EG-154 Conceptual Design Section 5

Module EG-154
Conceptual Design and

Analysis
Section 5:
Sustainability &
concrete
Preliminary design of
reinforced concrete
beams, slabs and
columns.
Dr Will Bennett
Faculty of Science and Engineering
Swansea University
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 5
What is reinforced concrete?

 Reinforced concrete is a composite material made from concrete and steel bars that
can be cast into virtually any shape.
 Steel reinforcement or “rebar” provides enhanced tensile strength to an otherwise
brittle material. Concrete provides excellent compressive strength and also greatly
increases the durability and fire resistance of the steel.
 Reinforced concrete structures can be entirely site-poured or use precast elements
that are brought to site.
 Reinforced concrete can be further strengthened by the use of pre-stressed or post-
tensioned steel cables embedded within the concrete.
 Sustainability in the concrete industry
 Concrete is typically a locally manufactured product with a local supply chain – hence
traceability of materials and evidencing of ethical sourcing is straightforward and
reliable.
 91% of concrete component materials are responsibly sourced (sourced in a manner
compliant with BES 6001)
 However the emissions from cement production lead to high embodied CO2 of
concrete:
 From 1990 to 2012 there was a 22% reduction
 GGBS and PFA can be used as cement replacements, but they are products of high
carbon industries and limited
 The concrete industry is a net user of waste (not a producer). In 2013 it consumed 79
times more recovered and waste material than that which it sent to landfill.
 Where does this used waste come from?
 Concrete manufacture own process waste
 Industry by-products e.g. fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS)
 Material diverted from the waste stream e.g. recycled fine and coarse aggregates
 Concrete is itself 100% recyclable
Sustainability in performance
 Concrete construction is suitable for a very wide range of applications and can be
easily adapted to suit specific construction and design requirements, including low-
waste solutions.
 The high thermal mass of concrete can result in reduced energy consumption (for
heating and cooling of facilities) and correspondingly reduced CO2 emissions.
 Concrete structures often meet or exceed required standards for fire and acoustics
without the need for additional finishing materials i.e. concrete is materially
efficient.
 Concrete is long-lasting, durable and low maintenance – a low-impact form of
construction.
 Structures can be adapted/repurposed over the long-term if no longer suitable.
 Designers can build-in water-saving technology, such as rainwater capture and
sustainable drainage systems (SuDS)
 In-use benefits include: thermal mass, fire resistance, acoustic performance,
durability, flood resilience, free from VOCs and formaldehyde
Assessing sustainability of buildings - BREEAM

 The BRE Environmental Assessment Method
(BREEAM) is one of the most widely used and globally
recognised systems for measuring building
sustainability performance.
 Performance is measured against established
benchmarks for a development’s specification,
design, construction and use.
 The measures cover a broad range of factors relating
to energy and water use, the internal environment
(health & wellbeing), pollution, transport, materials,
waste, ecology and management.
 The scheme is voluntary but is increasingly being used
by developers as an indicator of high quality
development and by government – for example a
development’s required BREEAM rating is frequently
referred to as part of the specification of publicly
funded buildings.
 See www.breeam.com for case studies, technical standards, resources etc.
To calculate the final BREEAM score, the total

number of credits in each section is multiplied
by an environmental weighting factor, fixed by
BRE global. This takes into account both the
assessment type and the importance each
category is deemed to have.
The result is then added to any additional
innovation credits to produce a final
percentage.
Minimum standards must always be met in
certain sections relating to management,
energy, water, materials and land use and
ecology.
Total category score 1 x Environmental weighting 1
+
Total category score 2 x Environmental weighting 2
 BREEAM credits are available in Man01 for the appointment of a “sustainability champion”.
 Credits are available for undertaking early sustainability assessments - Stakeholder Consultation in Man01.
 Environmental strategies integrated into the design from the outset are more likely to be cost-effective
Scoring BREEAM credits with concrete

Concrete Classes according to EC2

 In EC2 the concrete design strength is specified in terms of 28-day characteristic
compressive strength of cylinders, fck. The standard concrete classes are as follows:
Strength Strain at maximum Ultimate strain

class fck (MPa) strength c2 cu2
C12 12
C16 16
C20 20
C25 25
C30 30 0.002 0.0035
C35 35
C40 40
C45 45
C50 50
C55 55 0.0022 0.0031
C60 60 0.0023 0.0029
C70 70 0.0024 0.0027
C80 80 0.0025 0.0026
C90 90 0.0026 0.0026
Design compressive strength of concrete

 The design compressive strength of concrete fcd
is given by:
“Characteristic” behaviour Failure
fck
 cc fck 0.85fck X
fcd    0.567fck
c 1.5
where
fcd = Design value of concrete compressive strength “Design” behaviour Failure
fcd X
cc = Coefficient taking account of long-term effects
on the compressive strength and unfavourable
Stress MPa
effects due to load application method = 0.85
(from Table NA.1, Cl. 3.1.6(1)P, National Annex
EC2)
fck = Characteristic compressive cylinder strength of
concrete at 28 days
c = Partial safety factor for concrete =1.5 (from
Table 2.1N, Cl. 2.4.2.4, EC2)
c2 = Strain at maximum strength Strain c2 cu2
= 0.002 (for concrete classes ≤ C50)

Idealised parabolic-rectangular
cu2 = Ultimate strain (strain at failure) stress-strain diagram for concrete
= 0.0035 (for concrete classes ≤ C50)
Reinforcement Classes according to EC2

 In Eurocode 2, steel reinforcement bars are considered to have a characteristic yield
strength fyk=500N/mm2 and come in three possible grades of ductility:
 Class A (least ductile): Indicated by the ribs on both sides of the bar sloping in the
same direction:
 Class B: Indicated by the rib pattern on each side of the bar sloping in the opposite
direction:
 Class C (most ductile): Indicated by the more complex double rib pattern:
Design tensile strength of rebar - bi-linear stress-strain relationship

 A bi-linear stress-strain relationship is Characteristic tension/
commonly used, which assumes a fyk compression behaviour
constant post-yield stress.
 The behaviour of the steel is identical Design tension/
in tension and compression, and fyd compression behaviour
linear within the elastic range.
Stress MPa
 The stress in the rebar can be simply
evaluated for a given strain using the
stress-strain curve for rebar, together Gradient = Es=200kN/mm2
with the following expressions:
y
 fyk  Strain
Design yield strain  y    /E s  0.00217
 s 
fyk  Characteristic strength = 500N/mm2 for normal strength rebar
 s  Partial safety factor for normal ductility rebar = 1.15 (from Table 2.1N, Cl. 2.4.2.4, EC2)
Es  Young' s modulus of elasticity for rebar, typically = 200kN/mm2
Ideal load-deformation behaviour of reinforced concrete: “Under-reinforced”

concrete with highly ductile, predictable failure
 Phase 1: As the load is applied the
Ultimate load 4
concrete and the steel behave
X Failure
homogeneously until the concrete in
Load
Post-yield
tension at the bottom of the beam 3 loading
cracks. (plastic)
 Phase 2: The concrete in the

compression at the top of the beam and
the steel in the tension at the bottom Approximate
behave elastically until the strains reach 2 range of service
critical values. loading (elastic)
 Phase 3: The steel in tension zone yields

and becomes plastic at the position of Cracking load
the maximum bending moment (under-
1
reinforcement) ... or causes the concrete
in the compressive zone to develop Deflection
longitudinal cracks (over-reinforcement).
 Phase 4: Increasing deformation with no
further increase in the load until failure.
Beams and columns form the basis of most buildings ancient and modern….
 Roof/floor slab actions to..

 Beams to…
 Columns to
 Foundations to..
 Ground
Structural forms: Beams

Transverse
 A beam is a structural element load
that is typically required to
withstand transverse loading.
 Typically the top half of the
beam is in compression, whilst
the bottom half is in tension.
 Beams are typically loaded by
point loads or distributed loads
or some combination of both.
Stresses in a reinforced concrete beam section in bending

 Concrete in tension will have cracks at right angles to the direction of the tensile
stresses. Concrete in compression will have cracks in line with the compressive
stresses.
 Tensile stresses have the shape of a suspended chain. Compressive stresses take the
form of an arch.
At the top of the beam where the Near the supports the tensile
concrete is in compression the cracks stresses produce diagonal cracks at
will be along the beam. These are the right angles to the tensile
compression cracks stresses. These are web-shear cracks
load load
0
Where the concrete is in tension

flexural cracks will develop at
right angles to the span.
Reinforced concrete beam reinforcement

 In single span beams, tension/main/flexural reinforcement is placed longitudinally in
the bottom of the section.
 Sometimes the beam may need additional compressive strength in the top of the
section, in which case longitudinal reinforcement will also appear in the top of the
beam.
 Shear reinforcement is provided in the form of vertical “links” or “stirrups” enclosing
the longitudinal bars.
Some basic types of RC slab

 For short spans (<5m) the most
economical solution is a solid slab of
constant thickness over all the spans,
supported from beneath by beams
(which can be either RC or steel).
Commonly preferred as beams can then
be used to transfer load to the
perimeter, leaving interior floor spaces
uninterrupted.
 For medium spans (5m to 9m approx) it
can be more economical to provide a flat
slab, though they are more susceptible
to deflections and column punching
failure and can result in columns
obstructing internal floor spaces.
 For medium to long spans (8m to 12m
approx) it is more economical to provide
ribbed slabs, though these are more
expensive to construct due to their more
complex formwork (moulds).
One-way or two-way spanning slab?

 We generally design so that a slab is supported along two parallel edges i.e. so it is
one-way spanning.
 However, where longer floor spans are required it is usually more economical to
support that slab on all four sides. These are called two-way spanning slabs.
 In this module we shall consider one-way spanning slabs only.
1-way spanning slab 2-way spanning slab
Load on Load on
wall A Load wall A Load
on on
wall B wall D
Load on Load on
wall C wall C
Preliminary sizing of cast in-situ reinforced concrete beams and flat slabs
 At the preliminary design stage EC2 guideline span/effective depth ratios are used
to determine the basic sizing of beams and slabs.
 The effective span of the beam/slab is the distance between the centres of bearings,
A:
 Use the guideline span/effective depth table from EC2 (on the next page) to
calculate the effective depth, d, of the beam/slab for a specified/estimated
reinforcement ratio ρ.
 Use linear interpolation between values of ρ if necessary.
 For continuous beams/slabs make sure to identify whether end span or interior
span gives the critical/worst depth requirement i.e. thickest slab.
Reinforcement ratio ρ = Total CSA of steel reinforcement / CSA of RC section

Beam / slab section dimensions

 The total section depth, h, depends upon the effective depth d, the diameter
and placement of rebar in the section and the nominal concrete cover cnom.
b
Compression rebar
ranges from 6mm to
50mm diameter
d Shear links range from

h 6mm to 16mm
 diameter
Tension rebar
typically ranges ’ cnom
from 6mm to
50mm diameter
 Total beam/slab depth, h = d + Φ/2 +Φ’+ cnom

Concrete cover cnom for in-situ cast concrete

 Concrete cover is the term for the thickness of concrete which lies over the
outermost reinforcement within a section.
 It must be ensured that sufficient concrete cover is in place over the reinforcement
to provide durability in case of exposure to weather, chemicals and fire.
Table 4.1 of the Student Extracts of Eurocode 2: Exposure classes related to environmental conditions
in accordance with EN 206-1.
TYPICAL EXPOSURE
Table continues overleaf

EG-154 CONCEPTUAL
Table DESIGN
4.1 of the Student - of Eurocode 2: Exposure classes related to environmental conditions
Extracts
in accordance with EN 206-1.
Table NA.2 Concrete cover requirements for environmental exposure

TYPICAL EXPOSURE
Table continues overleaf

Table NA.2 Concrete cover requirements for environmental exposure

Determining concrete nominal cover cnom for cast in-situ concrete
 Minimum cover to ensure durability: cmin,durability

Table NA.2 gives values of cmin,durability + Δcdev
Taking Δcdev = 10mm, the value of cmin,durability can be determined.
 Minimum cover to ensure bond: cmin,bond

cmin,bond = maximum rebar diameter  (for aggregate size ≤ 32mm)
 Minimum cover requirement for durability and bond: cmin

cmin= maximum of (cmin,durability ; cmin,bond ; 10mm)
 Nominal cover required: cnom

cnom = cmin + cdev where Δcdev = 10mm.
Singly Reinforced or Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beam/Slab?
 Ultimate moment of resistance of concrete section in compression:
MRd=0.167fckbd2
 If MRd  MEd then the section only needs to be singly reinforced i.e. rebar in the
bottom of the section only.
 Determining how much tension reinforcement to provide is taught at Level 2.
Example 5.1: Preliminary design of a cast in-situ simply supported rectangular

beam
(a) Section view through span (b) Beam section view
Assume: Span distance L=6.8m. Reinforcement ratio ρ=1.0%, corresponding to “moderately

stressed” conditions. Main (flexural) steel diameter φ=15mm, shear reinforcement diameter
φ’=8mm. Exposure conditions – cyclic wet and dry. Concrete strength C30 (fck=30N/mm2).
Maximum design bending moment MEd=180kNm.
Determine the beam effective depth d, the corresponding beam breadth b (assuming a singly
reinforced beam) and the total beam depth h.
Example 5.2: Preliminary design of a cast in-situ one-way spanning simply

supported floor slab
(a) Section view (b) Plan view
Assume: Span distance L=5m. Reinforcement ratio ρ=0.5%, corresponding to “lightly stressed”
conditions. Main (flexural) steel diameter φ=10mm. Exposure conditions – always dry. Concrete
strength C30 (fck=30N/mm2). Maximum design bending moment MEd=35kNm.
Determine the total slab depth h and verify whether the slab needs to be singly or doubly
reinforced.
Structural forms: Columns

 A column is a vertical structural element that transmits,
through compression, axial forces such as the weight of
the structure above to the ground/supports below.
 Columns sometimes also need to be designed to resist
lateral forces due to wind or earthquakes.
Short/stocky columns
 A “short/stocky” column is one which has an effective
length to depth ratio less than around 15 (leff/h<15).
 The effective length of a column depends on the
support conditions at each end – if both ends are pinned
then effective length=1.0 x actual length.
 Short columns tend to fail through axial compression i.e.
the loading applied generates a stress in the section
which exceeds the compressive strength of the column
material.
 Axial load capacity is therefore dependent on the
column’s cross section area and material yield strength.
Slender/long columns
 A “long/slender” column is one which has an effective
length to depth ratio more than around 15 (leff/h>15).
 Axially loaded long/slender columns typically fail
though buckling and can display significant lateral
deflection, taking a partial or composite sinusoidal
shape.
 Column buckling capacity is dependent upon material
strength, cross section area, slenderness and cross-
section shape.
Preliminary sizing of a cast in-situ reinforced concrete column

 Most reinforced concrete columns will be subject to both axial
compression and an applied end moment.
 If the axial compression is significant compared to the end
moment, then a rapid preliminary sizing of the required column
section can be made based on the axial force and the chosen
concrete strength class.
 Recall that concrete is specified in terms of its characteristic (i.e.
unfactored) strength, fck.
 Recall that concrete design strength fcd is given by:
 cc fck 0.85fck
fcd    0.567fck
c 1.5
 Given that this design stress must not be exceeded in the column
section, a highly simplified expression for the preliminary sizing
required cross section area can be constructed as follows:
Design axial force Fd
Column CSA  
fcd 0.567fck
Example 5.3: Preliminary design of a cast in-situ short reinforced concrete

axially loaded column
A short column is required to resist a maximum design axial force Fd=500kN. Assuming a concrete
strength C30 (fck=30N/mm2), determine an appropriate preliminary cross-section sizing for the
column.
Alternatives to cast in-situ reinforced concrete: Precast concrete

 The picture on the top right shows hollow
core slabs set onto bearing pads on
precast beams.
 Steel reinforcement is inserted into
hollow cores to span the joint between
slab units. The joint is then grouted solid.
 The slab may remain untopped, or have a
layer of cast in-situ concrete placed on
top (5-10cm).
 Precast slab units can be combined with
precast beams, precast columns, or
alternatively combined with steel frames.
 Precast concrete is much faster than
conventional in-situ reinforced concrete
construction, but is more expensive and
requires extensive craning operations.
Alternatives to cast in-situ reinforced concrete: Precast concrete

 Different depths / design of precast slab units:
 Deeper slabs will provide greater bending resistance and will therefore be capable
of spanning larger distances / carrying higher floor loads.
 Many different designs depending on the manufacturer. Construction methodology
may vary from manufacturer to manufacturer.
 In addition to precast slab units there are also beams, columns, walls, stairs ....
Alternatives to cast in-situ reinforced concrete: Composite floor systems

 Composite slabs comprise lightly
reinforced concrete cast on profiled
steel decking.
 https://youtu.be/OeL2dTEUSHY
 Slabs are normally reinforced with a
layer of mesh reinforcement and,
occasionally, additional bars in the
troughs (to provide longer periods
of fire resistance/resist heavy
loads). Fibre reinforcement may also be
used.
 Composite slabs are an excellent choice
when speed of construction is
important. The number of crane lifts
needed, when compared with
the precast alternative, is greatly
reduced.
Alternatives to cast in-situ reinforced concrete: Composite floor systems

 Supporting beams may be downstand
(support the slab from underneath) or
integrated within the slab depth for
a shallow floor form of construction.
 During construction, once in place the
decking provides other benefits in
terms of acting as a working platform
for storage of materials. When
appropriately orientated and fixed to
the steel beams it can restrain them
against lateral torsional buckling.
 Spans of up to 4.5 m can be achieved
using trapezoidal decking (80 mm
deep). Some deep decking profiles
(over 200 mm deep) can span 6m
without propping during construction.
Environmental benchmarking of sustainable sourcing of construction materials

 BES 6001 provides a common benchmark for all construction products to
demonstrate their responsible sourcing credentials. The full listing of products
certified to BES 6001 is available at www.greenbooklive.com
 The concrete industry was the first industry to link its sustainable construction
strategy to BES 6001 and has produced the publication 'Specifying Sustainable
Concrete' to support the implementation of the standard.
Material sector % BES 6001 certified
Aggregates 94.2%
Cement 100%
British Association of 89.1%
Reinforcement (BAR) Mills*
BAR Fabricators* 100%
* To Eco-reinforcement BES 6001 based scheme
 In 2015 the certification of concrete products to BES 6001 was maintained at 89%
of production tonnage
 The 2020 target for BES 6001 certification was 95% and the aspiration of the
concrete industry is to achieve 100%. The cement and GGBS sectors have already
achieved 100% certification.
Reinforced Concrete
Advantages Potential disadvantages
Very good inherent fire resistance – applied Variable material properties/anisotropic
fire protection not normally required
Flexibility of form Corrosion if inadequate detailing/construction (depending
on exposure/environment)
High thermal mass can be used to reduce, or Members/elements in compression prone to overall and
even obviate, the need for mechanical local buckling effects
ventilation
In situ RC connections can transfer high loads Not perceived as environmentally friendly compared with
between elements other materials. Although the use of recycled aggregates
and cement replacement materials (e.g. PFA GGBS) partly
addresses this
Dimensionally stable (not affected by Strength-to-weight ratio not as good as steel or timber
moisture effects, notwithstanding corrosion)
Medium- to long-span floors achievable RC frames heavier than steel or timber frames
Relatively short lead-in time for in situ Speed of erection/need for propping for in situ concrete
concrete (typically 4-8 weeks) (precast is quicker, although lead-in times are longer)
Strong visual identity Low tensile strength and bending resistance if unreinforced
Good acoustic properties due to high mass Long-term creep effects need to be considered
Extract from Conceptual Design of
Buildings – Norman et al. 2021

EG-154 Conceptual Design Section 5

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Module EG-154

Conceptual Design and

What is reinforced concrete?

Assessing sustainability of buildings - BREEAM

To calculate the final BREEAM score, the total

Scoring BREEAM credits with concrete

Concrete Classes according to EC2

Strength Strain at maximum Ultimate strain

Design compressive strength of concrete

= 0.002 (for concrete classes ≤ C50)

Reinforcement Classes according to EC2

Design tensile strength of rebar - bi-linear stress-strain relationship

Ideal load-deformation behaviour of reinforced concrete: “Under-reinforced”

 Phase 2: The concrete in the

 Phase 3: The steel in tension zone yields

 Roof/floor slab actions to..

Structural forms: Beams

Stresses in a reinforced concrete beam section in bending

Where the concrete is in tension

Reinforced concrete beam reinforcement

Some basic types of RC slab

One-way or two-way spanning slab?

1-way spanning slab 2-way spanning slab

Reinforcement ratio ρ = Total CSA of steel reinforcement / CSA of RC section

Beam / slab section dimensions

d Shear links range from

 Total beam/slab depth, h = d + Φ/2 +Φ’+ cnom

Concrete cover cnom for in-situ cast concrete

Table continues overleaf

Table NA.2 Concrete cover requirements for environmental exposure

Table continues overleaf

Table NA.2 Concrete cover requirements for environmental exposure

Determining concrete nominal cover cnom for cast in-situ concrete

 Minimum cover to ensure durability: cmin,durability

 Minimum cover to ensure bond: cmin,bond

 Minimum cover requirement for durability and bond: cmin

 Nominal cover required: cnom

Singly Reinforced or Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beam/Slab?

 Ultimate moment of resistance of concrete section in compression:

Example 5.1: Preliminary design of a cast in-situ simply supported rectangular

Assume: Span distance L=6.8m. Reinforcement ratio ρ=1.0%, corresponding to “moderately

Example 5.2: Preliminary design of a cast in-situ one-way spanning simply

Structural forms: Columns

Preliminary sizing of a cast in-situ reinforced concrete column

Example 5.3: Preliminary design of a cast in-situ short reinforced concrete

Alternatives to cast in-situ reinforced concrete: Precast concrete

Alternatives to cast in-situ reinforced concrete: Precast concrete

Alternatives to cast in-situ reinforced concrete: Composite floor systems

Alternatives to cast in-situ reinforced concrete: Composite floor systems

Environmental benchmarking of sustainable sourcing of construction materials

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