THEORY & DESIGN OF

STRUCTURES
C3 -05 (5S3 NVQ 2045)

Eng. Y.A.P.M Yahampath

B Sc. Eng (Hons), Dip Highway & Traffic Eng, AMIESL, AMECSL
Lecture Hours Allocated
Lecture / Tutorial Practical Demonstrations/ Self Study Total
Industrial visits

72 Hrs 00 Hrs 38 Hrs 110 Hrs

Unit Title Time (Hrs)

Combined Direct & Bending stresses 10
Principle stresses & strain 06
Structural design principles 06
Designing of Reinforced concrete 26
elements
Design of structural steel elements 18
Structural detailing 06
Total 72
DESIGN OF REINFORCED
CONCRETE ELEMENTS
Fundamental concept of structural design
Use of code of practice (BS 8110 – Part -1)
Design simple structural Elements
 Design codes and standards
• The main Code of Practice for the design of reinforced or pre stressed concrete structures (excluding bridges) was
BS 8110, Structural use of concrete.
• This is divided into two parts.
• Part 1, Code of practice for design and construction is intended for general use and includes simple ´deemed to
satisfy´ approaches for aspects such as deflections.
• Part 2, Code of practice for special circumstances gives more detailed design approaches.

• The design in BS 8110:1997 was originally on the basis of Grade 460 steel with a partial safety factor of 1.05.
• This was amended in 2005 to Grade 500 steel with a partial safety factor of 1.15, bringing it into line with the
changes in the reinforcement standards.
• BS 8110 is now superseded by Eurocode 2, BS EN 1992, Design of concrete structures, Part 1-1, General rules and
rules for buildings, which was published in January 2005, and its UK National Annex.

• Traditionally, liquid retaining structures have been designed to BS 8007, Design of concrete structures for retaining
acqueous liquids´. This extended BS 8110 with particular emphasis on the provision of reinforcement to control
crack widths. The code has now been replaced by Eurocode 2 Part 3, Liquid retaining and containment structures.

• Bridges were designed to BS 5400, Steel, concrete and composite bridges, Part 4, Code of practice for design of
concrete bridges. BS 5400 Part 4 has been replaced by Eurocode 2 Part 2, Reinforced and prestressed concrete
bridges. Both these standards are used in conjuction with and the appropriate parts of the Highways England´s,
Design manual for roads and bridges.
Assumptions - BS 8110
3.4 Beams
3.4.1 General
3.4.1.1 Design limitations
• This sub-clause deals with the design of beams of normal proportions. Deep
beams of clear span less than twice the effective depth are not considered.
• For the design of deep beams, reference should be made to specialist literature.
• Concrete is strong in compression but weak and unreliable in tension.
• Reinforcement is required to resist tension due to moment.
• A beam when loads applied,
compression
Apply load

tension
• Concrete at the top resists compression and the steel resists tension at
bottom.
• Design is based on the strength of the section calculated from the
stress distribution at collapse.(at ultimate condition, not in
serviceability conditions)
• Therefore beam section design for the ultimate state.
• An elastic section analysis is later carried out for checking the
serviceability limit states.
 BEAM DESIGN PROCEDURE
Step Task Standard
1 Determine design life
2 Assess actions on the beam BS 6399-1,2,3
3 Determine which combinations of actions apply BS 8110-1-1997-Cl 2.4.3.1
4 Determine loading arrangements BS 8110-1-1997-Cl 2.4.3
5 Assess durability requirements and determine concrete BS 5328-1-1997-Cl 3.1.5.
strength
6 Check cover requirements for appropriate fire resistance BS 8110-1-1997-Table 3.4
period
7 Calculate min. cover for durability, fire and bond BS 8110-1-1997-Table 3.3
requirements
8 Analyze structure to obtain critical moments & shear forces BS 8110-2-1997-Cl 3.4.4.1.
9 Design flexural reinforcement BS 8110-1-1997-Cl 3.4.4.4
10 Check shear capacity BS 8110-1-1997-Cl 3.4.5

11 Check deflection BS 8110-1-1997-Cl 3.4.6

12 Check spacing of bars BS 8110-1-1997-Cl 3.12.11
3.4.1.2 Effective span of simply-supported beams
3.4.1.2 Effective span of simply-supported beams
• The effective span of a simply-supported beam may be taken as the smaller of the
distance between the centres of bearings, or the clear distance between supports plus
the effective depth.

3.4.1.3 Effective span of a continuous member

• The effective span of a continuous member should be taken as the distance between
centres of supports.
• The centre of action of support at an encastré end should be taken to be at half the
effective depth from the face of the support.

3.4.1.4 Effective length of a cantilever

• The effective length of a cantilever should be taken as its length to the face of the
support plus half its effective depth except where it forms the end of a continuous
beam where the length to the centre of the support should be used.
3.4.1.5 Effective width of flanged beam
• In the absence of any more accurate determination this should be taken as:
a) for T-beams: web width +lz/5 or actual flange width if less;
b) for L-beams: web width +lz/10 or actual flange width if less;
Where,
lz is the distance between points of zero moment (which, for a continuous beam,
may be taken as 0.7 times the effective span).
3.4.4.3 Symbols
For the purposes of 3.4.4 the following symbols apply.
3.4.4.4 Design formulae for rectangular beams
(BS 8110 -1-1997-Pg.25)
3.4.4 Design resistance moment of beams
3.4.4.1 Analysis of sections
In the analysis of a cross-section to determine its ultimate moment of resistance the following assumptions should
be made.
a).The strain distribution in the concrete in compression and the strains in the reinforcement, whether in tension or
compression, are derived from the assumption that plane sections remain plane.

b) The stresses in the concrete in compression may be derived from,

 the stress-strain curve in Figure 2.1 with ϒm = 1.5.
 Alternatively, the simplified stress block illustrated in Figure 3.3 may be used.

c) The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.

Note that in both cases the strain in the concrete at failure is 0.0035;

d) The stresses in the reinforcement are derived from the stress-strain curve in Figure 2.2 with ϒm = 1.05.
e) Where a section is designed to resist only flexure, the lever arm should not be assumed to be greater than 0.95
times the effective depth.
Neutral Axis (n)
• Neutral axis lies at the centre of gravity of the section. It is defined as that axis at
which the stresses are zero. It divides the section into tension and compression
zone. The position of the neutral axis depends upon the shape (dimensions) of
the section and the amount of steel provided.
• The position of neutral axis of any rectangular section can be found by the
following two methods :
• Stresses in Concrete and Steel are Known
• Dimensions of the Beam and Area of Steel are Known
Lever Arm Expression
• The lever arm is the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the
couple forming compressive and tensile force in a Reinforced concrete section.
• Lever arm is the distance between force of compression and force of tension in
a beam, represented by z
• As the compressive area is triangular, the resultant compressive force (C) will act
at n/3 from the top compressive fibre. The resultant tensile force (T) will act the
centroid of the steel reinforcement.
• Lever arm = z = (d – n/3)

• The lever arm plays a vital role in the calculation of the moment of resistance,
maximum and minimum reinforcement ratios, etc.
Moment of Resistance (Mr)
• Moment of resistance is the
resistance offered by the beam
against external loads. As there
is no resultant force acting on
the beam and the section is in
equilibrium, the total
compressive force is equal to
the total tensile force. These
two forces (equal and opposite
separated by a distance) will
form a couple and the moment
of this couple is equal to the
resisting moment or moment of
resistance of the section.
 0.0035 0.45 fcu 0.45 fcu
b
k2 x
C=k1 bx
ϵ0
Neutral Axis

d T
0.95 fy
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) Section; (b) Strain; (c) rectangular parabolic strain diagram; (d) simplified stress diagram

Stress-strain curve for concrete Stress-strain curve for reinforcement

Moment of Resistance – Simplified stress block
According to the beam section and the strain and stress diagrams,
The concrete stress is,
0.67 fcu / ϒm = 0.67 fcu / 1.5 = 0.45 fcu

The concrete strain is 0.0035.

The steel stress is

fy / 1.05 = 0.95fy

According to the simplified stress diagram the internal forces are,

C = force in the concrete in compression T = force in the steel in tension

= 0.45 fcu x 0.9b x 0.5d = 0.95 fy As
= 0.201 fcu bd

For the internal forced to be in equilibrium C = T ; z = lever arm

= d – 0.5 x 0.9 x 0.5d
MR = Moment of Resistance = 0.775d
= Cz
= 0.201 fcu bd x 0.775d
= 0.156 fcu bd2

Where the constant K=0.156, MR = Kfcu bd2

 START
Procedure for
Carry out analysis of beam to determine determining
design moments(M)
flexural
Determine k from K = M/(bd2fcu ) reinforcement

NO Compression reinforcement
Is K< K’ ?
required
YES

No compression reinforcement required

Use following equations to calculate r/f area
Use following equations to calculate r/f area  K' 
z  d 0.5  0.25  
 0.9 
 K 
z  d 0.5  0.25    0.95d x  (d  z) 0.45
 0.9 
As '  ( K  K ' ) f cu bd 2 0.95 f y (d  d ' )
x  (d  z) 0.45
As  K ' f cu bd 2 0.95 f y z  As '
As  M 0.95 f y z

Check for maximum and minimum reinforcement requirements for tension and compression
reinforcement
3.4.4.5 Design of flanged beams
Flanged beams occur where beams are cast integral with and support a continuous floor slab. Part of the slab adjacent to the
beam is counted as acting in compression to form T and L shape beams

The effective breadth b of flanged beams is given by

1. T-beams – web width bw+lz/10 or the actual flanged width if less
2. L-beams – web width bw+lz/5 or the actual flanged width if less

lz is the distance between points of zero moment (which for a continuous beam, may be taken as o.7 times the effective span)

The design procedure depends on where the neutral axis lies. The neutral axis
may lie in the flange or in the web.
If it is in web it needs to check whether the section needs compression
reinforcement.
Neutral Axis is in flange

To satisfy the criteria the actual neutral axis depth (0.9X) should not exceed flange depth hf.
The moment of resistance of the section for the case when 0.9X = hf ,

MR = 0.45 fcu b hf (d- hf/2)

If the applied moment M is lesser than the moment of resistance of the flange MR neutral axis lies within the flange.

Neutral Axis is in web

Equation in the code is derived using the simplified stress block with X=o.5d;
depth of stress block = 0.9X = 0.45d

M  0.1 f cu bw d (0.45d  h f )
As 
0.87 f y (d  0.5h f )
This applies only when X is less than 0.45d.
If otherwise the section should design for the compression reinforcement also.
 START
Designing of
Carry out analysis of beam to determine beams with
design moments(M)
flanged
Find the Moment of Resistance of the sections
flange section(MRF)

NO
Is M > MRF ? Neutral axis is in flange

YES
Design is same as for a
Neutral axis is in web rectangular beam

Find the Moment of Resistance of the

section when neutral axis depth is d/2 -(MR)

NO No compression reinforcement
Is M > MR ?
required
YES
Use following equations to
Compression reinforcement required calculate r/f area
M  0.1 f cu bw d (0.45d  h f )
As 
0.87 f y (d  0.5h f )
Shear reinforcement in beams
Action of shear reinforcement

Concrete is weak in tension, and so shear failure is caused by a failure in diagonal tension with cracks running at 45o
to the beam axis. Shear reinforcement is provided by bars which cross the cracks, and theoretically either vertical
links of inclined bars will serve this purpose.

(a) (b)

(a) Inclined bars and links ; (b) vertical links

V
Design shear stress in any cross section; 
bv d

The design concrete shear stress is given in Table 3.8.

After compare the values it can find the form and area of shear reinforcement using Table 3.7
 Design shear resistance of beams
START

Find the design shear stress -

Find the design concrete shear stress -

Provide links or links

Minimum links should
be provided in all
beams of structural whole length of beam
importance
combined with bent-up
bars, not more than
Minimum links for
50% of the shear
resistance provided by
the steel may be in the
form of bent-up bars
Basic span/effective depth ratio
Table 3.9 – Basic span/effective depth ratio for rectangular or flanged beams
Support conditions Rectangular section Flanged beam with
(bw/b < 0.3)
Cantilever 7 5.6
Simply supported 20 16.0
Continuous 26 20.8
For values greater than 0.3, linear interpolation between the values given in Table 3.9
for rectangular sections and for flanged beams with bw/b of 0.3 may be used

Modification factors for tension reinforcement

Modification factors for tension reinforcement is given in Table 3.10 of the
code. These values were derived from the equation;
(477  f s )
Modification _ Factor  0.55   2.0
 M 
120 0.9  2 
Where  bd 
M is the design ultimate moment at the center of the span or, at the support.

The design service stress(fs) in the tension r/f in a member is found by following
equation, 2 f y As ,req 1
fs  
3 As , prov b
Modification factor for compression reinforcement 100 A' s, prov bd Factor
0.00 1.00
Modification factor for compression reinforcement 0.15 1.05
is given in Table 3.11 0.25 1.08
0.35 1.10

These values were derived from the equation; 0.50 1.14

0.75 1.20

A' s , prov  A' s , prov  1.0 1.25

1  100  3    1.5 1.5 1.33
bd  bd  2.0 1.40
2.5 1.45
>3.0 1.50

Check for the deflection

•Allowable span/eff. depth can be calculated by multiplying basic span/eff. depth

from Table 3.9 by the modification factors for tension and compression
reinforcement.
•Then it is compared with the actual span-to-effective depth ratio.
•If allowable s/d is greater than actual s/d, beam is satisfies the deflection criteria.
•If otherwise not
 START Check for
deflection
Basic span/eff. depth ratio(s/d) - TABLE 3.9 of beams
If span >10m ; (Table 3.9)x(10/span)

Modification factor for tension

reinforcement(MFT) - TABLE 3.10 Actual span/effective depth ratio
(Act. s/d)
Modification factor for compression
reinforcement(MFC) - TABLE 3.11

Allowable span/effective depth ratio

(All. s/d = (s/d) x MFT x MFC )

Act. s/d < All. s/d

NO YES

Design is NOT OK Design is OK

QUESTIONS ?