Chapter Four Beams

Chapter 4
BEAMS(flexural member)
4.1 Introduction
Beams are structural members which transfer the transverse loads they carry to the supports by bending
and shear actions.
Beams used in building and bridges:
• Girder: Usually the most important beams, which are frequently at wide spacing.
• Joists: Usually less important beams, which are closely spaced frequently with truss-type webs?
• Stringers: Longitudinal Bridge beams spanning between floor beams.
• Purlins: Roof beams spanning between trusses.
• Grits: Horizontal wall beams serving principally to resist bending due to wind on sides of an
industrial building frequently supporting corrugated siding.
• Lintels: Members supporting a wall over window or door opening.
4.2 Typical cross-sectios of beams
Rolled I sections with or without cover plates are usually used for floor beams. Channels ,tee & -
angle- sections are usually used for beams in roof trusses as purlins and common rafters.
 For lightly loaded and small spans such as roof purlins and side sheeting rails the use of hot
rolled angle sections or channels sections is appropriate.
The most common types of beam cross-sections shown in Fig 4.1

Fig. 4.1 Cross-sections of beam

4.3 Bending Stress and Moment Capacity

In a beam subjected to an increasing moment, the bending stress diagram ranges from a linearly
elastic condition with the extreme fiber stresses less than the design strength fy, to one in which all
of the fibers can be considered to have reached the design strength as shown in Fig 4.2.

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 Elastic Theory
The bending stress are distributed linearly across any section of the beam, as shown in Fig 4.2 (a),
and the bending moment M is directly proportional to the curvature.
M=Zxx---------------------------- (4.1)
When the extreme fiber strain attains the value of the stress distribution is given by Fig 4.2(b) , the
corresponding moment, called elastic moment (yield moment) My and is computed as
My= fy Zxx (for class3) --------------------------------- (4.2)
Where = elastic stress
fy = yield stress
Zxx = elastic section modulus
 Plastic Theory
Once the yield strain of steel beam is exceeded the stress distribution is no longer linear. When the
yield moment is exceeded curvature increases rapidly as the plastic region proceeds inward until th e
full plastic moment is reached and a plastic hinge is formed as shown in Fig. 4.2 c. The full plastic
moment Mp, is computed from
M P =f y Sxx (for class 2 and 1) -------------------------------- (4.3)
Where
Sxx = Plastic section modulus of section
It can be observed that the ratio M p/M e is a property of the cross-sectional shape and is independent of
the material properties. The ratio is referred as the shape factor
 p S xx
  ----------------------- (4.4)
 y Z xx
4.4 Design of Beam
Design of beams can greatly influenced by the following:
 Resistance of cross-section due to bending
 Resistance of cross-section due to shear
 Lateral-torsional buckling
 Shear buckling of web plates
 Condition of support and point loads
• Web crippling
• Web buckling
• Web crushing
 Deflection

4.4.1 Resistance to pure bending

In the absence of shear force, the design value of the bending moment M sd design at each cross
section shall satisfy:
 c, sd   c, Rd -------------------------------- (4.5)
Where c, Rd =design moment resistance of the cross-section
 Class 1 and 2 cross-sections:
Moment resistance is the design plastic resistance moment.
Weff f y
 c, Rd   o, Rd  --------------------------- (4.6a)
 o

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• Class 3 cross-sections: Moment resistance is the design elastic resistance moment.

Wel f y
 c, Rd   el, Rd  ------------------------------- (4.6b)
 o
YMo is partial safety factor for Class 1,2 and 3 cross-section (=1.1)

• Class 4 cross-sections: Moment resistance is the design local buckling

Weff f y
 c, Rd   o, Rd  ----------------- (4.6c)
 1
Where γml is partial safety factor for Class 4 cross-section
WP = plastic modulus of cross-section about the major axis
Wel,y= elastic modulus of cross-section about the major axis
W eff,y = elastic modulus of effective cross-section about the major axis

EBCS 3EC 3 limit

The plastic resistance moment of a cross-section is reduced by the presence of shear. But when
the design value of the shear V sd does not exceed 50% of the design plastic shear resistance V pl.Rd
no reduction is needed.
4.4.2 Resistance to shear
The design value of the shear force V sd at each cross-section shall satisfy:
Vsd  V pl, Rd -------------------------- (4.7)
Where V r,,Rd = the design plastic shear resistance
The plastic shear resistance, Vpl,Rd of the shear area (Av) is given by:
A f 
v y 
V pl, Rd   3
--------------------------- (4.8)
 o
Shear areas A for various cross- sections given in EBCS 3 (section 4.6.1.2)
Example: For rolled I beam
Av, = A - 2bt f + (tw+ 2r)t f
For simplicity, the value of Av for rolled I, H or channel sections load parallel to web, may be
taken as 1.04ht w.

Resistance of cross-section for bending and shear

The plastic resistance moment of the section is reduced by the presence of shear. If the design
shear force exceeds 50% of the plastic shear resistance, the design moment resistance of the cross -
section is reduced to M v, Rd, reduced design plastic resistance moment, for (cross -sections with
equal flanges, bending about the major axis)
 
  fy
 v, Rd  W A 2    c, Rd ---------------------------- (4.9)
 pl  v   o
 4t w 

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2
 2Vsd 
Where     1
 V pl, Rd 
 

4.4.3 Shear Buckling of Beam Webs

The shear buckling resistance of a web shall be checked

For an unstiffened web
d
When  69 ------------------- (4.10a)
tw
For a stiffended web
d
 30 k ------------------------------- (4.10b)
tw
Kτ is the buckling factor for shear obtained as:
For an unstiffened web: Kτ=5.34
- For web with transverse stiffeners
- For stiffeners with a/d w<1
Kτ = 4+5.34/(a/dw) 2
- For stiffeners with a/d w > 1: Kτ = 5.34+4/(a/d w)2
Where a = panel length between stiffeners (clear spacing between stiffeners) dw = panel depth between
flanges (web depth).
To check shear buckling resistance refer EBCS 3 section 4.6.4
4.4.4 Lateral-Tensional Bucklin
Beams cross-sections are proportioned so that the moment of inertia about the major principal axis. This is
done to produce economical beams. As a result, they are relatively weak in resistance to torsion and to
bending about the minor axis, and if not held in one by the floor construction or by bracing, they may
become unstable under load. The instability manifests itself as a sidewise bending accompanied by twist
and is called lateral-tensional buckling.
Fig 4.3 illustrates the response of a slender cantilever beam to a vertical end load; this phenomenon
is termed lateral-torsional buckling. Although it involves both a lateral deflection (u) and twis ting
about a vertical axis through the web (ϕ ), as shown in Fig. 4.2, this type of instability is quite similar
to the simpler flexural buckling of an axially loaded strut. Loading the beam in its stiffer plane (the
plane of the web) has induced a failure by buckling in a less stiff direction (by deflecting sideways and
twisting).

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Fig. 4.3 Response of a slender cantilever beam to vertical loading: lateral- torsional buckling

Lateral-torsional instability influences the design of laterally unrestrained beams in much the same
way that flexural buckling influences the design of columns. Thus the bending strength will now be a function
of the beam's slenderness.
Elastic Critical moment for lateral-torsional Buckling
The basic model used to illustrate the theory of lateral - torsional buckling is shown in Fig. 4.4. It assumes the
following:
o beam is initially straight
o elastic behavior
o uniform equal flanged I-section
 ends simply supported in the lateral plane (twist and lateral deflection prevented, no rotational restraint in
plan).
 Loaded by equal and opposite end moments in the plane of the web.

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Fig. 4.4 Definition of basic lateral -torsional buckling problem

The beam is placed in its buckled position, as in Fig. 4.5, and the magnitude of the applied load necessary to
hold it there determined by equating the disturbing effect of the end moments, acting through the buckling
deformations, to the internal (bending and torsional) resistance of the section.

Fig. 4.5 buckling position of beam

The elastic critical moment for lateral -tensional buckling of a beam is given by:

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 cr  0.5 (4.12)
 2 EI Z  I wL2 GI t 
  2 
L2  z
I  EI Z 

• Lateral flexural stiffness EI z

• Torsional and Warping stiff nesses GI t and EIw
The presence of the flexural (EIz) and torsional (GIt, and EIw) stiffnesses of the member in the equation is a
direct consequence of the lateral and torsional components of the buckling deformations.

For beams with double symmetric cross-sections the elastic critical moment for lateral -tensional buckling is
given by the formula: (For other cases refer EBCS 3)

k refers to end rotation on plan; it is analogous to the ratio l/L for a compression member.
EBCS3 recommends k values of
- 0.5 for fully fixed ends,
- 0.7 for one free and one fixed end
-1.0 for two free ends.

Kw = 1.0. unless special provision for warping fixing is made.

• C1, C2, are values given in Table 4.12 and 4.13 EBCS 3 for various loading cases.
• L is the length of the beam between points which have lateral restraints.
. Zg = Za - Zs
Za is the co-ordinate of the point of load application
Zs is the co-ordinate of the shear center
For transverse loads applied at the shear center Z g = 0
G
• G = 81000 N/mm2 and =0.039
 2E
Lateral-torsional buckling resistance
Significant differences exist between the assumptions which form the basis of the theory and the characteristics
of real beams. Since the theory assumes elastic behavior, it provides an upper bound on the true strength.
Fig. 4.6 compares a typical set of lateral -tensional buckling test data obtained using actual hot rolled sections
with the theoretical elastic critical moments given by Equation (4.12).

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(b) Comparison of test data with Mcr

Fig 4.6 comparison of test data with Mcr with theoretical elastic

Use of the  LT non-dimensional format in Fig 4.6 has the advantage of permitting results from
different test series (using different cross-sections and different material strengths) to be compared
directly. In Fig. 4.6 three distinct regions of behaviour can be observed:

 Stocky beams which are able to attain M pl, with values of  LT below about 0.4
 Slender beams which fail at moments close to M cr, with values of  LT above 1.2.
 Beams of intermediate slenderness which fail to reach either M cr, with 0.4 <  LT < 1.2.
Only in the case of beams in region 1 does lateral stability not influence design. For beams in region
2, which covers much of the practical range of beams without lateral restraint, design must be based
on considerations of inelastic buckling suitably modified to allow for geometrical imperfections,
residual stresses, etc. Thus both theory and tests must play a part, with the inherent complexity of the
problem being such that the final design rules are likely to involve some degree of empiricism.

Design Approach
In order to prevent possibility of beam failure due to lateral torsional buckling, the designer needs to
ensure that the buckling resistance, M b,Rd exceed the design moment Msd
 sd   b, Rd
EBCS 3 uses a reduction factor χ LT on plastic resistance moment to cover the whole slenderness range.
The design buckling resistance moment Mb,Rd of a laterally unstrained beam is calculated as:

 b, RD  LT  wW pl, y f Y       -(4.14)

 1
Where fy = is the yield strength
β w= 1 for class 1 or class 2 cross-sections
β w =Wel,y /W pl,y , for class 3 cross-sections 8

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β w =W eff, / Wp ,, for class 4 Cross-sections

W pl,y= plastic modulus of cross-section about the major axis
Wel,y = elastic modulus of cross-section about the major axis
We ff,y = elastic modulus of effective cross-section about the major axis
 = a reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling and is given by
LT

1 ----------------------------- (4.15)
 LT  1

 LT   LT 2   LT 2 0.5

 LT  0.51   LT  LT  0.2   LT 2  --------------- (4.16)

 
 α is an imperfection factor for lateral torsional buckling shall be taken as:
α LT= 0.21 for rolled sections
α LT = 0.49 for welded sections
 The value of non dimensional slenderness  LT
            (4.17)
 W W pl , y f y 
0.5
 
 LT     LT W 0.5
  cr   1 
Mcr is the elastic critical moment for lateral-tensional buckling
E 235
1   =93.9ε,  ,(f y in Mpa)
fy fy
 If LT < 0.4 no allowance for lateral-torsional buckling is necessary, thus
χ LT=1M b,Rd= Mc,Rd

Restrained beam
Beams which are unable to move laterally are termed restrained beam. Restrained beams are unaffecte d by
lateral-torsional buckling
Beams may be considered restrained if:
 Full lateral restraint is provided by embedment of the compression flange in a concrete floor slab (fig a
and b).
 Lateral support at intervals (Fig c through g) provided by cross beams, cross frames, ties , or
struts , framing in laterally , where the lateral system is itself adequately stiff and braced
Concrete slab Concrete slab

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(f) (Q)

Fig.4.7 Types of definite lateral support

4.4.5 Conditions of web resistance to supports or point loads
In addition to shearing and bending stresses in the web of a beam, there are compressive stresses in the vertical
direction because of bearing of the loads on the flanges. Web crippling can occur if the web in-plane
compressive stresses are sufficiently large. This can occur if reaction distance or load-bearing plates used to
deliver column loads to the beam flange (concentrated loads are applied to beams) are too narrow. Web
crippling also occur if a uniform load on the flange is too large for the web thickness. Web crippling control
will be obtained by determining the required reaction distance or column base plate width.

Loading type (a)

Loading type (b)
Fig.4.8 web failure

EBCS 3 identifies three possible modes of failure due to loads applied to the web through a flange (Fig 4.8).
a) crushing of the web close to the flange , accompanied by plastic deformation of the flange
b) crippling of the web in the form of localized buckling and crushing of the web close to the flange,
accompanied by plastic deformation of the flange
c) Buckling of the web over most of the depth of the member.
A distinction is also made between two types of load applications:
a) Forces applied through a flange and resisted by shear in the web (Fig 4.8 a)
b) Forces applied through one flange and transferred through the web directly to the other flange (Fig 4.8 b)
For loading type (a) the web resistance should be taken as the smaller of (1) and (2) above, i.e (1) the crushing
resistance and (2) the crippling resistance. For loading type (b) the web resistance should be taken as the
smaller of (1) and (3), i.e. (1) the crushing resistance and ( 3) the buckling resistance.

The resistance of web at points when concentrated load act (support) shall be checked against:

a) web crushing
b) web crippling
c) web buckling, by using EBCS 3 section 4.6.6
4.4.6 Deflection
Steel beams shall be proportioned that deflections are with in limits. Deflection is a serviceability
consideration; thus the service loads the unfactored load) are used to calculate the deflections. EBCS
3/EC3 recommends two limiting values for vertical deflections,  2 and  max
as shown in table 4.1 and Fig. 4.9.

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Chapter Four Beams

Fig.4.9 Vertical deflection

Table 4.1 recommended limiting value for vertical deflections

Conditions Limits  max 2
Roofs generally L L
200 250
Roofs frequently used carrying personnel other L L
Than for maintenance 250 300

Floors generally L L
250 300
Floors and roofs supporting plaster or other brittle L L
Finish or non flexible partitions 250 350
Floors supporting columns(unless the deflection L L
Has been included in the global analysis for ultimate 400 500
Limit state L
250
Where  max can impair the appearance of the building

Deflection formulas for some common load cases are given in Table 4.2

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Table 4.2 Values of the maximum deflection

5 WL4
384 EI

1 PL3
48 EI

PL3  3a a 3
  4  
48EI L  L  


1 WL4
384 EI

1 PL3
192 EI

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2 Pa 2 b 3
3 EI 3L  2a 2

E=Modulus of elasticity of steel

I=Moment of inertia of the cross section

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