CHAPTER

7
PULSE ANALOG MODULATION

The basis of apulse modulation system is the Sampling Process whereby a

continuous time (analog signal) can be converted into a corresponding sequence
of samples that may or may not be uniformly spaced in timne.The converted
signal is called a discrete-time signal. In practice however, the samples are taken
to be uniformly spaced in time.This is called uniform sampling Uniform
sampling offers two advantages.It leads to simpler system designs and simpler
algorithms for discrete-time signal processing.The importance of sampling can
be understood from the following discussion.It is customary to represent the
experimental data and mathematical functions in the form of continuous
curves.These curves are usually obtained by using a finite number of discrete
points (called samples).If the samples points are sufficiently close, it is possible
to draw a smooth curve and the intermediate values can be interpolated to any
degree of accuracy.This means that a continuous curve can be adequately
discribed by sampling points.In a similar manner, an electricalsignal satisfying
certain requirements (depending on the nature of the signal) can be reproduced
entirely from an appropriate set of sample values.Since a signal can be
determined from the sampled values, we can transmit only the sample values as
they occur instead of sending the signal continuously. This is the essence of
sampling that is used in pulse modulation.
The key distinction between pulse modulation and continuous
modulation is that in continuous modulation (CW), some parameter of a
sinusoidal carrier wave is varied continuously in accordance with the message
signal.On the other hand, in pulse modulation, some parameter of each pulse is
modulated by a particular sample value of the message.Here, we should
distinguish between two types of pulse modulation e.g., Pulse Analog
Modulation and Pulse Digital Modulation which is more popularly known as
Pulse-Code-Modulation (PCM).A comparison of the two types of pulse
modulation reveals that pulse analog modulation (which we will discuss in
details in this chapter) is discrete in time because of sampling but some
characteristic feature of cach pulse (amplitude, duration or position) is varied in
acontinuous manner in accordance with the partinent value of the message.This
1S in contrast to pulse code modulation in which a discrete-time, discrete
amplitude representation is used for the signal.This is achieved through
Sampling, quantizing and coding of an analog signal.The details of PCM system
can be found in books dealing with digital communication.
349
 350 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

In pulse modulation, pulses are usually very short in duration compared

to the time between them, so a pulse modulated wave is off most of the
time.Because of this property, pulse modulation offers two potential
advantages.First, the transmitted power can be concentrated in short duration
pulses rather than being delivered continuously.This has a great significance
from practical design point of view.Most of the high-power mícrowave tubes
and lasers usually operate in the pulse mode. These systems can find useful
applications as sources for pulse modulation.Second, the time interval between
pulses (which are usually very large compared to the duration of each pulse) can
be filled with sample values from other messages. This permits the transmission
of a number of messages using a single channel on time sharing basis.Such
multiplexing in time domain is known as Time-Division-Multiplexing (TDM).
It should be understood that pulse modulation, as it is called is
essentially a message processing technique rather than modulation in the usual
sense.Pulsed signals contain appreciable amount of d.c. and low frequency
components.Efficient transmission of these pulsed signals needs a second
operation, usually CW modulation to provide complete frequency
translation.One should thus consider pulse modulation as a scheme for
processing of the message signal to make it suitable for TDM.
As discussed already, the basic operation behind all pulse modulation
systems is the sampling process Further, a signal can be reconstructed from the
sampled values only if the samples are taken at a specified rate.This means that
it is necessary to choose the sampling rate properly, so that the sequence of
sampled values can uniquely determine the signal. This is the essence of
sampling theorem.Readers are already introduced to this theorem in chapter 2. In
this chapter we shall discuss some practical aspects of sampling.
7.1 PRACTICAL SAMPLING
Ideal sampling can not be achieved in practice.Practical sampling differs from
ideal sampling in the following respects.
(i) The sampled signal in practice contains pulses of finite amplitude and
duration rather than impulses.
(i) Practical reconstruction filters are never ideal filters.
(ii)The message to be sampled is time-limited (limited in the time
domain) signal so it can not be bandlimited.
There are two types of sampling e.g. Natural sampling and Flat-top
sampling.In natural sampling, the sampling waveform consists of a train of
pulses having duration T and seperated by the sampling time T,The sampled
signal consists of a sequence of pulses of varying amplitude whose tops are not
flat but follow the waveform gt) to be sampled.Flat-top sampling is similar to
natural sampling except for the fact that the pulses of the sampled signal have
constant amplitudes.This constant value of the amplitude is established by the
sample value of the signal at some point within the interval.
 PULSE ANALOG MODULATION 351

7.1.1 Natural sampling

Let us consider an arbitrary analog signal g(t) sampled bya sampling function
st) consisting of a train of pulses of amplitude Aand duration T.Let T, be the
period of the pulse train.The original signal g(t), the sampling signal s(t) and
the sampled signal g.(t) =g(t)s(t) are shown in Fig.7. la, b and c
respectively.It can be seen that the sampled signal consists of a sequence of
pulses of varying amplitude whose tops are not flat but follow the analog signal
e(1).
g()

(a)
s(t)

(b)

0 t

(c)

Fig.7.1 (a)The signal. (b) The sampling signal. (c) Sampled signal versus time.
352
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

With natural sampling, as with instantaneous sampling, a signal sampled

at he Nyquist rate may be reconstructed exactly by passing the samples throuch
W is the highest
an ideal low-pass filter with cut-off frequency at W, where
the following
frequency present in the signal g(t).This can be understood from
analysis.
The natural sampled signal g (t) is given by
8(1) =g(t)s<) (7.1)
The suffix n has been used to signify natural sampling.
The sampling signal is a periodic signal and can be expressed in theform of a
complex Fourier series as
AT 0 nT j2rnt (7.2)
<) = n=-0
sinc exp
T,
Putting the value of st) from equation (7.2) in equation (7.1) we get

exp j2runt
AT nT
sinc T, e()
B..(1) = (7.3)
T. n=-o

Taking Fourier transform on both sides we get

AT (7.4)
G.()= T, sinc n=-oo

where G() =Fg()] and G(f) =F|g())

Gsn()| sin c

2 1 -W 0 W f

T I,
Fig.7.2 Effect of using finite duration sampling pulses (Natural sampling).

The relationship between G(f) and G(f) has been illustrated in

Fig.7.2 in which G(r) has been assumed to be a band-limited signal extending
1
from -W to W.In this illustration the sampling rate has been assumed to be

greater than Nyquist rate 2W, so that there is no aliasing.The natural sampn
thus results in the multiplication of the nth lobe of the spectrum of the sampled
 PULSE ANALOG MODULATION 353

AT
Itcan be clearly seen that the signal g(t)
signal by a factor
T, an can

low-pass filter
be recovered from g.(t) by passing g. (t) through an ideal duration of the
the finite
with cut-off frequency W.Thus we may conclude that
sampling pulses has no effect on the sampling process.
7.1.2 Flat-top sampling
In aflat-top sampling, the amplitude of each pulse in the sampled signal is kept
understood from
constant over the duration T.This sampling can be best
sampled
ideal sampling.Consider the situation in which the signal g(t) is

g(t)

Fig.7.3 Flat-top sampling.

1
instanteneously by ideal sampling at a rate but the duration of each sample
T,
bandwidth of
is lengthened for a time T.This is illustrated in Fig.7.3.Since the
transmission is inversely proportional to pulse duration, this type of sampling
will reduce the bandwidth requirement for transmission.
The flat-top sampled signal g.(t) can be written as

(7.5)
8() = enT, )h(t -nT,)
n=-0

where h(t) is arectangular pulse of unit amplitude, given by

h(t) =1, 0 <t<T (7.6)
=0, otherwise
354
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Further, the ideal sampled version of gt) is

8,()= Xe(nT,)ö(1 nT,) (7.7)
Convolving g(t) with the signal h(t) defined in equation (7.6), we get
&.()"h() =s.()h(t-thdt
n=-o

(7.8)
n=-0

Using the sifting property of delta function, we obtain from equation (7.8)
8.(0)*h(0) = XenT,)h(t-nT) (7.9)
Comparing equation (7.5) with equation (7.9), we find that the flat-top sampled
signal is equivalent to the convolution of ideal sampled signal g(t) and the
pulse signal h(t). Thus
8.()=g.(t)*h() (7.10)
Taking Fourier transforms on both sides, we get

G()=G,()H() (7.11)
where G(f), G,() and H(f) are the Fourier transforms of the flat-top
sampled signal g.(t), ideal sampled signal g.(t) and the pulse signal h)
respectively. is
We have already seen that the Fourier transform of an ideal-sampled signal
given by
(7.12)
c,()-Edr
Substituting this value in equation (7.11) we get
(7.13)

1- is
band-limited and the sampling rate
Let us now assume that g(t) is strictly
g..(t) is passed througn
greater than the Nyquist rate. If the sampled signal output wi
resulting filter
low-pass reconstruction filter, the spectrum of the
 PULSE ANALOG MODULATION 355

h(t) A

0 t

(a)
|H()|
AT

2 3 f
3
T T T

(b)

arg[H()]

T
f

-T

(c)
Fig:74 (a) Rectangular pulse h(t). (b) Amplitude spectrum. (c) Pha_e spectrum.
 356 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

G{f)H(f) This is equivalent to passing the original analog signal gt) throuoh
a low-pass filter of transfer function H(f).
From equation (7.6) we find that
H() =Tsinc(fT) exp(-jnfT) (7.14)
The pulse signal h(t) and its transform are illustrated in
Fig.7.4.Hence find
that by using flat-top sampling we have introduced amplitude
we
T
distortion as well
as a delay of This distortion caused by lengthening the samples is
2 called
aperture effect.
The amplitude and delay distortion discussed above can be
an equalizer in cascade with the low-pass corrected by
amplitude response of the equalizer is given by reconstruction filter.Ideally, the
1 1

H., ()) Tsin c(fT) (7.15)

7.2 ANALOG PULSE MODULATION

If asignal (say message signal) is adequately described by its sample
can be transmitted via analog pulse modulation, where the values, it
directly modulate a periodic pulse train with one pulse for each sample values
sample.There are
three types of analog pulse modulation schemes.They are designated as pulse
amplitude modulation (PAM), pulse-duration modulation (PDM) and pulse
position modulation (PPM). PDM is also called pulse-width modulation
(PWM).PDM (or PWM) and PPM are sometimes lumped together under the
general category of pulse-time modulation(PTM).
Fig.7.5 shows a typical message signal and the corresponding pulse
modulated waveforms.For sake of convenience the pulses are considered to be
rectangular and widths have been exaggerated.As shown in figure, the
modulated pulse parameter (amplitude, duration or relative position), is varied in
direct proportion to the sample values.In PAM and PDM,
amplitude or duration is usually considered for sample valueshowever, non-zero
equal to zero.This
is done so to prevent missing pulses and maintain a
pulse rate is very important for synchronization constant-pulse rate.Constant
purpose in time division
multiplexing (discussed later in this chapter).
From Fig.7.5, it is possible to draw certain analogies between analog
pulse modulation and CW modulation.For example, PAM may be considered to
be analogous to linear CW modulation, particularly Amplitude
(AM) in the sense that in PAM the message information (in the formModulation
values) is conveyed by the amplitude of a PAM wave.In PDM and ofPPM sample
message is conveyed by a time parameter.This can be considered analogousthe
exponential modulation (Angle Modulation) in which the instanteneousto
frequency or phase (also time parameters) is varied in accordance with the
message signal.
 PULSE ANALOG MODULATION 357

Cm()

PAM
Ao

PDM

To

PPM

Fig.7.5 Types of analog modulation.

7.2.1Pulse-Modulation Systems
As already mentioned, pulse nodulation should not be considered as modulation
in the usual sense.The following points are important for designing pulse
modulation systems.
(i)Pulse-modulated waves are rich in d.c. and low-frequency
components.Direct transmission of pulse-modulated signal is very difficult.
(1) Care must be, taken to prevent the overlapping of pulses during
transmission of pulse modulated wave.
(iii) Pulse-modulated waves need reconstruction of the signal through
the extraction of sample values and low-pass filtration.
Since pulse-modulated wave contains low frequency components, direct
radio transmission is not possible.However, short distance transmission may be
Tcasible using coaxial cable.In order to have radio transmission, pulse modulated
Signals require further frequency translation through carrier modulation.Carrier
modulation converts the pulses into RF pulses.Therefore, a pulse modulation
radio transmitter system requires a carrier modulator in addition to the pulse
modulator.Likewise, a carrier demodulator is needed on the receiver side for
extracting the pulse modulated signal.
 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
358

in Fig.7.6. The transmitter

A complete pulse transmission system is shown modulator and a carrier
consists of a low pass filter, sampler, pulse a converter
modulator. The receiver includes carrier demodulator followed by
impulses.This
which changes the pulse modulated wave to a train of weighted recovering the
filter for
train of impulses is finally passed through a lowpassvarious
message signal.We shall be discussing more about pulse modulation
schemes in the following sections.

Pulse Carrier
Message
signal
LPF Sampler |Modulator Modulator

f, f
(a)

Carrier
LPF Message
Demodulator Converter signal

(b)

Fig.7.6 Pulse modulation communication systems (a) Transmitter. (b) Receiver.

7.2.2Pulse-Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
In pulse-amplitude modulation, the amplitudes of regularly spaced rectangular
pulses vary with the instanteneous sample values of a continuous message signal
in a one-to-one fashion.
There are two types of PAM eg, double-polarity PAM and single
polarity PAM. The di fference between the two is that in the double polarity
PAM, the amplitude of the pulses may be positive or negative depending on the
sample value while in single-polarity PAM, the amplitudes of the pulses are
always positive. This can be a achieved by adding a fixed d.c. level to the double
sided PAM to ensure that the pulses are always positive.PAM signal 15
illustrated in Fig.7.7 showing the message signal, double-polarity PAM and
single-polarity PAM.PAM is not frequently used like the other two types ot
modulation (e.g. PDM and PPM) because it does not involve constane pulses.A
major advantage of pulse modulation system arises from its ability to use
 PULSE ANALOG MODULATION 359

(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig.7.7 Pulse-Amplitude Modulation (a) Message signal. (b) Double-polarty PAM.
(c) Single polarty PAM.
constant amplitude pulses.However, PAM does find application when used to
frequency modulate the carrier.

Mathematically, a PAM signal can be represented as

<) = X[1+k,e (nT,)]|s(1-nT,)
n=-0
(7.16)

wnere emnl,) represents the nth sample of the message signal e,(t), T, is
the sampling period, k, is the amplitude sensitivity, and g(t) denotes the pulse.
For a single-polarity PAM,

1+k,e (nT) >0 for alln

1 highest
The sampling rate must be equal to or greater than twice the

requency component present in the message signal.

 360 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

It is very easy to generate PAM signal.The signal to be converted to

PAM 0s applied to one input of an AND gate.Pulses at the sampling frequency
are applied to the other input of the AND gate to open it during the desired time
intervals. The output of the gate then consists of pulses at sampling rate,equal in
amplitude to the signal voltage at each instant. The pulses are then passed
through apulse shaping network to convert them into flat-top pulses. As already
mentioned, frequency modulation is then employed, so that the system becomes
PAM-FM.
The PAM signal can be demodulated easily by a low-pass filter with a
cut-off frequency just large enough to accomodate the highest frequency
component of the message signal e(t).Care must be taken that the cut-off
frequency of the filter is low enough to remove the sampling frequency
ripple.The reconstructed signal exhibits some amplitude distortion caused by
aperture effect which may be removed by using equalizer as already discussed.
It may be pointed out that transmission of PAM imposes stringent
condition on the amplitude and phase responses of the channel.Moreover, noise
performance of PAM is no better than baseband signal transmission (one which
does not involve any modulation). The usefulness of PAM is mainly confined in
the message processing for TDM and in the study of sophisticated pulse
modulation techniques.
7.2.3 Pulse-Time Modulation (PTM)
In PTM, the signal is sampled as before, but the pulses indicating sample
amplitudes themselves all have a constant amplitude.However,, one of the timing
characteristics of the pulses is varied in accordance with the sampled signal
amplitude at that instant.This characteristic may be either width or position of
the pulses.Accordingly, there are two types of pulse-time modulation. We shall
discuss these two types of PTM in details.

7.2.3.1 Pulse-Width-Modulation (PWM)

This form of pulse-time-modulation is also known as Pulse
Duration-Modulation (PDM) or Pulse-Length-Molulation (PLM).In pulse width

Fig.7.8 Pulse width modulation.

 PULSE ANALOG MODULATION 361

modulation, the samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of
the individual pulses.The pulse width may be varied by varying the time of
occurrence of the leading edge, the traling edge or both edges of the pulse in
accordance with the sampled value of the modulating wave.A typical pulse
width modulation in which the trailing edge of each pulse is varied in
accordance with the message signal is illustrated in Fig.7.8.

t
(a)
e.()|

(b)

(c)
Slicer
output

t
(d)
Fig.7.9 Ilustrating the procedure for PWM generation (a) Message. (b) Saw-tooth.
(C) Combined message and saw-tooth.(d) Slicer output.
362 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

A simple procedure for generating PWM wave is illustrated in Fig.7,9 in

which the trailing edge of the pulses are modulated.The message signal and a
saw-tooth waveare added and the combination is applied to a slicer.
An ideal slicer has theproperty that its output is zero whenever the input
is below the slicing level and is constant whenever the input exceeds this level.lt
can be easily seen from Fig.7.9 that the duration of each pulse is dictated by the
value of the message wave at the time of occurrence of the trailing edge.PWM
can also be generated by using emitter coupled monostable multivibrator.A
typical arrangement is shown in Fig.7.10.The emitter follower monostable
multivibrator is an excellent voltage-to-time converter, since its gate width is
dependent on the voltage to which the capacitor is charged.If this voltage can be
varied in accordance with a signal voltage, a series of rectangular pulses can be
obtained, with width varying as required.The circuit shown in Fig.7. 10does both
the jobs of sampling the message signal and converting the samples to PWM.

w RL
Fixed Variable
R Output
Trigger
In

Rp
RK

000
000

Ro
Signal
in

9 Monostable multivibrator for PWM.

 PULSE ANALOG MODULATION 363

The demodulation of PWM is quite simple.PWM is passed through a

low-pass filter for this purpose.The reconstruction is however, associated with a
certain amount of distortion caused by the cross modulation products that fall in
the signal band.
7.2.3.2 Pulse-Position Modulation (PPM)
PPM may be considered as a modified version of PDM.In PDM, long pulses
expend considerable amount of power during the pulse while bearing no
additional information.If an arrangement is made so that the unused power could
be subtracted from the PDM, we get a more efficient type of pulse modulation.

Cm()
t

(a)
Unmodulated pulses

t
(b)

(c)

iPosition o f *
unmodulated
pulses

(d)
g:7.11 (a) Signal. (b) PWM. (c) Differentiated PWM. (d) Differentiated clipped PPN
 364 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

This is actually done in Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) .In PPM the
a pulse relative to its position of
unmodulated time of occurrence is varied in accordance
with the message signal.Pulse position
as shown in Fig.7.11.In the PWM shownmodulation
may be obtained from PWM
here the locations of the leading edges
of the pulses are kept fixed whereas those of the trailing
in accordance with the message signal.The edges are made to vary
position of the trailing edges thus
depend on the pulse width which is determined by the signal
instant. In other words it may be said that the position of the amplitude at that
PWM pulses are, in fact, position modulated.The method of trailing edges of
PWM is thus accomplished by getting rid of the leading edges obtaining PPM from
PWM pulses. and bodies of the
Fig.7.1la shows the message signal and Fig.7.11b shows the PWM
signal. If the PWM signal shown in 7.11b is differentiated, the pulse train shown
in Fig.7.1lc is obtained.It consists of positive and
corresponding to the leading and trailing edges of negative going narrow pulses
the pulses respectively.If the
position coresponding to the trailing edge of an unmodulated
zero displacement then the other trailing edges will arrive pulse is counted as
these pulses will have time displacement proportional to theearlier or later. Thus
of the signal voltage.The differentiated pulses instanteneous value
can be removed by diode clipper or corresponding the leading edges
to
Fig.7.11dare position modulated.
rectifier.The remaining pulses, as shown in
The simplest method of generating PPM
a monostable multivibrator which has one wave from PWM wave is to use
state.The monostable multivibrator can be triggered stable-state and one quasi-stable
from stable to quasi-stable
state by externally applied pulses.The period for which the monostable
multivibrator will be in the quasi-stable state is determined by the timing circuit
of the device which can be chosen by the
multivibrator to be designed in such a way that designer.Consider
it
a monostable
triggers at the trailing edges of
a PWM signal (obtained by varying the
message signal).If a PWM signal is applied occurrence of trailing edge by the
at the input, the output will be
obviously a pulse position modulated signal whose duration will be determined
by the timing circuit of the
multivibrator.The
For demodulation of PPM, it is first arrangement shown in Fig.7.12.
is
of a flip-flop or bistable converted into PWM with the help
trigger pulses from a localmultivibrator.One
generator which
input of the multivibrator receives
is synchroniced by trìgger pulses
received from the transmitter. These triggers are
stages of the flip-flop.The PPM pulses are fed toused to switch OFF one of the
and switch that state ON.The period of the other base of the flip-flop
OFF depends on the time time during which this particular stage 1s
difference
resulting pulse has a width that depends between the two triggers, so that the
individual on the time
discussed.
PPM pulse,The resulting PWM signal displacement of each
is then demodulated as already
The major advantage of
pulse modulation system is that we
increased bandwidth consumed by pulses to obtain an may use the
performance.This can only be achieved
when the message improvement in noISe
signal is used to vary
 PULSE ANALOG MODULATION 365

PWM Monostable PPM

Multivibrator

Fig.7.12 Device for converting PDM into PPM.

some property of the pulse other than amplitude.Thus, PTM is much more
superior, from this angle to PAM.The generation of PTM signals has become
extremely simplified with the availability of linear integrated circuit (LIC).
Fig.7.13 shows an arrangement using 565 PLL linear integrated circuit for
generation of PWM and PPM signals. The VCO output is actually PPM signal
which has been converted to PWM signal by applying it and the input pulses to
an exclusive-OR gate.
+Ve
C Rs
Signal R, C R,
2 10 Phase
3 565 Adj.
7
5 PLL
R6
4 8 9 1

O+V, J-Ve PWM

xOR

PPM
Rc

)
Fig.7.13 Generation of PWM and PPM using PLL.