set out for
compression members is used for beams.

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CENG 453‐ Design of Steel and Timber Structures     Chapter 4‐ Beams   

4.3 Beam loads

Types of beam loads are concentrated loads from secondary beams & columns; and distributed
loads from self-weight and floor slabs.
The loads are further classified into:
a. dead loads from self weight, slabs, finishes, etc.
b. imposed loads from people, fittings, snow on roofs, etc.
c. wind loads, mainly on purlins and sheeting rails.

4.3 Beam Design

When designing a beam, the following cross section resistances need to be checked. A design is
said to be safe if the capacity of the selected or assumed cross section exceeds the maximum stress
where the given member is subjected to. These are:
i. Resistance to pure bending
ii. Resistance to shear
iii. Resistance to bending and shear interaction
iv. Resistance to Bending and Axial force
v. Resistance of Lateral Torsional Buckling (LTB)
vi. Resistance of shear buckling
vii. Buckling resistance of beam webs

i. Resistance to pure bending

Both elastic and plastic theories are discussed here. Short or restrained beams are considered in
this section. Plastic properties are used for plastic and compact sections and elastic properties
for semi-compact sections to determine moment capacities. For slender sections, only effective
elastic properties are used.
The design value of the bending moment doesn’t exceed the moment resistance of the cross
section.
i.e M sd ≤ M c , Rd

W pl f y
For class 1 and 2 cross sections, M pl , Rd =
γ mo

Wel f y
For class 3 cross sections, M el , Rd =
γ mo

Weff f y
For class 4 cross sections, M eff , Rd =
γ mo

Where: W pl = the plastic section modulus

Wel = the elastic section modulus

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CENG 453‐ Design of Steel and Timber Structures     Chapter 4‐ Beams   

Weff = the effective section modulus

γ mo = 1.10

ii. Resistance to Shear

The value of shear stress distribution at any point in a beam section is given in the following
figure.

Fig 4.4 Shear stress distributions and shear area for an I- section

The value of shear stress at any point in a beam section does not exceed the allowable
shearing stress. Shear capacity of the cross section is close to the yield stress of steel of
1 / 3 of the tensile yield stress and an approximate shear area, Av. In cases where d/t exceeds
the limit, shear buckling controls.
Vsd ≤ V pl , Rd

Av f y
V pl , Rd =
3γ mo
Where: V pl , Rd is the design plastic shear resistance of the cross section

The shear area Av may be computed as follows:

→ Rolled H-sections, load parallel to web; Av=A-2btf+(tw+2r)tf
→ Rolled C-sections; Av=A-2btf+(tw+r)tf
→ Welded I, H, box sections; Av=Σ(dtw)
→ Rolled RHS of uniform thickness, load parallel to the depth; Av=Ah/(b+h)
→ Rolled RHS of uniform thickness, load parallel to the braedth; Av=Ab/(b+h)
→ CHS and tubes of uniform thickness; Av=2A/ π
→ Plate and solid bars Av=A

For simplicity, Av= 1.04htw for rolled I, H or channel sections, load parallel to the web. Where h is
the overall depth of the web.

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CENG 453‐ Design of Steel and Timber Structures     Chapter 4‐ Beams   

iii. Resistance to Bending and Shear interaction

The plastic moment resistance of the cross section is reduced due to the interaction of bending
and shear. If the design plastic shear resistance of the cross section, Vsd, exceeds 50% of the
plastic moment resistance of the cross section, Vpl,Rd, then the design moment resistance of the
cross section is reduced to Mv,Rd, Otherwise no need to reduce plastic moment resistance.
The reduced moment resistance of the cross section, Mv,Rd, becomes:
⎡ ρA 2 ⎤ f y
M v , Rd = ⎢W pl − v ⎥ ≤ M c , Rd
⎣ 4 tw ⎦ γ mo

2
⎡ 2V ⎤
ρ = ⎢ sd − 1⎥
⎢⎣V pl , Rd ⎥⎦

iv. Resistance to Bending and Axial force

This topic will be discussed under chapter 5

v. Lateral Tensional buckling (LTB)

The compression flange of an I-beam acts like a column, and will buckle sideways if the beam
is not sufficiently stiff or the flange is not restrained laterally. The load at which the beam
buckles can be much less than that causing the full moment capacity to develop.
Consider the simply supported beam with ends free to rotate in plan but restrained against
torsion and subjected to end moments, as shown in Figure 4.5. Initially, the beam deflects in the
vertical plane due to bending, but as the moment increases, it reaches a critical value Mcr less
than the moment capacity, where it buckles sideways, twists and collapses.

Fig 4.5 LTB for an I- section

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CENG 453‐ Design of Steel and Timber Structures     Chapter 4‐ Beams   

Elastic theory is used to set up equilibrium equations to equate the disturbing effect to the lateral
bending and torsional resistances of the beam. The solution of this equation gives the elastic critical
moment:
i) For beams with doubly symmetric cross section,
π 2 EI Z I w + GL2 I t π 2 EI Z I w + 0.039 L2 I t
M cr = C1 = C1
L2 I Z π 2 EI Z L2 IZ

Where: Mcr= the elastic critical moment for LTB

E = Young’s modulus,
G = Shear modulus,
It = torsion constant for the section (torsional moment of inertia),
Iw = warping constant for the section,
L = span
Iz = moment of inertia about the z–z axis.
C1 = 1.88 − 1.44ψ + 0.52ψ 2 ≤ 2.70
ψ = the bending moment ratio (obtained from Table 4.12 of EBCS-3, 1995)

ii) For symmetrical cross sections with equal flanges, under standard condition of
restraints at each end, loaded through its shear center and subject to uniform moment
the elastic critical moment is given by:

π 2 EI Z I w + 0.039 L2 I t
M cr =
L2 IZ

iii) For other cases, refer section 4.6.3.2 of EBCS-3, 1995

The resistance to LTB is calculated as follows:

χ LT β w, yW pl f y
M b , Rd =
γ m1
1 for class 1 or 2 cross sections
β w, y =  Wel,y/Wpl,y for class 3 cross sections
Weff,y/Wpl,y for class 3 cross sections

λ LT β w, y f y
λ LT =
π E
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CENG 453‐ Design of Steel and Timber Structures     Chapter 4‐ Beams   

π 2 EW pl
λ LT =
M cr

χLT is a reduction factor for LTB and given by:

= 1 for λ LT<0.4
χ LT 1
= but χ LT ≤ 1 for λ LT>0.4
φ LT + (φ 2
LT − λ LT
2
) 0.5
 
φ LT = 0.5[1 + α LT (λ LT − 0.2) + λ LT2 ]
 

W pl , y β w, y f y λLT β w, y f y
λ LT =  =  
M cr π E
 
where: λ LT = the lateral torsional slenderness
φ LT = imperfection factor which shall be determined using α LT =0.21 for
rolled and α LT =0.49 for welded sections.
 
The factors influencing lateral torsional buckling are:
a. The unrestrained length of compression flange: The longer this is, the weaker the
beam. Lateral buckling is prevented by providing props at intermediate points.
b. The end conditions: Rotational restraint in plan helps to prevent buckling.
c. Section shape: Sections with greater lateral bending and torsional stiffness have
greater resistance to buckling.
d. Note that lateral restraint to the tension flange also helps to resist buckling
e. The application of the loads and shape of the bending moment diagram between
restraints.
The possibility of lateral torsional buckling may be discounted for the following cases:
• Bending takes place only about the minor axis
• If the member is restrained throughout its length by adequate bracing
• The lateral slenderness parameter λ LT < 0.4

   

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CENG 453‐ Design of Steel and Timber Structures     Chapter 4‐ Beams   

vi. Resistance of shear buckling

Webs need to be checked for stiffened or unstiffened web for shear buckling resistance if
69ε for an unstiffened web
d/tw >
30ε kτ for an stiffened web

All webs with d/tw >69ε shall be provided with transverse stiffeners at the supports. For webs
without immediate transverse stiffeners and for webs with transverse stiffeners only, the shear
buckling resistance Vba,Rd is given by using the simple-post critical method or the tension field
method.
a) The simple-post critical method
Vba,Rd= =dtw τ ba /γm1 > Vsd

where: kτ is the buckling factor for shear

τ ba is the simple post – critical shear strength
The simple post – critical shear strength should be obtained as follows:
fy
for λ w ≤ 0.8
3
fy
τ ba = [1 − 0.625(λ w − 0.8)] for 0.8 < λ w < 1.2
3
0 .9 f y
for λ w ≥ 1.2
λw 3
0.5
⎡ f ⎤ d / tw
λw = ⎢ y ⎥ =
⎣τ cr 3 ⎦ 37.4ε kτ

Where: τcr is the elastic critical shear strength

λw is web slenderness
kτ =5.34 for webs with transverse stiffeners at the supports but no intermediate
transverse stiffeners
5.34
kτ = 4 + for webs with transverse stiffeners at the supports and
(a / d w ) 2
intermediate transverse stiffeners with (a/dw)<1
4
kτ = 5.34 + for webs with transverse stiffeners at the supports and
(a / d w ) 2
intermediate transverse stiffeners with (a/dw)>1
a =panel length b/n stiffeners and dw =panel depth b/n flanges

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CENG 453‐ Design of Steel and Timber Structures     Chapter 4‐ Beams   

b) The tension field method

Refer section 4.6.4.3 of EBCS-3, 1995

vii. Buckling resistance of beam webs

Types of buckling caused by a load applied to the top flange are shown in Figure 4.6. The web
buckles at the centre if the flanges are restrained, otherwise sideways movement or rotation of
one flange relative to the other occurs.
If the flange through which the load or reaction is applied is effectively restrained against both:
a. rotation relative to the web; Figure 4.6(c) and
b. lateral movement relative to the other flange; Figure 4.6(b),
The design buckling resistance, Rb,Rd, of the web of I, H, or U section should be obtained by
considering the web as a virtual compression member with an effective breadth of beff.
beff = h 2 + S s2

Where: Ss= the length of stiff bearing (it is the distance over which the applied force
effectively applied.)
The buckling resistance of the web is obtained as did for compression members using buckling
curve C, βA=1 and buckling length not less than 0.75d. (Chapter 3)

Fig 4.6 Types of buckling

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CENG 453‐ Design of Steel and Timber Structures     Chapter 4‐ Beams   

Deflection of beams
Deflection is the main serviceability limit state that must be considered in design. The deflection
of a structure should not adversely affect the proper functioning or appearance of a structure.
The maximum deflection, δmax, of the beam does not exceed the limiting value.

Fig4.7 Vertical deflection of beams

δmax= δ1+δ2- δ0

Where: δ0=is the pre camber of the beam in the unloaded state
δ1=deflection due to permanent load
δ2=deflection due to live load plus any time dependent deformations
δmax=the sagging /deflection in the final state

Limiting values of deflection

According to EBCS-3, 1995, the limiting values of deflection for different conditions are
shown in table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Limiting values of deflection
Conditions δmax δ2
Roofs generally L/200 L/250
Roofs frequently carrying personnel other than for maintenance L/250 L/300
Floors generally L/250 L/300
Floors and roofs supporting plaster or other brittle finish or non- L/250 L/350
flexible partitions
Floors supporting columns (unless the deflection has been included L/400 L/500
in the global analysis for the ultimate limit state)
Where δmax can impair the appearance of a building L/250 -

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